1

Prof. N. Sujatha
Phone: 6513 8079
Email: n.sujatha@ntu.edu.sg
Office: N1.3-B4-07
BG 2104: W1-W7
Basic concepts and basic circuit analysis

Principles of semiconductor devices

Diodes and applications (self-learning)

Bipolar J unction Transistor (BJ T)
Contents
CA (15%)
Assignment on electric circuits
2
Electrical circuits and analysis
An electrical system
3
Basic electrical quantities
Electric charge (Q)






units of Coulombs (C)

quantized in units of charge on electron
e = -1.610
-19
C
- How many electrons would build up 1C charge?

+ - -
4
Current (I)

rate of flow of electric charge (water pipe analogy)
I = dQ/dt
units of Ampere = 1C/sec (A)




Basic electrical quantities
What motivates the flow of charges / electrons (here)?
5
Electric potential energy:

is the energy stored in a system due to accumulation of
charges, due the interaction between charges
Basic electrical quantities
charge
Electric potential

Electric potential energy / unit charge
6
Voltage (V)

difference in the electric potential
between 2 points (nodes)
units of Volts (V)

Basic electrical quantities
7
Voltaic cell- diagrammatic representation
Electron flow
Conventional flow (used in this course)
Basic electrical quantities
conventional flow: define the current direction as
the direction of flow of positive charges (high
potential low potential, opposite to the direction
of electron flow.
8
Voltage sources
An ideal voltage source delivers a constant voltage
regardless of the current it produces. Its internal
resistance is zero.
Current sources
An ideal current source delivers a constant current
regardless of the output voltage. Its internal
resistance is infinity.
+

9
Symbol Convention
I
D
(V
D
) means DC
current (voltage) only.

i
d
(v
d
) means AC
current (voltage) only.

i
D
(v
D
) means DC
and AC current
(voltage) in
superposition.
Voltage source
Current source
10
When a current is constant with time, we say
that we have direct current, abbreviated as
dc. On the other hand, a current that varies
with time, reversing direction periodically, is
called alternating current, abbreviated as ac.

Similarly, we have dc and ac voltage.
Direct and alternating signal
11
.
Examples of DC and AC currents versus time

I
12
AC currents (or voltages) can have various waveforms

13
0 V 0 V
+5 V
V
+5 V
- 5 V





AC signal can be superimposed upon a DC signal (value)


14
The basic electrical system: What else?
+
-
Charge flow rate
Voltage
Load
15
Types of loads
1. Resistive
2. Capacitive
3. Inductive
4. Combination (practical)
Passive
Active

Amplifiers
16
Resistance
Resistance (R)
-units of Ohms ()
-conductance G = 1/R in units of Siemens (S)
Resistors:
- is a two-terminal electronic component that resists the
flow of current, producing a voltage drop between its
terminals in accordance with Ohm's law.
- typical range 1 to100M
- types:
Carbon (cheapest)
Metal film (more stable, better accuracy)
Wire wound (most accurate and most expensive)
17
Ohms Law
For a resistor R, as shown below, the voltage
drop from point a to b, V=V
ab
=V
a
-V
b
is given by:
The power dissipated by the resistor is:
R V R I VI P /
2 2
= = =
IR V =
18
Resistor- Value?
19
Equivalent Resistance: in series
2 1
1 2 2 3 1 3
R R
I
V V
I
V V
I
V V
R R
tot eq
+ =

= =
R
1

R
3

R
2

R
eq

R
eq
= R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3

A series circuit is a single path for electric current through all of its components.
What if multiple resistances in the circuit?

