1

Chemistry

Separation of Mixtures
o Sieving
Wire mesh separates differently sized particles
o Sedimentation
Heavy metals sink to bottom, lighter waste floats to the top and is
decanted off
o Froth Flotation
Sediment mixed with water, oil, detergents,
Air blown through mixture, forming froth which minerals adhere to
o Solution
Dissolving soluble substance is mixed with insoluble substance
Soluble substance decanted off, undissolved substance remains
o Filtration
Liquid is passed through filter, solid impurities remain trapped in filter
o Evaporation
Conversion of liquid to gas, leaving solid behind that was dissolved in
the liquid
o Centrifugation
Separation of mixture by density of substances
High speed spinning of mixture into layers
o Distillation
Separation of mixture by differing boiling or melting points of two
liquids dissolved in one another (miscible)
Liquid is heated to a temperature between boiling points of two
liquids
Substance with lower boiling point evaporated off, travelling through
condenser where it cools back to liquid and collected separately
Can also work for gases, but with turning from gas to liquid
Naming Carbon Compounds
o If a hydrocarbon has only single bonds, it is an alkane.
o If a hydrocarbon has a double bond, it is an alkene.
o If a hydrocarbon has a triple bond, it is an alkyne.
o
Carbon atoms Prefix
1 Meth-
2 Eth-
3 Prop-
4 But-
5 Pent-
6 Hex-
7 Hept-
o Nomenclature of alkenes and alkynes depends on where the double or triple
bond is.
2

o If the bond is between the first and second carbon atom, then the name
would be, for example, 1-butene.
o If the bond is between the second and third carbon atom, then the name
would be, for example, 2-butene.
Element Classification
o Metals
Are ductile, malleable, lustrous, have high melting points and are
good conductors of both heat and electricity
All solids at room temperature with the exception of mercury
o Semi-Metals (Metalloids)
Often behave as semi-conductors
o Non-Metals
Are dull, brittle, have low melting points
and are poor conductors
State at room temperature varies
Subshells
o Go by example diagram to right
o In order: 1s
2
; 2s
2
2p
6
; 3s
2
3p
6
; 4s
2
3d
10
4p
6
, etc
o s-p-d-f-g-h order of Subshells, with each subshells
maximum electrons going up by 4: s-subshell has
2, p-subshell has 6, d-subshell has 10, etc
Writing Reactions
o e.g. Reacting magnesium with hydrochloric acid
o Full Balanced
Mg
(s)
+ 2HCl
(aq)
MgCl
2

(aq)
+ H
2 (g)

o Complete Ionic
Mg + 2H
+
+ 2Cl

Mg
2+
+ 2Cl

+ H
2

o Net Ionic
Mg + 2H
+
Mg
2+
+ H
2

o Half Equations
Mg Mg
2+
+ 2e

2H
+
+ 2e

H
2

Moles
o One mole is 6.022 10
23
atoms
o To calculate the number of moles of a substance, use

, where n is the
number of moles, m is the mass of the substance, and M is the molar mass.
Volume of Gas
o At any given temperature and pressure, two equal volumes of any gas will
have the same number of molecules
o At 25C and 1 atm of pressure (100 kPa), there will be 24.79 L per mole
o At 0C and 1 atm of pressure, there will be 22.71 L per mole
Molarity
o Molarity refers to the concentration of a substance in a liquid
o It is measured in mol/L (M)
o It can be calculated with , where n is the number of moles, C is the
molarity of the substance and V is the volume of the liquid it is dissolved in
3

Limiting Reagents
o A limiting reagent is when one reactant is fully used up while one or more
other reactants are still left over
o The other reactant(s) are said to be in excess
Intermolecular Forces
o Dispersion Forces:- exist between molecules of all molecular substances
o Dipole-dipole forces:- exist between polar substance molecules
o H-bonding:- exists between hydrogen atoms and N, O or F atoms
Dispersion Forces
o Weak attractive forces resulting from uneven electron distribution
o One side of an atom can become temporarily positive or negative
o This attracts other molecules
Dipole-dipole forces
o Molecules with permanent dipoles (such as in water: oxygen is permanently
negative) attract each other
o Stronger than dispersion forces
Hydrogen Bonding
o An attraction between a partially positive hydrogen atom in a molecule in an
N, O or F atom bonded to another H atom in a neighbouring molecule
o Stronger than dipole-dipole
Effects of an increase in Intermolecular Forces
o Surface tension is increased, due to molecules on
the inside pulling all those around it: see diagram
o Viscosity is increased, as molecules are attracted to
other ones
Long chain molecules are also highly viscous,
due to them getting tangled
o Melting/Boiling points increase as it takes more energy to break the forces
Solubility
o Solubility is determined by whether a solute can establish strong interactions
with solvent particles
o Like dissolves like; that is, polar molecules dissolve polar molecules and non-
polar molecules dissolve non-polar molecules
o Furthermore, the greater the structural similarity, the greater the solubility
Precipitates







Anion Soluble Slightly Soluble Insoluble
Nitrate All None None
Chloride Most Pb Ag
Sulfate Most Ca, Ag Ba, Pb
Carbonate Na, K, NH
4
None Most
Hydroxide Na, K, NH
4
, Ba Ca Most
4

Energy in Reactions
o In the diagrams, E
R
refers to the
energy in the reactants, E
P
refers to
the energy in the products, E
A
refers to
the activation energy and H refers to
the enthalpy change.
o The activation energy is the energy
required to break the bonds and
initiate the reaction
o In an exothermic reaction, the energy
of the products is less than the energy
of the reactants
o The difference is the enthalpy change,
or the heat absorbed/released
o It is negative in an exothermic reaction
o In an endothermic reaction, the energy
of the products is more than the
energy of the reactants
o The enthalpy change in an
endothermic reaction is positive
Oxidation and Reduction
o Oxidation is the losing of electrons e.g. Na Na
+
+ e

o Reduction is the gaining of electrons e.g. Na
+
+ e

Na
Use of Hydrocarbons
Fraction b.p. (C) C atoms Major uses
Natural Gas < 40 1-4 Fuel for homes
Petroleum Ether 40-110 5-6 Industrial solvents
Petrol 110-200 6-12 Motor fuel
Kerosene 180-230 10-14 Aviation Fuel
Diesel Oil 200-425 14-19 Diesel Oil, Industrial
Heating
Lubricating Oil > 425 19-40 Lubricating oils
Paraffin Wax Melts 50-95 >20 Candles, Waterproofing
Bitumen residue >35 Road Surfacing
Indicators
o Indicators are substances that change colour in response to differing pH of a
material.
o They are most commonly used in testing soil acidity.
Indicator pH Range Colour Range
Methyl orange 3.1-4.4 Red Yellow
Bromothymol blue 6.0-7.6 Yellow Blue
Litmus 4.5-8.3 Red Blue
Phenolphthalein 8.3-10.0 Colourless Red



5

Oxides of Non-Metals
o Several oxides of non-metals act as acids, and they are said to be acidic
oxides if they dissolve and react with a strong basic solution
e.g. SO
3 (g)
+ 2NaOH Na
2
SO
4
+ H
2
O
o Generally, the further right the element on the Periodic Table, the more
acidic.
Reversible Reactions
o Most of the time, reactions only go one way i.e. products form reactants
o However, in a reversible reaction, both happen at the same time: reactants
form products and products form reactants
o We denote this with this sign:
e.g. CH
3
COOH
(aq)
CH
3
COO

(aq)
+ H
+

(aq)

o We can tell the CH
3
COOH is a weak acid, since it gives away a H
+
ion, but it
does not give away all of them: hence, it is an equilibrium.
o All weak acids are part of reversible reactions
Equilibrium
o As the forward reaction takes place and concentration of the reactants
decrease, the rate of the forward reaction decreases.
o Similarly, the reverse reaction rate will begin to increase.
o Eventually, the forward and the reverse reaction rates become equal and
concentration of the reactants and products remain constant.
o This is called chemical equilibrium.
o In general, equilibrium in a closed system at a constant temperature is
characterised by:
Constancy of macroscopic properties
Equal but opposing rates of reaction
Le Chateliers Principle
o If a chemical system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in conditions, the
system will adjust to re-establish equilibrium in such a way as to partially
counteract the imposed change
For example, in the equation 2SO
2
+ O
2
2SO
3
, adding O
2
will cause
the equation to shift right, forming more SO
3

