TEL 311

ASSIGNMENT
TOPIC: IMPEDANCE
MATCHING
FALOLA A. O.
138941
300 LEVEL
Impedane ma!"#n$ is the electronics design practice of setting the input
impedance (Z
L
) of an electrical load equal to the fixed output impedance (Z
S
) of the
signal source to which it is ultimately connected, usually in order to maximize the
power transfer and minimize reflections from the load. This only applies when both
are linear deices.
!atching is obtained when Z
S
" Z
L
# (where # indicates the complex con$ugate).
%mpedance matching could be used loosely to mean &choosing impedances that
wor' well together& instead of &ma'ing two impedances complex con$ugate&. The
looser interpretation includes impedance bridging, where the load impedance is
much larger than the source impedance. (ridging connections are used to maximize
the oltage transfer, not the power transfer.
%e&'e!#(n'e)) (* +*(ad+and ma!"#n$) %mpedance matching to minimize
reflections and maximize power transfer oer a relatiely large bandwidth (also
called reflectionless matching or broadband matching) is the most commonly used.
To preent all reflections of the signal bac' into the source, the load (which must be
totally resistie) must be matched exactly to the source impedance (which again
must be totally resistie). %n this case, if a transmission line is used to connect the
source and load together, it must also be the same impedance)
Z
load
" Z
line
" Z
source
*here Z
line
is the characteristic impedance of the transmission line.
C(mp'e, (n-.$a!e ma!"#n$) This is used in cases in which the source and load
are reactie. This form of impedance matching can only maximize the power transfer
between a reactie source and a reactie load at a single frequency. %n this case,
Z
load
" Z
source
#
(*here # indicates the complex con$ugate).
%f the signals are 'ept within the narrow frequency range for which the matching
networ' was designed, reflections (in this narrow frequency band only) are also
minimized. +or the case of purely resistie source and load impedances, all
reactance terms are zero and the formula aboe reduces to
,
load
" ,
source
as would be expected.
P(/e* !*an)&e*) *heneer a source of power with a fixed output impedance, such
as an electric signal source, a radio transmitter, or een mechanical sound (e.g., a
loudspea'er) operates into a load, the maximum possible power is deliered to the
load when the impedance of the load (load impedance) is equal to the complex
conjugate of the impedance of the source (that is, its internal impedance). +or two
impedances to be complex con$ugates, their resistances must be equal, and their
reactances must be equal in magnitude but of opposite sign.
%n low-frequency or ./ systems, or in systems with purely resistie sources
and loads, the reactances are zero, or small enough to be ignored. %n this case,
maximum power transfer occurs when the resistance of the load is equal to the
resistance of the source.
%mpedance matching is not always desirable. +or example, if a source with a
low impedance is connected to a load with a high impedance, then the power that
can pass through the connection is limited by the higher impedance, but the
electrical oltage transfer is higher and less prone to corruption than if the
impedances had been matched. This maximum oltage connection is a common
configuration called impedance bridging or oltage bridging and is widely used in
signal processing. %n such applications, deliering a high oltage (to minimize signal
degradation during transmission and0or to consume less power by reducing currents)
is often more important than maximum power transfer.
Impedane ma!"#n$ de0#e)
1d$usting the source impedance or the load impedance, in general, is called
&impedance matching&.
There are 2 possible ways to improe an impedance mismatch, all of which are
called &impedance matching&)
deices intended to present an apparent load to the source of 3
load
" 3
source
#
(complex con$ugate matching). 4ien a source with a fixed oltage and fixed
source impedance, the maximum power theorem says this is the only way to
extract the maximum power from the source.
deices intended to present an apparent load of 3
load
" 3
line
(complex
impedance matching), to aoid echoes. 4ien a transmission line source with
a fixed source impedance, this &reflectionless impedance matching& at the end
of the transmission line is the only way to aoid reflecting echoes bac' to the
transmission line.
deices intended to present an apparent source resistance as close to zero as
possible, or presenting an apparent source oltage as high as possible. This
is the only way to maximize energy efficiency, and so it is used at the
beginning of electrical power lines. Such an impedance bridging connection
also minimizes distortion and electromagnetic interference, and so it is also
used in modern audio amplifiers and signal processing deices.
There are a ariety of deices that are used between some source of energy and
some load that perform &impedance matching&. To match electrical impedances,
combinations of transformers, resistors, inductors, capacitors and transmission lines
could be used.
T*an)&(*me*)) Transformers are sometimes used to match the impedances of
circuits with different impedances. 1 transformer conerts alternating current at one
oltage to the same waeform at another oltage. The power input to the transformer
and output from the transformer is the same (except for conersion losses). The side
with the lower oltage is at low impedance, because this has the lower number of
turns, and the side with the higher oltage is at a higher impedance as it has more
turns in its coil.
%e)#)!#0e ne!/(*1) 3esistie impedance matches are easiest to design. They limit
the power deliberately, and are used to transfer low-power signals, such as
unamplified audio or radio frequency signals in a radio receier. 1lmost all digital
circuits use resistie impedance matching which is usually built into the structure of
the switching element.
S!epped !*an)m#))#(n '#ne) !ost lumped element deices can match a specific
range of load impedance. +or example, in order to match an inductie load into a
real impedance, a capacitor needs be used. 1nd if the load impedance becomes
capacitie for some reason, the matching element must be replaced by an inductor.
%n many practical cases howeer, there is a need to use the same circuit to match a
broad range of load impedance, thus simplify the circuit design. This issue was
addressed by the stepped transmission line where multiple serially placed quarter
wae dielectric slugs are used to ary transmission line5s characteristic impedance.
(y controlling the position of each indiidual element, a broad range of load
impedance can be matched without haing to reconnect the circuit.
Some special situations, such as radio tuners and transmitters, use tuned filters,
such as stubs, to match impedances at specific frequencies. These can distribute
different frequencies to different places in the circuit.
%n addition, there is the closely related idea of
power factor correction deices intended to cancel out the reactie and
nonlinear characteristics of a load at the end of a power line. This causes the
load seen by the power line to be purely resistie. +or a gien true power
required by a load, this minimizes the true current supplied through the power
lines, and so minimizes the power wasted in the resistance of those power
lines.
T*an)m#))#(n '#ne)) %mpedance bridging is unsuitable for 3+ connections because
it causes power to be reflected bac' to the source from the boundary between the
high impedance and the low impedance. The reflection creates a standing wae,
which leads to further power waste. %n these systems, impedance matching is
essential. %n electrical systems inoling transmission lines, such as radio and fiber
optics, where the length of the line is large compared to the waelength of the signal,
the impedances at each end of the line must be matched to the transmission line5s
characteristic impedance, Z
6
to preent reflections of the signal at the ends of the
line from causing echoes.
E'e!*#a' e,amp'e): Telephone systems also use matched impedances to minimise
echoes on long distance lines.