20
Equivalent Resistance: in parallel
At point A, I=I
1
+I
2
2 1
2 1
2 1 2 1 1 2
1 2 1 2
/ ) ( / ) ( R R
R R
R V V R V V
V V
I
V V
R R
tot eq
+
=
+

=

= =
R
eq

R
3
R
2
R
1

3 2 1
1 1 1 1
R R R R
eq
+ + =
A parallel circuit has multiple
paths for current components
to pass separately. A parallel
circuit provides the same
voltage across all its branchs.
21
Equivalent Resistance: combinations of
series and parallel
22
Voltage divider-
A series resistor circuit connected to a voltage source

+
= =
2 1
2
2
R R
R
V V V
in out
In general,

= =
i
x
in R out
R
R
V V V
x
V1
V2
V
in
= V
1
+ V
2
+
-
V
in
23
Current divider
Before you move on to the next slide, can you try
to solve for i
1
and i
2
using Ohms law and
equivalent resistance?
24
Current divider
2 1
2 1
2 2 1 1
R R
R R
i R i R i R i v
s eq s
+
= = = =
2 1
2 1
1
2
2 1
2
1
i i i
R R
R
i i
R R
R
i i
s s s
+ =
+
=
+
=
25
Current divider
I
S
R
2

V

+

R
1

I
1
I
2

R
3

I
3

j
par
S R
R
R
I I
j
=

= + + + =
i M par
R R R R R
1 1 1 1 1
2 1

In general,
26
Circuit diagrams
A circuit diagram represents the interconnections between
electrical units in a circuit.

A circuit diagram is just one representation of the actual circuit,
among many possible diagams that can equally represent the
circuit.

A circuit diagram do not reflect the actual physical lengths, sizes,
shapes, placement of the electrical units.

A line (or wire) in a circuit diagram does not necessarily indicates
the physical existence of a connecting wire. It simply indicates that
the points connected by this line in the diagram is electrically
identical, i.e., they assumes the same voltage.

A node in diagram is where three or more circuit components are
connected together.

27
What are the differences between these two
circuits? Please think carefully before move
to the next slide.
Circuit diagrams
28
Circuit diagrams
Every circuit can be drawn in different ways without
changing the physics of the circuit. In fact, the two
circuits shown are identical !!

Examine complicated diagrams and redraw them to
clearly show how the elements are interconnected.
What is the
voltage
across R4?
29
Circuit diagrams
R
4
is shorted-out
as if it doesnt
exist, therefore, no
voltage across it;
and no current
passing through it.
30
Simple circuit Analysis
Simple circuit can be analyzed simply by:

represent the circuit with a clear diagram

identify parallel and series combinations of resistors

replace such combinations by their equivalent resistors

continue until the circuit is reduced to a straightforward
parallel or series circuit

finally use Ohms law, or the voltage and current divider
rules, to find the individual resistor voltages and currents
if required.
31
1k
1k
2k
1k
2k
1k
+

10V
+

V
1

+

V
3

+

V
2

Simple circuit analysis: an example
Find V
1
, V
2
, and V
3

32
1k
1k
2k
1k
2k
1k
10V
+

V
1

+

V
3

+

V
2

Find an equivalent resistance for the
network with V
1
across it, then find V
1

using a voltage divider.
+

Simple circuit analysis: an example
33
1k
1k
10V
+

V
1

V 5
k 1 k 1
k 1
V 10
1
=
+

= V
+

Simple circuit analysis: an example
34
1k
1k
2k
1k
2k
1k
10V
+

5V
+

V
3

+

V
2

Find an equivalent resistance for the
network with V
2
across it, then find V
2
.
+

Simple circuit analysis: an example
35
1k
2k
1k
10V
+

5V
+

V
2
1k
V 5 . 2
k 1 k 1
k 1
V 5
2
=
+

= V
+

Simple circuit analysis: an example
36
1k
1k
2k
1k
2k
1k
10V
+

5V
+

V
3

+

2.5V
V 25 . 1
k 1 k 1
k 1
V 5 . 2
3
=
+

= V
+

Simple circuit analysis: an example
37
1k
1k
2k
1k
2k
1k
+

10V
+

V
1

+

V
3

+

V
2

Simple circuit analysis: an example
Mark the currents I, I1, I2, I3 and I4
38
I1= 5 A

I2=2.5 A

I3= 2.5 A

I4 = 1.25 A
39
Simple circuit analysis can only be applied for a
simple circuit. Often, circuit is a complicated
network even after simplification.