Factors Changing Equilibrium
o Temperature
If the forward equation is exothermic (i.e. one of the products is
heat), then increasing the temperatures will shift the equation left.
This can be extended to all equations.
e.g. N
2
+ O
2
2NO (+180 kJ)
The H is positive, therefore the equation is endothermic, and
can be seen as N
2
+ O
2
+ heat 2NO
Increasing the heat will shift the equation right
o Concentration
Increasing the concentration of reactants will favour the forward
reaction, and vice versa
e.g. 2SO
2
+ O
2
2SO
3

Adding O
2
will cause the equation to shift right

6

o Pressure
In reactions in gaseous equilibrium, increasing the pressure will favour
the side with least gaseous molecules, and vice versa
e.g. C
(s)
+ H
2
O
(g)
CO
(g)
+ H
2(g)

The left side has less gaseous molecules, so increasing the
pressure results in a shift to the left, and vice versa
o
Change Favours
Temperature Endothermic reaction
Temperature Exothermic reaction
Substance Reaction that uses it
Substance Reaction that produces it
Pressure Side with least number of gaseous molecules
Pressure Side with most number of gaseous molecules
Le Chateliers Graphs

Solubility of Carbon Dioxide in Water
o CO
2

(g)
CO
2

(aq)
, (exothermic)
o An increase in temperature leads to a shift to the left. There is more CO
2

(g)

and thus it is less soluble.
o A decrease in pressure also leads to a shift to the left. There is more CO
2

(g)

and thus it is less soluble.
Sources of Sulfur Dioxide and Oxides of Nitrogen
o Natural sources of SO
2
are decomposition and volcanoes
2H
2
S
(g)
+ 3O
2 (g)
2H
2
O
(l)
+ 2SO
2 (g)

o Industrial sources of SO
2
are combustion of fuels and smelting
S
(s)
+ O
2 (g)
SO
2 (g)

4FeS
2 (s)
+ 11O
2 (g)
2Fe
2
O
3 (s)
+ 8SO
2 (g)

2ZnS
(s)
+ 3O
2 (g)
2ZnO
(s)
+ 2SO
2 (g)

o One natural source of NO
x
is lightning.
N
2

(g)
+ O
2 (g)
2NO
(g)

o One industrial sources of NO
x
is vehicle engines
2NO
(g)
+ O
2 (g)
2NO
2 (g)

7

Evidence of Increases in Atmospheric Concentration of SO
2
and NO
x

o Measuring of air bubbles in ice in Antarctica and Greenland show an increase
in the concentration of NO
x

o When NO
x
combines with sunlight, ozone is formed. NO
x
also reacts with
other substances to form acid aerosol nitrates. These nitrates react with
ozone to form smog.
There has been an increase in smog and thus NO
x

o EPA measures of air and water quality have found large increase in the
concentration of SO
2
and NO
x

Formation of Acid Rain
o Regular rain has a pH of 6-6.5 due to CO
2
+ H
2
O H
2
CO
3

o Acid rain has a pH of 4-5 due to these reactions
SO
2 (g)
+ H
2
O
(l)
H
2
SO
3 (aq)
(weak sulfurous acid)
2H
2
SO
3 (aq)
+ O
2 (g)
2H
2
SO
4 (aq)
(strong sulfuric acid)
2NO
2 (g)
+ H
2
O
(l)
HNO
3 (aq)
+ HNO
2 (aq)
(weak nitrous acid)
2HNO
2 (aq)
+ O
2

(g)
2HNO
3 (aq)
(strong nitric acid)
Effects of Acid Rain
o Acid rain erodes marble, or CaCO
3

CaCO
3 (s)
+ H
2
SO
4 (aq)
CaSO
4 (s)
+ CO
2 (g)
+ H
2
O
(aq)

o Acid rain attacks iron or steel structures
Fe
(s)
+ H
2
SO
4 (aq)
FeSO
4 (s)
+ H
2 (g)

o Acid rain damages the biosphere
Damaging forest
Acidifying soil and inhibiting plant growth
Removal of nutrients
Dissolving of insoluble minerals (e.g. Hg) releasing toxic levels of metal
ions into biosphere
Affecting essential nitrogen-fixing bacteria
Acidifying lakes, killing fish and fish eggs
Acids as Proton Donors
o When an acid reacts with water, the following reaction occurs:
HA
(aq)
+ H
2
O
(l)
H
3
O
+

(aq)
+ A

(aq)

o The acid ionises and the H
+
, or proton, is donated to the H
2
O. Acids are thus
classified as proton donors.
o A strong acid will fully ionise, while a weak acid only partially ionises ()
o When a diprotic acid (i.e. H
2
A) reacts with water, then 2 H atoms are
donated. Therefore, the [H
+
] is twice the [H
2
A]
[x] is equal to the concentration of x
Acetic Acid and Citric Acid
o Acetic acid has the formula CH
3
COOH, and is a weak
monoprotic acid
o Its systematic name is ethanoic acid, and is most
commonly found in vinegar
o Citric acid has the formula C
3
H
5
O(COOH)
3
, and is a
weak triprotic acid
o Its systematic name is 2-hydroxy-propane-1,2,3-
tricarboxylic acid
8

The pH Scale
o The pH scale is a measure of how acidic or basic a solution is.
o It stretches from 0 to 14, with 0 being the most acidic, 14 being the most
basic or alkaline, and 7 being neutral.
o It may be defined as

.
o A change in pH of 1 is thus equal to a tenfold increase in [H
+
]
o The pOH (or measure of the [OH

]) is equal to

.
Acids as Food Additives
o Leavening (raising) agents
Some foods have acids in them e.g. lactic acid in milk
When acids react with such agents as NaHCO
3
(also known as sodium
bicarbonate or baking soda), a reaction takes place, along the lines of
HA + NaHCO
3
NaA + H
2
O + CO
2
.
This CO
2
gets trapped in the dough and the dough rises
o Preservatives
Most bacteria thrive in more neutral environments.
Acids lower the pH of the environments and thus kill the bacteria,
reducing spoilage.
o Antioxidants
These reduce oxidation of unsaturated fats and oils, colourings and
food acid
Oxidation leads to rancidity and other negative effects
It often works by retarding an enzymes catalysing of oxidation, as
enzymes have an ideal pH range which the acid disrupts
o Aerating Agent
Carbonic acid dissolves in solution.
When pressure is lowered, carbon dioxide will form from the carbonic
acid as per Le Chateliers principle: H
2
CO
3 (aq)
H
2
O + CO
2

Natural Acids and Bases
Name Common Name Composition pH Found in
2-hydroxy-propane-
1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid
Citric acid C
3
H
5
O(COOH)
3
2-3 Citrus fruits
Hydrochloric acid N/A HCl .1-2 Gastric juices
Methanoic acid Formic Acid CHOOH 3-5 Insect stings
Ethanoic acid Acetic Acid CH
3
COOH 3-5 Vinegar
Ammonia N/A NH
3
9-11 Volcanic gases,
decomposition
N/A caffeine C
8
H
10
N
4
O
2
8-10 Coffee beans
Name Common Name Composition pH Found in
N/A nicotine C
8
H
14
N
2
8-10 Tobacco
Calcium carbonate

limestone CaCO
3
8-10 Limestone,
exoskeletons




9

Historical Development on Ideas About Acids
o In about 1780, Lavoisier proposed that acids were substances that contained
oxygen, but this was quickly disproven
o In 1815, Humphry Davy proposed that acids were substances that contained
replaceable hydrogen i.e. the hydrogen could be replaced by metals (e.g. HCl
turns to NaCl)
o In 1884, Svante Arrhenius proposed that acids ionised in solution to produce
hydrogen ions
Brnsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
o Acids tend to give up protons; they are proton donors
o Bases tend to accept protons; they are proton acceptors
o If HA has a greater tendency to give up protons than the solvent, HA is
considered to be an acid: HA + H
2
O H
3
O
+
+ A

o If B has a greater tendency to accept protons, B is considered to be a base:
B + H
2
O HB
+
+ OH

o Thus, Brnsted-Lowry related acidity and basicity to the structure of both
solvent and solute
Conjugates
o An acid gives up a H
+
to form a conjugate base
HA + H
2
O H
3
O
+
+ A

o Similarly, a base accepts a H
+
to form a conjugate acid
B + H
2
O HB
+
+ OH

o Strong acids and bases have very weak conjugate pairs
Acidic, Basic and Neutral Salts
o Certain salts when in solution create an acidic, basic or neutral solution.
o Determining which it is done in this type of process:
NH
4
Cl NH
4
+
+ Cl

