ELECTRONICS & POWER SEPTEMBER 1987 573

Distributed control
systems
Distributed control systems for industrial
automation have been available since the
mid-1970s, and originally programmable electronics
was used to realise the functions previously done
with relays or hard-wired electronics. Newer
systems use more efficient programming methods,
and greater emphasis is laid on user friendliness
and flexibility
by Thomas Pauly
The concept of 'instrumentation'
originates from the time when the
operator controlled the process
manually, using instruments
directly connected to the process.
From the beginning, automation
implied the closing of individual
loops with mechanical, hydraulic or
pneumatic controllers. During the
1950s and 1960s electronic process
controllers were developed, with
each controller realising a single
loop. The front panel of such a con-
troller included displays for actual
and set-point values, and controls
for manually adjusting values.
Electronic controllers made it
easier to connect a computer for co-
ordinating several loops, and the
computer could also be used for
process optimisation. The instru-
mentation systems of the type with
which we are familiar today were
developed in the mid 1970s. These
systems were built up from process
stations handling multiple loops,
and operator workstations com-
municating via a data highway.
Operator workstations using colour
visual display units (VDUs) replaced
the ubiquitous front panel, and
more advanced functions were inte-
grated into the operator stations.
As process stations were gener-
ally very limited in the storage of
historical data and calculating abil-
IEE.1987
ity etc., such functions necessitated
the use of general-purpose comput-
ers connected via a data highway.
PLC system
Programmable logic controllers
(PLCs), introduced in the early
1970s, were developed as replace-
ments for relay systems and hence
were limited to Boolean functions;
simple calculations and monitoring
of analogue limit values etc. were
added later. Towards the end of the
1970s, communication facilities and
operator workstations were added
to PLC systems, similar to. instru-
mentation systems. Like these,
PLCs lacked functions for advanced
control and calculations. Again such
functions were provided by a separ-
ate computer connected to the data
highway.
Integration of
instrumentation and PLC
systems
The traditional way to integrate
instrumentation and PLC functions
is to interconnect a system of each
kind by means of an interface unit
(Fig.l). The instrumentation system
is usually on a higher level, since it
has more advanced operator and
calculation functions. This method
of integration has several disadvan-
tages, besides the obvious one of
several different suppliers:
the operator must use different
screens for each function
alarms must be acknowledged in
both systems
different programming languages
and documentation methods
interlock signals are needed
between the systems.
Certain suppliers offer both instru-
mentation and PLC systems; and
we can see a general effort to
integrate the different products by
allowing them to communicate via
the same highway. From the func-
tional viewpoint, however, the two
systems are still different, since
they have to be compatible with
earlier systems.
SCADA systems
SCADA is an acronym for Super-
visory Control And Data Acquisition
and comes from telemetry applica-
tions, where simple local units
acquire and transmit data to the
central processor. Such systems are
primarily intended for supervision
and manual control. In the SCADA
system, the central computer con-
tains the database describing the
entire process, and is kept updated
via slow communication links from
the remote units, imposing special
demands on the communication
574 ELECTRONICS & POWER SEPTEMBER 1987
prod, plan
optimisations
management
etc.
*'"-""*
:
''
1 The traditional way of interconnecting instrumentation and PLC functions is via a specially programmed interface
unit, or gateway
protocols to ensure an acceptable
transmission efficiency. Most
SCADA systems provide communi-
cation with instrumentation and
PLC systems via interface units con-
nected to the data highway, but
there is still the need for a higher-
level computer for the functions that
cannot be accomplished in the
instrumentation and PLC systems.
A new system concept
A modern, integrated automation
system combines instrumentation
and PLC functions, and the super-
visory functions of the SCADA
system: ASEA Master is an exam-
ple of such a system. A system of
this kind is built around a local area
network (LAN) (Fig.2). The principle
of a data highway is that a certain
memory area is reflected from one
station to another. In the LAN it is a
matter of messages being transmit-
ted between functions in the com-
municating stations; a local area
network consequently offers more
scope when the system contains
many different functions.