Simple circuit analysis cannot be applied
systematically using computer program.

Therefore, network analysis based on Kirchoffs
current and voltage laws usually need to be applied.
Is simple circuit analysis applicable in all cases?
40
Kirchoffs current law (KCL)
Current law: for any node of the circuit, the sum of the
currents flowing into the node is equal to the sum of the
currents flowing out of the node. Or the algebraic (net)
sum of current flow is zero, if you assign inward and
outward current with different sign.

=
out in
I I
I
1
=I
2
+I
3
KCL
think of water: what goes into a pipe junction must come out
Because
charge
cannot
build up at
a node.
41
Kirchoffs voltage law (KVL)
Voltage law: The algebraic sum of all the voltages
across individual components around any loop of a
circuit is zero.
v
1
+v
2
+v
3
+v
4
=0
KVL
think of gravity: what goes up must come down.

=
loop
i
V 0
Because electrical potential is conservative.
42
Network analysis
In a circuit diagram:

A branch is one path through which the same
current flow through all the components in series in
this path.

A loop is a closed path in the circuit

A node or junction is a point where three or more
circuit components are joined.


43
Network analysis
Two methods for calculating currents and voltages in a
circuit based on KCL and KVL: (1) Nodal method; (2) Mesh
(or loop) current method.

In all methods, usually it is a good idea to replace simple
series and parallel combinations of resistances by their
equivalent resistance to simplify the circuit.

Choose one node as a reference (ground) node, which is
considered to have zero voltage. Make a convenient choice
of ground to simplify the analysis. A good choice is the node
with the most branches, or a node which can immediately
give you another node voltage (e.g., directly connect to a
voltage source).
44
Nodal method
Choose ground node, identify all nodes and assign node voltages
to all nodes (other than reference node). They are the unknowns.

First assume (arbitrarily) a current direction in each branch of the
circuit (draw an arrow) and define a current symbol (e.g., I
1
). If there
is a current source in the branch, the branch current is then
specified by the current output from this source.

A KCL equation is written
for each node in terms of
nodal voltages.

Number of equations
equals number of
independent nodes (k-1 for
k total nodes).
Complete the analysis by working out branch currents
If a current in your solution comes out negative,
it just means that its in the opposite direction
from the one you initially assume. So dont
worry about the actual current directions before
you start solving.
45
Nodal method: an example
Assume:
R
1
=R
2
=R
3
=1;
R
4
=R
5
=2
V
1
= 1V
V
2
= 2V

V
A
= 0.6 V and
V
B
= 0.8 V
46
Nodal method: another example with
current sources
500
500
I
1

V
1
V
2

=
500 500
1 2 1
1
V V V
I
KCL at node 1
500
500
1k
500
500
I
1
3 mA
1 2 3
V
1
V
2
V
3

I
2

4mA
i
1
i
2
i
3
i
4
i
5
i
1
i
2
47
Nodal method: another example with
current sources
500
1k
500
V
2
V
3
V
1

500 k 1 500
3 2 2 2 1
V V V V V
KCL at node 2

+
500 500
3 3 2
2
V V V
I
500
500
I
2

V
2
V
3

KCL at node 3
V
1
= 1.33V, V
2
=1.17V, V
3
=1.58V
i
2
i
3
i
4
i
4
i
5
48
Mesh (loop) current method
Choose ground node and identify meshes (loops).

Assign a current (imaginary loop current) to each mesh
(they are unknowns). By convention, define all mesh currents
in the clockwise direction.

Write a KVL equation in terms of mesh currents for each
mesh.
Complete the analysis
by working out the branch
currents.