NH
4
+
+ H
2
O NH
3
+ H
3
O
+
(acidic)
Cl

+ H
2
O N/A (since Cl

is a very weak conjugate base of HCl)

It is an acidic salt
o This also works for basic salts and neutral salts (not shown)
KNO
2
K
+
+ NO
2

K
+
+ H
2
O N/A (since K
+
is a very weak conjugate acid of KOH)
NO
2

+ H
2
O HNO
2
+ OH

(basic)
It is a basic salt
o It also works for this measure:
Ca(CH
3
COO)
2
Ca
2+
+ 2CH
3
COO

H
2
O H
+
+ OH

Ca
2+
+ 2OH

Ca(OH)
2
: Strong Base
CH
3
COO

+ H
+
CH
3
COOH: Weak Acid
Basic Salt
Buffers
o A buffer is a compound that limits the change in [H
+
] when H
+
is
added/removed from a solution (i.e. limits pH change)
o It is made up of a weak base or acid, as per HA H
+
+ A

o Adding H
+
shifts equilibrium left, mopping up the H
+
as per Le Chatelier
o Removing H
+
shifts equilibrium right, adding more H
+
to the equation
10

Natural Buffers
o pH can affect several body functions such as disruption of proteins and
disturbing of enzymes (as enzymes have an optimum pH range)
o H
+
is formed in the body through respiration
CO
2
+ H
2
O H
2
CO
3
H
+
+ HCO
3

In this case, H
2
CO
3
is a weak acid and HCO
3

is its conjugate base

o If our blood gets too acidic (i.e. *H
+
]), the equilibrium will shift left to
compensate
Amphiprotic Substances
o Amphiprotic substances are substances that can act as both proton donors
and acceptors
o In acid solutions, they act as bases, while in basic solutions, they act as acids
o Some examples are HCO
3

, HSO
3

and H
2
O
o They work in the following way:
HCO
3

(aq)
+ H
2
O
(l)
H
3
O
+

(aq)
+ CO
3
2

(aq)

HCO
3

(aq)
+ H
2
O
(l)
H
2
CO
3

(aq)
+ OH

(aq)

In the first equation HCO
3

is acting as a proton donor (acid), while in

the second, it is a proton acceptor (base)
Titration Process
1. A burette is filled with a solution of known concentration (e.g. sulfuric acid)
and the solution level is altered to the zero mark
2. A solution of the sample to be analysed (e.g. sodium hydroxide) is placed in a
flask under the burette
3. Indicator is added to the flask
4. Solution is slowly run from the burette into the flask with continuous swirling
until the indicator just changes colour (called the end point)
Note: The equivalence point is when the reaction is complete (e.g. the
solution is neutral); the end point determines the equivalence point
5. The volume in the burette is read
6. The required concentration is thus calculated using this method
e.g. the volume of NaOH is 25 mL
The found volume of H
2
SO
4
is 17.5 mL and the [H
2
SO
4
] is 0.1 mol.L
-1

H
2
SO
4 (aq)
+ 2NaOH
(aq)
Na
2
SO
4 (aq)
+ 2H
2
O
(aq)

()()

Back Titrations
o Sometimes there are practical reasons for wanting to analyse a substance by
adding a known excess of a reagent (reactant) to it and then titrating the
excess
o For example, suppose we wanted to determine the amount of CaCO
3
in a
sample of limestone
o Since suspending the insoluble limestone in water and titrating would be
inefficient and inaccurate, it is simpler to add a known excess of HCl to the
limestone
11

o The excess HCl may then be titrated with a standard solution of NaOH.
o This is called a back titration, and the calculation works as follows:
e.g. 1.066 g of limestone is placed in water and 50 mL of .411 mol.L
-1

HCl is added. The mixture was back titrated with .208 mol.L
-1
NaOH
where 16.4 mL was required. Calculate the mass of CaCO
3
in the
limestone
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H
2
O
c
1
v
1
= c
2
v
2

0.208 0.0164 = 0.411 v
HCl

8.3 mL of HCl reacted with NaOH
41.7 mL of HCl reacted with CaCO
3

0.017 mol of HCl reacted with CaCO
3

2HCl + CaCO
3
CaCl
2
+ CO
2
+ H
2
O
CaCO
3
: HCl 1:2
0.009 mol of CaCO
3
was in the limestone
()( )
0.858 g of CaCO
3
was in the limestone
Alkanols
o Alkanols are the OH functional group
o Its general formula is ROH, where R is a C-chain.
C
n
H
2n+1
OH is the formula for n carbon atoms
o Its suffix is anol (e.g. if the C-chain is one long, it is methanol)
o It is polar, and has H-bonding.
o A primary alkanol is an alkanol where the C atom attached to the OH group
has no more than one C atom attached to it.
o A secondary or tertiary alkanol is the same as above, but with 2 and 3 C
atoms respectively.
Alkanoic Acids
o Alkanoic acids are the COOH
functional group.
o Its general formula is ROH, where R is
a C-chain.
C
n-1
H
2n+1
COOH is the formula
for n carbon atoms
o Its suffix is anoic acid.
o Alkanoic acids have greater m.p. and b.p. than alkanols as they have greater
intermolecular bonds
Esters
o An ester is an organic compound derived from an alkanol and an alkanoic
acid containing the COO functional group.
o Its general formula is R
2
COOR
1

R
1
comes from the alkanol
R
2
comes from the alkanoic acid
o Its suffix is anoate.
Esterification
o This describes the process of producing an ester by reacting an alkanol with
an alkanoic acid.
12

o The equation used is R
1
OH + R
2
COOH R
2
COOR
1
+ H
2
O
o Acid or heat is needed to increase the rate of the reaction
o When naming the ester, the first part of
the name comes from the alkanol, and is
named as a yl side group e.g. methyl
from methanol
o The second part of the name comes from
the alkanoic acid, and uses the anoate
e.g. butanoate from butanoic acid
Use of Esters
o Esters are naturally occurring substances such as oils and fats that usually
have strong flavours, tastes and smells.
o They are good solvents and are thus manufactured artificially for foods and
cosmetics
o They occur in nature in fruits and flowers.
Important Reactions of Ethene (ethylene)
o When ethene reacts with water, ethanol is produced.
NB: Ethene is derived from cracking of fractions of petroleum
C
2
H
4
+ H
2
O C
2
H
5
OH
Catalysts are H
3
PO
4
at 300C
Ethanol is industrially important in pharmaceuticals, perfumes,
varnishes, solvents, as a food additive, antiseptic, food colouring and
flavours.
o When ethene reacts with oxygen, ethylene oxide is formed. This reacts with
water to form ethylene glycol.
C
2
H
4
+ O
2
C
2
H
4
O
Catalysts are Ag at 250C.
C
2
H
4
O + H
2
O HOCH
2
CH
2
OH
Catalyst is H
+
.
Ethylene glycol is used in
antifreeze, polymers (polyester,
PET plastics)
o When ethene reacts with chlorine and oxygen, vinyl chloride is produced.
4C
2
H
4
+ 2Cl
2
+ O
2
4CH
2
CHCl + H
2
O
Catalyst is CuCl at 150C
Vinyl chloride is the monomer from
which PVC (polyvinyl chloride) is
produced
Polymerisation and Polyethene
o Polymerisation is a chemical reaction in which many small identical units, or
monomers, combine to form one large molecule, or polymer.
o In the case of polyethene, it is formed through a process called addition
polymerisation, where monomer units join to form a polymer and no other
products.
o In the case of polyethene, many individual ethene monomers have their
double bonds opened to form single bonds with the neighbouring
monomers.
Ethylene oxide
Ethylene glycol
1,2-ethandiol
Vinyl chloride
13