The integrated system is divided
into process stations and operator
workstations. The database, which
may be considered as a description
of the process and its status, is fully
distributed across the process
stations the entire control func-
tion is also located in the process
station. Operator workstations con-
trol only the presentation of infor-
mation, and they must access the
process stations directly via the
LAN for the real-time data. The pro-
cess station can handle both logic
and regulatory control, thus avoid-
ing the disadvantages associated
with two different systems.
It is possible to perform advanced
calculations in the process station
which require a special computing
station in traditional systems. Joint
control of different parts of a pro-
cess can be programmed in the pro-
cess stations, irrespective of
whether the process parts are con-
trolled by the same or different
stations, as the process stations uti-
lise the LAN to exchange informa-
tion. A minicomputer may be con-
nected to the local area network,
generally via a gateway, to handle
more long-term information, and to
perform production control and opti-
misation.
As the communication system is
isolated from the application soft-
ware by the LAN, it is possible to
expand or modify the existing com-
munication network, and even to
upgrade it by adding new com-
munication systems (e.g. MAP)
without affecting application soft-
ware. In addition, the system can
be expanded step by step from sim-
ple machine control to complete
automation of an entire factory by
the subsequent" addition of further
nodes on the LAN.
The system utilises symbolic
addressing of the distributed data-
bases, such that measuring points,
controllers etc. are identified by
names. The system itself translates
the names into physical addresses
(i.e. station and database
addresses) and the user is not
involved with cross-reference
tables.
Suppliers of traditional instrumen-
tation or PLC systems are faced
with the difficulty of introducing
more advanced processing because
of the need for compatibility with
earlier systems. Fig.3 illustrates one
way of solving this conflict. The old
system continues to be the actual
control system, possibly supple-
mented by a local operator work-
station. The new system communi-
cates with the old via a special
access station which includes a pro-
cess database that is cyclically
updated from the process stations.
All differences between the old and
the new system are reconciled here,
e.g. the translation of physical
addresses into symbolic ones, but
the user is obliged to build the
cross-referencing database into the
access station.
Process stations: The following
functions are typical of those
included in a process station within
an integrated automation system:
logic and sequential control
closed-loop control, including
self-tuning adaptive control
calculations and process optimi-
sation
alarm/event recording; logging of
measured values
man-machine communication in
the form of traditional panels and
VDUs.
The application programming is
done in a high-level language using
function elements in a graphic rep-
resentation, with automatic docu-
mentation.
Function block language: The
application software for one such
ELECTRONICS & POWER SEPTEMBER 1987 575
typical system is programmed with
a function block language called
ASEA MasterPiece Language
(AMPL). A special feature of this
language is that each function is
treated as a black box that is, an
element, with inputs and outputs.
Such an element may have a simple
function; e.g. a logic AND function,
or a complex one, namely a com-
plete PID controller. The inputs and
outputs of an element may be con-
nected to the inputs and outputs of
other elements, or to the process
I/O; this simple connection activity
constitutes the 'programming' and
is done graphically using a pro-
gramming terminal. The resulting
AMPL program may be automatic-
ally documented in graphical form.
In addition to function elements,
the language includes a number of
structure elements allowing the
application program to be sub-
divided into convenient modules, to
ease commissioning and fault find-
ing. The following example illus-
trates how such a high-level lan-
guage can achieve a simple, power-
ful solution to a problem, where the
solution in ladder diagram would be
considerably more complex. A num-
ber of change-over switches are to
be used for manual operation, but
only one operation at a time may be
performed. The program has to
ensure that manual operation is
only possible when the signal
'manual' is active. In addition, it
has to prevent more than one opera-
tion being performed simultane-
ously. Fig. 4 shows the solution. The
signal 'manual' is the execution
condition for the entire module.
Because the inverse of this signal is
connected to the reset input of the
module, none of the module outputs
will be active when 'manual' is
inactive.
The different change-over
switches are connected to a conver-
sion element which converts one of
16 lines to the equivalent integer. If
more than one input to this element
is active, the element generates a
fault signal. The integer passes to a
demultiplexing element which con-
verts it back to one of 16 lines, and
the fault signal is connected to the
reset input of this element. Thus,
when more than one of the inputs
to the first element is active, all the
outputs of the other element will be
held at zero.