(actual branch current =
algebraic sum of relevant
imaginary loop currents at
a given branch).
1k
1k
1k
V
1

V
2

I
1
I
2

+

+

49
Mesh (loop) current method:
voltages across resistors
R
I
1

+
V
R

V
R
= I
1
R
R
I
1

+
V
R

I
2

V
R
= (I
1
-

I
2
) R
When R is shared by two loops:
Actual current through R = algebraic
sum of relevant imaginary loop currents
following through R
50
Mesh (loop) current method: an example
If, V
bb
=1V,
All R
i
= 1 ohm,

I
1
= 0.5 A
I
2
= I
3
= 0.25A
Actual current
passing R
2
is I
1
-
I
2
=0.25 A
(downwards
direction)
51
1k
2k
2k
12V 4mA
2mA
I
0

+

Mesh (loop) current method: another
example with current sources
52
The current sources will have whatever voltage necessary
produce the nominal current which cannot be determined
immediately. We cant use KVL around the loop because
we dont know the voltages across the current sources.
Mesh (loop) current method: another
example with current sources
I
1
I
2

I
3

1k
2k
2k
12V 4mA
2mA
I
0

+

What to do?
53
The 4mA current source sets I
2
:
I
2
= -4 mA
The 2mA current source sets a constraint
on I
1
and I
3
:
I
1
- I
3
= 2 mA
We have two equations and three
unknowns. Where is the third equation?
Mesh (loop) current method: another
example with current sources
Notice the
negative
sign. Why?
54
1k
2k
2k
12V
4mA
2mA
I
0

I
1
I
2

I
3

+

Apply KVL to supermesh
12V - I
3
*2k - (I
3
- I
2
)*1k - (I
1
- I
2
)*2k = 0
ground node
Supermesh is
highlighted by the
dashed yellow
line and excludes
current sources.
Solution: I
1
= 1.2 mA; I
2
= -4 mA; I
3
= -0.8 mA; I
0
= I
1
-I
2

= 5.2 mA
55
Linear superposition principle
For any linear circuit containing more than one
independent voltage source or current source, the
total current in any part of the circuit equals the
algebraic sum of the currents produced by each
source separately.

To isolate the current from a particular source
replace all other voltage sources by short circuits
replace all other current sources by open circuits
56
Linear superposition principle: example 1
A
R R
V
i
s
4
1
4 8
3
'
2 1
2
=
+
=
+
=
Find I
2
using superposition
A
R R
R i
i
s
3
4
4 8
8 2
' '
2 1
1
2
=
+

=
+
=
' ' '
2 2 2
i i i + =
57
2k 1k
2k
12V
I
0

2mA
4mA
+
Linear superposition principle: example 2
Solve for I
0
?
58
2k 1k
2k
I
0

2mA
I
0
= -4/3 mA why?
2mA source contribution
Linear superposition principle: example 2
59
2k 1k
2k
I
0

4mA
I
0
= 0 why?
4mA source contribution
Linear superposition principle: example 2
60
2k 1k
2k
12V
I
0

+
I
0
= -4 mA why?
12V source contribution
Linear superposition principle: example 2
61
I
0
= -4/3 mA
I
0
= 0
I
0
= -4 mA

I
0
= I
0
+I
0
+I
0
= -16/3 mA
Final result
Linear superposition principle: example 2
As a practice, can you analyze this circuit using nodal or
mesh current analysis?
62
1k
1k
2k
1k
2k
1k
+

10V
+

V
1

+

V
3

+

V
2

Varying load
Estimation of load currents for changing loads
63
Thevenin equivalent circuit
Thvenin's theorem for electrical networks states that any
combination of sources and resistors with two terminals is
electrically equivalent to a single voltage source V
th
in series with a
single resistor R
th
. For single frequency AC systems the theorem
can also be applied to general impedances (AC resistance).
V
th
= open circuit voltage at the output port
R
th
= V
th
/ (short circuit current at the output port)
R
th
also equals to the equivalent resistance
looking into the circuit while replace voltage
sources with shorts and current sources with
open circuits.
64
The Thevenin idea is most useful when one considers two
circuits or circuit elements, with the first circuits output providing
the input for the second circuit. In the figure, the output of the
first circuit (A), consisting of V
th
and R
th
, is fed to the second
circuit element (B), which consists simply of a load resistance
(R
L
) to ground. This simple configuration represents, in a
general way, a very broad range of analog electronics.
Thevenin equivalent circuit
65
Circuit loading
) / ( 1
L th
th
L th
L
th out
R R
V
R R
R
V V
+
=