o The diagram to the right
shows the polymerisation of
ethene.
o The polymers that are
formed can be a few hundred
to a few thousand units long.
The n is used to show the number of monomer units
Production of Polyethene
1. Initiation
The initiator opens the double bonds of the ethene monomers,
forming a free radical (has an unpaired outer shell electron)
2. Propagation
The monomers join, forming a chain
3. Termination
The free radical ethene chains combine.
A complete polyethene molecule is formed and the process stops.
Steps in Making Polyethene
o Low Density Polyethene
High pressure is needed (1000-3000 atm)
High temperature is needed (300C)
This uses an initiator, often peroxide
An initiator is like a catalyst, but it is incorporated into the
polymer, usually one peroxide molecule per 1-2 polymer
molecules
This produces significant chain branching, resulting in a low density
Low density PE is used in plastic bags and wrapping e.g. cling wrap
o High Density Polyethene
Relatively low pressure is needed (a few atm)
Relatively low temperature is needed (60C)
This uses a catalyst, often TiCl
3
or a trialkylaluminium compound
This produces unbranched polymer chains that pack closer together
High density PE is used in toys, kitchen utensils, etc
Industrially Significant Monomers
o Vinyl Chloride
Vinyl chlorides systematic name is chloroethene.
It is similar to ethene structurally, but a chloride atom replaces a
hydrogen one.
It is used in the production of polyvinyl chloride, or polychloroethene.
o Styrene
Styrenes systematic name is ethenyl benzene.
It is similar to ethene structurally, but a benzene
molecule replaces a hydrogen atom
It is used in the production of polystyrene, or
polyethenyl benzene.
Industrially Significant Polymers
o Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
PVC is very flexible
form
written as
14

It is also resistant to chemicals, due to its tight packing of molecules
PVC is used in wiring, insulation, bags, toys, etc
o Polystyrene
Polystyrene is colourless, and flammable.
It is tough (high tensile strength) as well as rigid.
It has a fairly low density.
Alternative Sources for Petrochemicals
o The compounds used in the petrochemical industry are currently derived
from crude oil.
o However, crude oil is a non-renewable resource, and its main use is transport
fuel, leaving only 3-5% for the petrochemical industry.
o These are incentives for the petrochemical industry to find alternative
sources of raw material.
Defining Condensation Polymers
o A condensation polymer is one that forms when pairs of monomers join
together with the elimination of a small molecule, often water.
o This is called a condensation reaction.
Examples of Condensation Polymers
o Polyesters
These are formed from a reaction between a carboxylic acid and an
alcohol molecule
e.g. CH
3
COOH + CH
3
OH CH
3
COOCH
3
+ H
2
O
Producing just this is insufficient for a polymer to form, as at least two
functional groups per monomer are required for growth to occur.
o Polyamides
These are formed when an amine molecule reacts with a carboxylic
acid.
e.g. CH
3
CH
2
COOH + CH
3
CH
2
NH
2
CH
3
CH
2
CONHCH
2
CH
3
+ H
2
O
At least two functional groups per monomer are required.
Cellulose and Biomass
o Cellulose is a biopolymer formed
through the condensation poly-
-merisation of glucose monomers.
o Cellulose gives plant cell walls their strength and shape, and are thus a major
component of biomass.
Cellulose and Petrochemicals
o The glucose monomers that make up cellulose contain six carbon atoms.
o These carbon atoms can be joined and thus can be regarded as a basic
structure from which to make important molecules for petrochemicals.
o Since cellulose is renewable, being found in biomass, it may be considered a
viable alternative for the petrochemical industry.
o However, breaking down cellulose has several problems, namely:
Breaking the cellulose down to glucose monomers is difficult,
requiring it to be either digested by cellulose enzymes or digested
with strong acid.
The conversion of glucose to ethanol is a very energy-intensive
process, taking up more energy than it would be worth just using oil.
15

Biopolymers and PLA
o Biopolymers are polymers made from living things.
o One example is polylactic acid (PLA), produced from corn starch.
o Dextrose produced from the corn starch is fermented with lactobacillus of
the fungus Rhizopus oryzae, which forms lactic acid, and then to PLA.
o It is used in dinnerware, rigid containers and fabric, due to its high melting
point and low density.
o Some of its advantages are:
It is biodegradable
Its production releases fewer toxic substances
Corn starch can grow very quickly compared to fossil fuels
o Some disadvantages are:
Its biodegradability depends on conditions, and must be treated
differently as such
Melts at the temperature of dryers used to process PET plastics
Ethanol and Ethylene
o Ethanol may be dehydrated to form ethylene in the reaction
C
2
H
5
OH

C
2
H
4
+ H
2
O
o A concentrated H
2
SO
4
catalyst is required to reduce the high
activation energy and make the reaction industrially feasible.
o The reverse may also occur, using H
2
SO
4
, like so:
C
2
H
4
+ H
2
SO
4
C
2
H
5
HSO
4

C
2
H
5
HSO
4
+ H
2
O C
2
H
5
OH + H
2
SO
4

Overall reaction: C
2
H
4
+ H
2
O C
2
H
5
OH
o This uses large amounts of sulfuric acid, which causes environmental damage
and corrosion
Ethanol as a Solvent
o Ethanol is a very useful solvent, being used in the production of medicines,
perfumes and adhesives.
o This is because it can be used a solvent for both polar and non-polar
substances.
o The polar OH group is hydrophilic and helps dissolves polar molecules, while
the hydrophilic side attracts non-polar substances.
Ethanol as a Renewable Fuel
o Ethanol is a combustible fuel which is suitable in internal combustion engines
due to the amount of energy it releases when burnt.
o Its reaction is C
2
H
5
OH + 3O
2
2CO
2
+ 3H
2
O
o As it is mainly produced from the fermentation of plant matter, it is a
renewable resource.
The Fermentation Process
o First, one mole of sucrose is reacted with water to form glucose. An invertase
enzyme is used as a catalyst.
C
12
H
22
O
11
+ H
2
O

2C
6
H
12
O
6

o Then, the glucose is decomposed into ethanol and carbon dioxide, with a
zymase enzyme used to catalyse the process.
C
6
H
12
O
12

2C
2
H
5
OH + 2CO
2

16

o The enzymes are added as part of the fermentation process.
o The conditions required are:
Use of an alcohol-tolerant yeast, allowing for continued fermentation
as ethanol levels rise
Presence of diammonium phosphate, or (NH
4
)
2
HPO
4
, for nutrients for
the yeast
Anaerobic conditions, forcing the yeast to ferment sugars to gain
energy rather than respire
Temperature of 37C, to maximise reaction rate without breaking
down the enzyme catalysts, which denature at about 40
pH of 4-5, to reduce unwanted bacterial growth
Calculating the Molar Heat of Combustion
o This the amount of energy released when one mole of a substance undergoes
complete combustion (products are CO
2
, H
2
O) at STP
o It may be calculated as follows:
3.7 g of methanol is reacted completely, heating up 750 g of water by
20C. If the specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J.g
-1
K
-1
, find the
molar heat of combustion.
Energy released:
62700 J of energy is released.
Moles of methanol:

Heat released by one mole

Activity Series
o This series determines activities in displacement reactions.
o The more reactive the metal (the higher up the list), the more easily
oxidised and the easier the metal will displace another
o When a more reactive metal (e.g. Fe) is placed in the solution of a less
reactive metal (e.g. Cu), the more reactive metal will go into solution e.g.
Fe + Cu
2+
Fe
2+
+ Cu
o On the periodic table data sheet, the more easily oxidised substances are
placed near the top, much like the activity series.
Galvanic Cells
o A galvanic cell is made up of two half cells.
o In the anode, oxidation occurs, with the metal in the
electrode entering the solution, e.g. Cu
(s)
Cu
2+
(aq)
+ 2e

o The electrons move through the wire to the positive
cathode, which attracts the ions in solution, causing
them to deposit, e.g. Ag
+
(aq)
+ e

Ag
(s)

o The salt bridge allows the solutions to remain neutral, as
negative ions (usually NO
3

ions) move to the anode and

positive ions (usually K
+
ions) move to the cathode
o The salts in the salt bridge must not react with any in the
anolyte or catholyte (solutions). KNO
3
is often used as it
does not form any precipitates


