PHOTOGRAPHIC REPRODUCTION 14-21

which may be mounted on platforms placed along the top of the set walls
or on the floor in the vicinity of the camera. To this foundation the
cameraman adds variations he feels are needed to interpret a picture
properly.
Sound pictures are photographed at the rate of twenty-four pictures per
second and silent pictures at the rate of sixteen pictures per second. The
camera shutter covers the lens at least 50 per cent of the picture cycle so
the exposure time for each sound picture is
-fe
second or less and for silent
pictures less than
yj
second. With lens apertures of the order of
f/2.5
and currently available films, approximately 100 to 200 footcandles of
general illumination and about 2 to 4 times this value of modeling illu-
mination are required. Color film calls for a level of from 250 to 700 foot-
candles general illumination and for somewhat lower brightness contrasts
because of the limited exposure latitude of color films.
7
Motion-picture-studio lighting equipment. The equipment used for
motion-picture-studio lighting is of two general typesspotlight" and
floodlight. Spotlights may employ either Fresnel lenses or glass or polished
metal reflectors. By adjustment of the light source along the optical axis,
beam divergences of from 8 to 50 degrees are obtained. (See Figs. 14-4
and 14-10.) The floodlights ("broadsides" or "broads" as they are known
in studio parlance) may have a beam spread of almost 180 degrees.
For "close-ups" and smaller sets, the broadsides supply the general
illumination and the spots the modeling light.
The spotlights, opened to their wider beam divergences, are employed
frequently on the medium-size and larger sets to supply general illumina-
tion as well as that for modeling, because of the greater distances involved.
Electrical illumination frequently is used to supplement daylight in
out-of-door or on-location scenes. This is done to secure adequate illu-
mination in shadows, accentuate principals, improve modeling, and in
some cases change shadow direction.
For this purpose, spotlighting equipment generally is employed and in
the case of black-and-white photography the discrepancy between the color
quality of the artificial source and daylight seldom is important. Both
arcs and incandescent sources must be filtered to produce a close match
to daylight for color photography.
PHOTOCHEMICAL REPRODUCTION PROCESSES
Contact and projection printing (enlarging), photocopying, diazo print-
ing and blueprinting, and the graphic arts processes of photo-engraving,
lithography, and photogravure are photochemical reproduction processes.
8
(See Table 14-8.)
Darkroom Lighting
In general, the radiation from a darkroom illuminant should be of such
quality as will not appreciably fog photosensitive material during the time
required for its manipulation. No darkroom light source is absolutely
safe, and all types will cause fogging if given sufficient time. Consequently,