+
=
Thus, we should try to keep the ratio R
th
/R
L
small
in order to avoid the loss in voltage due to loading
the circuit . A maximum ratio of 1/10 is often used
as a rule of thumb in circuit design.
66
1k
1k
2k
1k
2k
1k
+

10V
+

V
1

+

V
3

+

V
2

Varying load
Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the below circuit
67
1k
2k
1k
2k
1k
+

10V
+

+

+

To find Thevenin voltage
?
3.64V
68
1k
2k
1k
2k
1k
+

+

+

Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the below circuit
For finding Thevenin resistance
1.91 k
69
To find the load current through 1k
3.64V
1.91 k
1 k
Load current = 3.64 V /(1.91+1) k =1.25 mA

Voltage across 1 k resistor = 1.25V

Note that you have obtained the same result using simple circuit analysis!
(Refer slide number 36)

But, Thevenin circuit is useful for computing load current in a variable load
condition; its only a one time effort!
70
Norton equivalent circuit
Norton's theorem for electrical networks states that any
network of sources and resistors can be replaced by a single
current source in parallel with a single resistor. For single
frequency AC systems the theorem can also be applied to
general impedances, not just resistors.
I
nt
= short circuit current at the output port
R
nt
= (open circuit voltage at the output port) / I
nt

R
nt
also equals to the equivalent resistance
looking into the circuit while replace voltage
sources with shorts and current sources with
open circuits. (R
nt
= R
th
).
71
Short A and B, calculate the current: I
nt
=V
in
/R
1

Now replace voltage sources with shorts and current
sources with open circuits.
Evaluate the resistance across points A and B "looking
back" into the circuit. R
nt
=R
1
*R
2
/(R
1
+R
2
)

A
B
A
B
nt
nt
Example:
Norton equivalent circuit
72
nt eq th
I R V =
eq
th
nt
R
V
I =
V
th

R
th

+

I
nt

R
nt

nt th eq
R R R = =
Thevenin equivalent vs Norton equivalent
73
Revisiting types of loads
1. Resistive
2. Capacitive
3. Inductive
4. Combination (practical)
Passive
Active

Amplifiers
74
Capacitor
Stores charge on electrodes (parallel
conductive plates separated by insulator)
Q=VC

Capacitance measure in units of farads
(F = 1 C/volt)

Range of typical values (1pF to 1000
F)

Capacitor types
ceramic (pF)
mylar (nF)
electrolytic (F)
75
Capacitor
For DC voltages, no current passes through a
capacitor. It blocks DC. When a time varying
potential is applied, the current passing through the
capacitor is:
The impedance (or AC resistance) of a capacitor is:
fC j C j Z
C
2 / 1 / 1 = =
Where is the frequency. Z
C
0 when
dt
dV
C I =
76
in series
Equivalent Capacitance
in parallel
77
Inductor
Energy stored in magnetic field

Measure in units of henries (H)

Typical range (1H to 1H)
78
Inductor
L j Z
L
=
It passes DC current, and resist AC current.
The impedance of an inductor is:
79
in series
Equivalent Inductance
in parallel
n
eq
L L L
L
1 1 1
2 1
+ + + =
n eq
L L L L + + + =
2 1
80
Semiconductor Devices
The semiconductor devices we will focus in this
course behave very differently from resistors,
capacitors, and inductors that are familiar to you.
Semiconductors all regulate, in some manner,
the amount of current that can pass through
them in a given direction.
81