K
Na
Li
Ca
Ba
Mg
Al
Zn
Fe
Sn
Pb
Cu
Ag
Pt
Au
Anode Cathode
e

17

Galvanic Cell Notation
o The quick way to do a galvanic cell diagram is using cell notation.
o The general form is

| |

o In the example shown in the last dot point, the cell diagram would be
Cu|Cu
2+
||Ag
+
|Ag
Battery Cell Comparisons
Cell type Lead-acid cell Button cell
Anode reaction Pb
(s)
+ SO
4
2-
PbSO
4(s)
+ 2e
-
Zn
(s)
+ 2OH
-
ZnO
(s)
+H
2
O + 2e
-

Cathode reaction PbO
2(s)
+ 4H
+
+ SO
4
2-
+ 2e
-
PbSO
4(s)
+2H
2
O
(l)
Ag
2
O
(s)
+ H
2
O
(l)
+ 2e
-
2Ag
(s)
+ 2OH
-

Cost, practicality Large, heavy
Rechargeable
Long life
Reasonably expensive (lead)
Small, light
Non-rechargeable
Relatively long life
Reasonably expensive (silver)
Impact on society Rechargeable, suitable for vehicles
Allowed development of starters in vehicles
Store solar energy when connected to solar
panels
Charge storage in remote regions
Small size miniaturisation of electric
appliances
Non-toxic can be used on body
Environmental
impacts
Do not have to be discarded/recycled after
one use
Can pollute environment if spillage occurs
Lead is toxic must be disposed of with care
Have to be discarded/recycled after one
use
KOH electrolyte is caustic
No highly toxic materials that harm the
environment

Combustion and Monitoring
o The combustion of alkanes in a car engine provide both heat and power.
o If not given enough oxygen, however, carbon monoxide (CO) or soot (C).
o At higher temperatures, CO and soot emissions are low, but nitrogen oxides
are formed, which contribute to acid rain and smog.
o Chemical monitoring in the car thus occurs through a catalytic converter,
which allows for greater oxidation of hydrocarbons while also providing for
the reduction in nitrogen oxides.
Ammonia and the Haber Process
o Ammonia is used in industry to great extent, used in the production of:
Fertilisers
Fibres and plastics
Household cleaners
Non-ionic detergents
o Ammonia can be synthesised from nitrogen and hydrogen in a process known
as the Haber process.
N
2 (g)
+ 3H
2 (g)
2NH
3 (g)

o The H
2
is derived from reacting methane with steam, while the N
2
can be
obtained by reacting methane in air.
The Haber Process Explained
o The reaction of hydrogen and nitrogen is an exothermic reaction.
o Increased temperatures will increase the rate of reaction, but due to Le
Chateliers Principle, will also decrease the yield of NH
3
.
18

o As such, the Haber process is a balancing act between equilibrium and
reaction rate for economically viable production, and as such, the conditions
of the process are:
A moderate temperature of 400C
A pressure of around 205 atm, favouring the products
A magnetite (Fe
3
O
4
) catalyst
Having N
2
and H
2
at a mole ratio
of 1:3
o Ammonia is also regularly removed, to
shift equilibrium further to the right as
per Le Chateliers Principle.
Monitoring the Haber Process
o This process must be continually
monitored for the following things:
Temperature and pressure
Ratio of reactants
Concentration of O
2
in order to
prevent explosions
Concentrations of CO, CO
2
and sulfur compounds to prevent the
poisoning of the catalyst
Concentrations of Ar and CH
4
, which lower the efficiency of the
conversion process
Purity of the produced NH
4
to ensure sufficient quality
Origins of CFCs and Halons
o In 1928, an inventor named Thomas Midgley discovered CFCs and halons
while trying to find a replacement for toxic refrigerants such as ammonia
(NH
3
), chloromethane or methyl chloride (CH
3
Cl) and sulfur dioxide (SO
2
)
o They were advantageous in that they were non-toxic, generally unreactive
and liquefied when compressed
Problems Associated with CFCs
o CFCs break down the ozone layer, letting more carcinogenic UV light in
o They also act as a greenhouse gas
o Steps taken have been very effective: ever since CFCs were phased out at the
end of 1995 in developed countries as a part of the Montreal Protocol, the
ozone layer has been recovering and the amount of chlorine in the
atmosphere has been decreasing
o Although chlorine has a tendency to linger in the atmosphere, the steps
taken have been as effective as they could be
o Ozone layer should recover by 2050 if Montreal Protocol maintained
Changes in Atmospheric Ozone Concentration
o In 1976, scientists in Halley Bay in Antarctica noticed a lowering of 10% of
ozone layer levels using UV spectrometers and air samples collected from
high in the atmosphere
o By 1985, it was confirmed that there was a 50% drop in ozone ccn in 10 years,
with further proof coming from measurements taken by satellite
19

o These instruments recorded a massive depletion in ozone; at maximum, the
hole reached all around Antarctica and reaching Australia, New Zealand and
the tip of South America, as well as Arctic regions
o Atmospheric ozone ccns have been decreasing, but are showing signs of a
recovery
Replacements for CFCs
o Temporarily replacing CFCs are HCFCs, or hydrochlorofluorocarbons, which
are broken down at lower altitudes due to their higher reactivity.
o They show some signs of ozone depletion, though not as much as CFCs, and
should be phased out by 2030.
o HFCs, or hydrofluorocarbons, are also
replacing CFCs. These do not contain Br or
Cl, and as such have not shown any signs
of ozone depletion.
o Both HFCs and HCFCs contribute to global
warming.
Reactions Involving CFCs and Ozone
o CFCl
3(g)

CFCl
2

(g)
+ Cl
o Cl
(g)
+ O
3(g)
ClO
(g)
+ O
2(g)

o ClO
(g)
+ O
(g)
O
2
+ Cl
OR
o 2ClO
(g)
Cl
2
O
2(g)

ClO
2

(g)
+ Cl
o ClO
2
Cl
(g)
+ O
2(g)

o In short, CFCs decompose to form Cl free radicals (marked with a ), which
react with ozone to form ClO free radicals and O
2
.
o This ClO further reacts to form Cl and O
2

Water Quality
o Water quality is determined by a number of factors, including:
o [common ions] such as Cl, SO
4
, Na, CO
3
, Ca and Mg
In sea water, the []s can reach over 10000 ppm for Cl and Na, while in
fresh water, the highest is generally CO
3
, with 52 ppm
o Drinkable (potable) water must have much lower [ions], and are generally
tested with such things as chromatography
o Total dissolved solids (TDS), which are predominantly made up of ionic
compounds and thus are tested with a conductivity probe
o Values of TDS greater than 1000 show waterways that are unsuited for
drinking
o Hardness (defined as the inability to produce a lather with soap) also counts,
and generally contain higher levels of Ca and Mg ions
It is tested with a soap solution and lathering
Classification Soft Moderately
Hard
Hard Very Hard Saline
ppm < 60 61-120 121-180 181-500 500 +
o Turbidity (defined as the cloudiness/opacity of water) is measured by a
nephelometer in nephelometric turbidity units or NTU. Potable water is
generally required to have 1-3 NTU.
20

o A nephelometer determines how much water scatters light (and therefore
how many clay particles are suspended in it), with fully pure water being 0
NTU.
o Acidity is also a determinant of water quality, and should be from pH 6.5-8.5.
o pH meters are used.
o Dissolved oxygen also measures water quality, as aquatic organisms use it for
respiration.
o Between 6-8 ppm is usually considered healthy
o It is determined with such things as oxygen probes (ions in these probes react
with oxygen and change conductivity) and volumetric analysis
o Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) also affects water quality.
Microbes in a water supply require oxygen, and too much of these
(and hence a higher BOD) will exhaust the dissolved O
2
in a system
It is generally tested by testing the ppm of O
2
5 days apart and
thereby calculating the amount of O
2
used. This is equal to the BOD
over 5 days, and is called the BOD
5
.
It can also be tested by putting water samples in a closed system,
removing the CO
2
used in respiration and calculating the resulting
pressure change.
Unpolluted water generally has a BOD (ppm) of 1-3, while polluted
water is determined to have more than 5 ppm.
Factors Affecting Ion Concentrations
o Some factors are: rainfall frequency and pH, temperature of the water,
evaporation rate, types of soil nearby, presence and activity of aquatic life,
land use nearby and other sources of pollution (e.g. farming)
Sanitising Water Supplies
o Large debris like fish and plants are removed via sieves
o Chemicals are added in the mixing tank such as KMnO
4
(potassium
permanganate) to oxidise the soluble Mn and Fe ions and CaO and Na
2
CO
3
to
lower hardness levels ([Ca, Mg])
o Chemicals such as FeCl
3
or the less common Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
are added in the
coagulation tank for flocculation (clumping of fine colloidal particles) to form
gelatinous precipitates (flocs) of Fe(OH)
3
which trap the colloid particles and
can be precipitated out.
o The water is moved into the settling tank, where sedimentation (suspended
particles settling under gravity) occurs, generally removing particles >1mm
(roughly 90%)
o The water then passes through sand and gravel layers in filtration tanks, and
membrane filters are also sometimes used, though they are more expensive
o The water is then sanitised using NH
3
and Cl
2
to form monochloramine, or
NH
2
Cl, which is a long-lasting disinfectant, and pH is adjusted using Na
2
CO
3
or
HCl
o These methods are very
effective, if we consider
the end result:


Property Raw Water Purified Water
pH 7.4 7.70
Turbidity (NTU) 5.0 0.08
Fe (ppb) 500.0 10.00
Mn (ppb) 30.0 1.00
Bacteria (cfu/100 mL) 300.0 <1.00
21

Microscopic Membrane Filters
o These are membranes with small pores in them
o The pore sizes range from 0.5-1000 nm across, depending on the type of
filtration required/allowed.
o The filters with the larger size pores are typically made of hollow threads of
polymer, while those with smaller pores are generally made of polysulfone,
polyamide or cellulose acetate polymers
o Semipermeable membranes are also used in removing solutes, and especially
ions
o Water flows across them (not through) and the pores trap and remove such
things as bacteria and discoloration, depending on the type of filtration used
Warragamba Dam
o Catchment Area: 9051 km
2

o Possible sources of contamination from Warragambas catchment systems
are: industrial runoff, sewage and stormwater, agriculture, mining, erosion,
fires, other industrial accidents e.g. spills
o Chemical tests Available are: BOD testing (testing the ppm of O
2
5 days apart
and thereby calculating the amount of O
2
used), atomic absorption and
emission spectroscopy for dissolved salts, cations and heavy metals, and
incubation of a water sample to test for bacteria (E. Coli)
o Physical and Chemical Processes to purify water are: Aeration (*O
2
] to
oxidise H
2
S to sulfate ions and Fe salts to iron oxides); Flocculation (Chemicals
added for flocculation (clumping of fine colloidal particles) to form gelatinous
precipitates which trap the colloid particles and can be precipitated out.),
Sedimentation (settling of flocs), Filtration to remove any unwanted
substances still present, chlorination to kill microorganisms
o Chemical additives and reasons: Cl for disinfectant, F (NaF) to strengthen
tooth enamel
Industrial Production of NaOH
1. A saturated sodium chloride solution, or brine has several chemicals added to
it to remove impurities through precipitation, such as calcium, magnesium,
iron and sulfate ions
Ca
2+
(aq)
+ Na
2
CO
3 (aq)
CaCO
3 (s)
+ 2Na+
(aq)

Mg
2+
(aq)
+ 2NaOH
(aq)
Mg(OH)
2 (s)
+ 2Na+
(aq)

Fe
2+
(aq)
+ Na
2
CO
3 (aq)
FeCO
3 (s)
+ 2Na+
(aq)

Fe
2+
(aq)
+ 2NaOH
(aq)
Fe(OH)
2 (s)
+ 2Na+
(aq)

SO
4
2

(aq)
+ CaCl
2

(aq)
CaSO
4 (s)
+ 2Cl

(aq)

The precipitates (solid products shown) are removed.
2. Electricity is passed through the now purified solution, with the following eqn
2NaCl + 2H
2
O

Cl
2
+ H
2
+ 2NaOH
3. The products are separated and removed.
Electrolysis of NaOH
o Mercury Process
In the electrolysis, a layer of Hg acts as the cathode. An NaCl solution
is floated on the Hg. Cl is produced at the anode, and Na at the
cathode, where it forms an amalgam with the Hg.
22

The amalgam is removed and reacted with water: 2Na/Hg
(l)
+ 2H
2
O
(l)

2NaOH
(aq)
+ H
2 (g)
+ 2Hg
(l)
. The Hg is then removed and can be
recycled back into the process
o Diaphragm Process
This is where there are two compartments. These are divided by a
permeable diaphragm, often made of asbestos but now more
frequently being made of a polymer. NaCl (aq) is poured into the
compartment with the anode, and it begins to flow into the cathode
compartment. Cl is produced and removed at the anode, and at the
cathode, 2Na
+
+ 2H
2
O 2NaOH + H
2
. The diaphragm stops the NaOH
reacting with the Cl. The Cl is a hazard and is continually pumped out
and fresh brine pumped in.
o Membrane Process
This is much like the diaphragm process, but the compartment with
the anode has NaCl (aq), and the cathode compartment has pure
water or dilute NaOH. The titular membrane allows cations to cross
(e.g. Na
+
) but not anions (e.g. OH

, Cl

).
o Environmental difficulties
Mercury process produces Hg, Diaphragm process can have asbestos-
based membranes
Much electricity produced, global warming
o Technical difficulties
Chlorine and mercury are toxic
NaCl, Cl
2
and NaOH are corrosive
H
2
may react with Cl
2
and O
2
explosively
Much electricity is needed
Synthetic Detergents
Chemical composition Uses
Anionic Have an anionic head, often a sulfate,
sulfonate (SO
3

), phosphate or benzene
sulfonate (benzene attached to sulfonate)
ion
Dishwashing
liquids, laundry
detergents
Cationic Have a cationic head, often ammonium
compounds, whether they be just
ammonium or CH
3
replacing the Hs in the
ammonium ion
Fabric softeners,
ore flotation,
germicides
Non-ionic Have a neutral head, where the head is
hydrophilic (easily dissolving in H
2
O) with
several O atoms for H-bonding, such as
polyethylene oxide chains
Some dishwashing
liquids, washing
cars, froth flotation

Environmental Impact on Soaps and Detergents
o Biodegradability: While currently, most soaps and detergents are very
biodegradable (entirely breaking down in about 5 days), the earliest
detergents took over a month to fully biodegrade, and there lingered in the
environment

23

o Phosphates: Detergents function easier in waters without Ca and Mg ions,
and as such, manufacturers added phosphate compounds to prevent them
interfering with the wash. However, these phosphates can cause blooms of
algae and eutrophication (excess of nutrients causing excessive plant growth
and thus decay, favouring plankton algae and reducing water quality)
o Biocidal properties: Cationic detergents attach to bacterial membranes,
disturbing basic cellular properties
Uses of Sulfuric Acid
o Production of ammonium sulfate fertiliser: 2NH
3
+ H
2
SO
4
(NH
4
)
2
SO
4

o Processing steel, where H
2
SO
4
is used to remove rust
o Production of anionic detergents containing sulfonate (SO
3

)
The Frasch Process
o The Frasch process is the main method used in
extracting sulfur for the production of H
2
SO
4

o It consists of three concentric pipes inserted into
a mineral deposit.
The outermost pipe contains superheated
liquid water at 160, melting the solid
sulfur in the deposit.
Compressed air is pumped through the
innermost pipe, forcing a water-sulfur
emulsion through the third pipe.
The third pipe carries this emulsion to the
surface, where the sulfur solidifies and
can be easily separated.
o This process yields sulfur of 99.5% purity.
Environmental Problems with the Frasch Process
o The sulfur can reduce to form hydrogen sulfide, with S
(l)
+ H
2(g)
H
2
S
(g)
, or
oxidise to form SO
2
which reacts with water to form sulfurous acid (H
2
SO
3
)
o Both H
2
S and H
2
SO
3
are harmful to the environment, and any water used in
the Frasch process cannot be returned to the environment easily since it can
be contaminated
o The depletion of a sulfur mineral deposit also leaves a large hollow in the
crust which cannot be filled easily, leaving the ground vulnerable to erosion
Production of Sulfuric Acid
1. Molten sulfur is sprayed onto a sulfur burner at 1000C: S
(l)
+ O
2 (g)
SO
2 (g)

2. The SO
2
is cooled to 400C, and oxidised: SO
2 (g)
+

O
2 (g)
SO
3

3. The SO
3
is passed through concentrated sulfuric acid, thus forming oleum:
SO
3 (g)
+ H
2
SO
4 (l)
H
2
S
2
O
7 (l)
. Though reacting the SO
3
with water would
produce H
2
SO
4
, it would produce a mist in air that is difficult to extract.
4. The oleum is reacted with water to produce 98% pure sulfuric acid: H
2
S
2
O
7 (l)

+ H
2
O
(l)
2H
2
SO
4 (l)

Reaction Conditions for SO
2
and SO
3

o SO
2
occurs in a sulfur burner with an excess of oxygen to ensure a complete
reaction.
o The sulfur used in its production is inserted into the burner in liquid form to
maximise surface area and thus reaction rate.
24

o When producing SO
3
, a moderately high temperature of 400C is used to
balance out yield and reaction rate, much like the Haber process,
o A vanadium oxide (V
2
O
5
) catalyst is used, and O
2
is put in excess to shift
equilibrium to the right.
Sulfuric Acid as an Oxidising and Dehydrating Agent
o Sulfuric acid can be used as either an oxidising or dehydrating agent.
o As an oxidising agent, it can do one of two things:
Reactive metal: H
2
SO
4 (aq)
+ Fe
(s)
H
2 (g)
+ FeSO
4 (aq)

Unreactive metal: H
2
SO
4 (l)
+ Ag
(s)
Ag
2
O
(s)
+ SO
2 (g)
+ H
2
O
(l)

o It can also be used as a dehydrating agent, as per:
C
6
H
12
O
6 (s)

6H
2
O
(l)
+ 6C
(s)

Radioisotopes
o Radioisotopes are isotopes of elements that emit radiation.
o Isotopes of an element have the same atomic number (number of protons)
but differing mass number (protons and neutrons).
o An isotope is named by its mass number, e.g. Rubidium-85.
o It may also be named using

, where A is the mass number, Z is the atomic

number and M is the element, e.g.

Radioactive Decay
o There are three types of radiation: alpha (), beta () and gamma ()
o Alpha radiation is the emission of helium nuclei, or

.
o They have a low penetrating power, and generally come from radioisotopes
that are too big ( )
o Alpha-emitting radioisotopes often emit gamma rays
o Beta radiation is the decomposition of a neutron into a proton and electron
(

)
o They have a moderate penetrating power, and generally come from
radioisotopes with an unstable ratio of neutrons to protons
o Beta-emitting radioisotopes also emit gamma rays
o Gamma radiation is the emission of electromagnetic radiation with high
frequency
o They have high penetrating power
Commercially Useful Isotopes
o Technetium-99m
Tc-99m is used in medicinal diagnosis e.g. blood clots, brain tumours
It is produced in this way:
1.

Produced in reactor
2.

Produced in transit/hospital (half-

life: 66hrs)
3.

Produced in patient (half-life: 6hrs)

Tc-99m emits low energy gamma rays, meaning minimal damage to
healthy cells
It is also chemically versatile, meaning it can be incorporated into a
range of biomolecules which concentrate in different regions of the
body and can thus be analysed for specific purposes

25

o Sodium-24
Na-24 is used for leak detection in underground water pipes
It is produced in this way:
1.

Produced in reactor
2.

Produced in pipe (half-life: 15 hrs)

Na-24 has a low half-life, meaning minimal radiological contamination
It emits particles and high energy rays, making it easier to detect
leaks

Geiger Counter
o Geiger counters work on the basis that radiation can be ionising (e.g. ArAr
+
)
o They are particularly useful at measuring beta particles.
o Ionising radiation enters through a thin window of the Geiger tube, hitting Ar
atoms and ionising them (knocking e

out of them)
o When these now free electrons reach the electrode, they generate an
electrical pulse, which is amplified and measured
Monitoring Complete Combustion
o Combustion is monitored to ensure the air:fuel ratio for complete
combustion is met, and to minimise the amount of toxic chemicals produced
o Some unwanted chemicals are:
CO
2
: a toxic greenhouse gas that readily bonds to haemoglobin 200x
more efficiently than O
2

C: build up in engines, meaning lower efficiency
SO
2
: formation of acid rain
NO
2
: acid rain, photochemical smog, irritant to respiratory systems
Pb: brain damage and death
Equilibrium Constant Expression
o This is a ratio of molar concentrations of products to reactants, each raised to
a power equal to the respective coefficient in a balanced equation.
o In other words, in the equation aA + bB cC + dD, the equilibrium constant
is found by

e.g., in the equation N
2 (g)
+ 3H
2 (g)
2NH
3 (g)
, K
eq
is found by

o If

, products are favoured, and if

, reactants are favoured

o Since concentrations of pure liquids and solids remain constant, these
substances are omitted from the equilibrium constant expression
Testing for Ions
o There are several ways to test for the presence of ions.
o In the case of cations, one can either use precipitation or Atomic Absorption
Spectroscopy (AAS).
AAS is when ions are passed through a flame, causing their electrons
to reach an excited state and move between electron shells.
This moving between electron shells causes a characteristic emission
of photons and knowing each metals unique emission spectra allows
their presence to be discovered
26

o Cation Testing:
KI KMnO
4
KSCN NaF Flame
Ba
2+
purple persists Pale green
Ca
2+
purple persists Some white ppt Red
Cu
2+
brown ppt purple persists Green
Fe
2+
decolourise Gold
Fe
3+
purple persists blood-red Gold
Pb
2+
yellow ppt purple persists Much white ppt Blue
Note: highlighting = how to distinguish
o In the case of anions, they are mainly testing using precipitates, or universal
indicator.
o Anion Testing:
UI Ba
2+
Ba
2+
+ HNO
3
Ag + UV HNO
3

CO
3
2
purple white ppt bubbles, ppt dissolves white ppt bubbles
Cl

green purple-grey ppt

PO
4
3
blue white ppt ppt dissolves yellow ppt
SO
4
2
blue-green white ppt white ppt persists
Structure of the Atmosphere
o Composition
Nitrogen, 78%
Oxygen, 21%
Argon, 0.93%
CO
2
, 0.035%
o Structure
Troposphere, 0-15 km
Stratosphere, 15-50 km
Mesosphere, 50-85 km
Thermosphere, 85-155 km
o Main Atmospheric Pollutants and Sources
CO: Incomplete combustion, volcanoes, cigarette smoke
SO
2
: Metal smelters, volcanoes, geysers
NO
x
: Lightning, high temp. combustion e.g. power plants, vehicles
O
3
: Photochemical smog
CFCs: Old aerosol cans, refrigerants
Properties of Ozone
o Ozone is both an upper atmosphere UV radiation shield and a lower
atmosphere pollutant
o In the lower atmosphere, O
3
causes respiratory issues at ccns >1 ppm
o In the upper atmosphere, it shields from UV radiation by absorbing the UV
and decomposing: O
3

O
2
+ O
o Ozone has a coordinate covalent bond, that is to say, in one of
its covalent bonds, one oxygen provides both electrons
o Ozone forms when there is a high [NO
2
] from photochemical smog, as per
NO
2

NO + O, followed by O + O
2
O
3

If the ratio of NO
2
:NO < 0.3, then the reaction NO + O
3
NO
2
+ O
2

happens quickly, destroying O
3
and keeping its concentration low
27

Comparing Properties of Oxygen and Ozone
Properties O
2
O
3
Explanation
b.p. -183C -111C
O
3
has higher molecular mass, more
intermolecular force
m.p. -219C -193C As above
Density 1.1 g/cm
3
1.6g/cm
3
Same number of molecules per volume, O
3
has
more atoms, is heavier
Stability Very stable Easily decomposed O
3
coordinate covalent bond easily broken
Reactivity Moderately reactive Highly reactive As above
Properties of the Oxygen Free Radical
o O has 6 valence electrons, and is thus highly reactive
o Because O reacts to form O
2
in ionic lattices, they have specific properties:
Electric conductors when molten
Mostly insoluble in water
Soluble oxides react with water to form OH

(strong bases)
Isomers of Haloalkanes
o An isomer refers to two or more molecules with the same molecular formula
but differing structural formulas
o A haloalkane is a hydrocarbon which has at least one of its hydrogens
replaced with a halogen (F, Cl, Br, I)
o Isomers are numbered based on highest electronegativity (e.g. in
the haloalkane to the right, the left carbon is numbered one)
o Isomers are named alphabetically (excluding prefixes such as tri)
Thus, the molecule to the right is 2-chloro-1-fluoro-ethane
Electrolysis of Sodium Chloride
o Molten NaCl
Na
+
ions are attracted to the negative cathode, while Cl

ions are
attracted to the positive anode
Na
+
(aq)
+ e

Na
(s)

Cl

(aq)

Cl
2 (aq)
+ e

o Dilute NaCl
(aq)

There are two possible reactions at the anode:
1. 2H
2
O
(l)
O
2 (g)
+ 4H
+
(aq)
+ 4e

2. 2Cl

(aq)
Cl
2 (g)
+ 2e

There are two possible reactions at the cathode:
1. Na
+
(aq)
+ e

Na
(s)
:

2. 2H
2
O
(l)
+ 2e

H
2 (g)
+ 2OH

(aq)
:

Since the reaction with the more positive standard electrode potential
(E
0
) will occur, reaction 1 will occur at the anode and 2 at the cathode
The overall reaction is thus 6H
2
O
(l)
O
2 (g)
+ 2H
2 (g)
+ 4H
+
(aq)
+4OH

(aq)

Note: The 4H
+
and 4OH

will eventually neutralise, leaving

2H
2
O
(l)
O
2 (g)
+ 2H
2 (g)

o Concentrated NaCl
(aq)

Water is still reduced at the cathode instead of Na
+
ions, but because
of the high [Cl

], Cl

is being oxidised at the anode

Anode: 2Cl

(aq)
Cl
2 (g)
+ 2e

Cathode: 2H
2
O
(l)
+ 2e

H
2 (g)
+ 2OH

(aq)

28

The overall reaction is thus 2H
2
O
(l)
+ 2Cl

(aq)
Cl
2 (g)
+ H
2 (g)
+ 2OH

(aq)

o Concentrated NaCl
(aq)
with Hg
Anode: Cl

(aq)

Cl
2 (aq)
+ e

Cathode: Na
+
(aq)
+ e

Na
(s)

The net equation is thus Na
+
(aq)
+ Cl

(aq)

Cl
2 (aq)
+ Na
(s)

The Na
(s)
forms an amalgam with Hg
Saponification
o Saponification is the conversion of fats and oils in basic solution to produce
glycerol (1,2,3-propanetriol) and salts of fatty acids
o Animal fats and vegetable oils are esters known as triglycerides made from a
glycerol and fatty acids.
o Typically, fats contain mainly saturated fatty acids and are solid at room temp
while oils contain mainly unsaturated fatty acids and are liquid at room temp.
o The equation is shown here:
triglyceride + NaOH 1,2,3-propanetriol + sodium alkanoate (soap)
o This sodium alkanoate has a negatively
charged hydrophilic polar head
(OOCR) that dissolves in water and a
hydrophobic non-polar tail that
dissolves in grease/oil/dirt
o It works as in the diagram to the right
The small globule of oil is
called a micelle
o Both NaOH and KOH are used in
saponification
o There are several fats and oils used to
make soap, such as lard/pig fat and
olive oil
The Function of Soap
o Soap acts as a emulsifier, that is, it
allows an emulsion to form
Emulsion: A dispersion of
liquids in liquids that are
usually immiscible
o Soap also acts as a surfactant
Surfactant: A substance that
lowers the surface tension of
water, allowing it to spread out
without forming droplets and
wet surfaces evenly

29

Sodium Carbonate
o Sodium carbonate is a weakly basic salt, with many industrial uses, such as:
Manufacture of glass, ceramics, paper, sodium hydrogen carbonate
Refining of petroleum
Water softener in soaps and detergents
Removal of SO
2
from waste gases in power stations
Water treatment, precipitating out Ca
2+
and Mg
2+
ions
Introduction to the Solvay Process
o The Solvay process is the method of making sodium carbonate from the raw
materials of sodium chloride, ammonia and limestone (calcium carbonate)
o There are four steps: Brine purification, hydrogen carbonate formation,
formation of sodium carbonate and ammonia recovery.
These can be memorised with the following mnemonic: Both Paige
Hawkins and Corinne Fulford Failed Senior Chemistry and Are Raging
o The net equation is 2NaCl
(aq)
+ CaCO
3 (s)
Na
2
CO
3 (aq)
+ CaCl
2 (aq)

The Solvay Process
1. Brine purification
This is where impurities in collected ocean water (e.g. calcium and
magnesium salts) are precipitated out and removed, leaving behind
sodium chloride solution, which is concentrated to form brine.
Ca
2+
(aq)
+ CO
3
2
(aq)
CaCO
3 (s)

Mg
2+
(aq)
+ 2OH

(aq)
Mg(OH)
2 (s)

2. Hydrogen carbonate formation
Firstly, calcium carbonate is heated in a kiln.
CaCO
3 (s)
CO
2 (g)
+ CaO
(s)

Then, ammonia and carbon dioxide is added to the brine, forming
sodium hydrogen carbonate and ammonium chloride.
NaCl
(aq)
+ NH
3 (g)
+ H
2
O
(l)
+ CO
2 (g)
NH
4
Cl
(aq)
+ NaHCO
3 (aq)

3. Formation of sodium carbonate
The sodium hydrogen carbonate is heated until it decomposes.
2NaHCO
3 (s)
Na
2
CO
3 (s)
+ CO
2 (g)
+ H
2
O
(l)

The sodium carbonate is removed and sold while the CO
2
is reused.
4. Ammonia recovery
The calcium oxide from step 2 is first reacted with water.
CaO
(s)
+ H
2
O
(l)
Ca(OH)
2 (aq)

The ammonium chloride from step 2 is then reacted with the calcium
hydroxide.
2NH
4
Cl
(aq)
+ Ca(OH)
2 (aq)
2NH
3 (aq)
+ CaCl
2 (aq)
+ 2H
2
O
(l)

The ammonia is reused, but most of the CaCl
2
is discarded as waste.
Issues with the Solvay Process
o The Solvay process produces a large amount of waste calcium chloride, which
can result in environmental issues.
o However, it can be safely dumped into the ocean as it does not significantly
increase the concentrations of Ca
2+
or Cl

.
o There are also the associated problems with mining (limestone), potential
ammonia loss (NH
3
is an atmospheric pollutant) and thermal pollution

30

The Diagram for the Solvay Process
o The full process can be seen here:
Factors Affecting Plant Location for the Solvay Process
o Availability of raw materials
o Availability of sufficient energy
o Location of markets for sale of product
o Availability of labour
o Suitability of sites for waste disposal
o Environmental controls on discharge to air and water
Bromine Water
o Cyclohexane and cyclohexene were added to the same quantity of bromine
water.
o Only in the beaker where cyclohexene was added did the bromine water
react and lose its colour
o This is because alkenes are more reactive than alkanes.
Chemical Occupations
o Environmental Chemists
These people analyse and assess environmental data in order to
provide information on air, water, and soil quality
o Organic Chemists
These people study the structure, properties and reactions of organic
(carbon) compounds
o Inorganic Chemists
These people study the structure, properties and reactions of all
chemical compounds excluding organic compounds
o Analytical Chemists
These people examine the chemical makeup of substances in terms of
structure composition and nature.
They also study the relations and interactions of different compounds.

31

Analytical Plant Chemist in the Production of Polyethylene
o These people examine and identify the chemical makeup of substances e.g.
ethylene and alkanes, in order to monitor quality.
o They have several roles, including:
Monitoring the quality of ethylene product
Monitoring of waste water for environmental requirements
Collaboration with engineers to ensure an optimised yield
o One chemical principle the chemist uses is a test of density.
This density test is used to indicate the amount of branching, and if
the polyethene is of the desired quality and type (low or high density)