Closed-loop control: AMPL also
has very powerful closed-loop con-
trol functions. The PID controller
element PIDCON, for example,
includes:
several control modes, and tun-
able parameters
cascade inputs
tracking functions for smooth
transition between control modes
direct manual control of the out-
put signal
2 A modern, integrated automation system combines instrumentation, PLC
and SCADA functions. Nodes of the system are connected via a LAN
detection of limit values and
handling of events
powerful presentation and dia-
logue at the operator workstation.
In process-control systems, compen-
sation of simple nonlinearities in
actuator signals, such as squaring,
square root, logarithms etc., is com-
monly required; complex nonlinear-
ities require comprehensive calcula-
tions to obtain a polynomial approx-
imation of the desired function. The
function-generator element (FUNG)
easily solves this problem in AMPL
by providing a function of one or
two input signals with the aid of a
break-point table. The desired func-
tion is approximated to a partly lin-
ear function, and the break points
are entered in tabular form. Up to
255 points can be specified, and the
function element carries out linear
interpolation between break points.
FUNG may also be used to compen-
sate for nonlinearities in the process
dynamics; the values of the control
parameters are set in accordance
with the measured value from the
process so-called gain schedul-
ing.
As a further example of a complex
function that is available as a single
element, the Self-Tuning Adaptive
Regulator (STAR element) can be
used for the troublesome control
tasks. This controller continually
adjusts to changing process dynam-
ics, which may be due to the age-
ing of the process equipment for
instance. The STAR element incor-
porates dead-time compensation
3 The differences between the old and new system are resolved in an access
station whose database must be built by the user
576 ELECTRONICS & POWER SEPTEMBER 1987
4 This simple but powerful AMPL solution to a problem would be considerably more complex using, for example,
ladder logic
and feedforward, so that the con-
troller can take account of process
disturbances without knowing
exactly what form the influence
takes; i.e. the controller teaches
itself.
Operator workstations: The opera-
tor workstation represents the 'eyes
and hands' needed to monitor and
control a process. The following are
the basic requirements in an opera-
tor workstation using colour VDUs:
user configured process displays,
standard list displays, trend
curves and reports
efficient, simple, operator dia-
logue for control of plant
clear alarm/event presentation
on-line construction of displays.
It is important that VDU information
is structured in such a way that the
operator can quickly find a particu-
lar display. This may be done in
several ways; e.g. with menus,
direct selection keys or by arranging
the displays in a hierarchy. In the
ASEA Master System, for example,
the operator uses menus and direct
selection keys; in addition, the user
can define the display hierarchy
online. In this way, the operator can
create links from a single process
display to up to ten other displays.
Manual control: Manual control
means that the operator can influ-
ence the automatic process control,
either by altering process conditions
(parameters, set points etc.) or by
changing to the manual mode and
thus overriding automatic control by
the system. Where several operator
stations are required, it is important
that a selection mechanism exists
to prevent several operators actuat-
ing an object simultaneously, and to
ensure that the status of the object
(operating mode, any blocking etc.)
is always available at all work-
stations.
Also, it is equally important that
the operator is not stressed by
unnecessary alarms due to a
sequence of faults, or to faults in
process parts that are shut down or
being started up. In ASEA Master,
alarms are detected in the process
station, and may be blocked either
manually from the operator stations
or automatically by AMPL programs
in the process stations.
Expansion capability: The inte-
grated system must allow the user
to introduce automation on a small
scale, and then enlarge step by step
to give complete automation. It is
common to start by automating
subprocesses or individual
machines, and then to combine the
different systems via a communica-
tion link and add joint control func-
tions and a central control room. A
gradual expansion must be possible
without existing stations having to
be modified in any respect, apart
from the additions that have to be
made for the connection of, and the
exchange of information with, the
new stations.
A new ASEA Master station con-
nected to MasterBus is automatic-
ally included in the bus communica-
tion. Any symbolic addresses referr-
ing to the new station are auto-
matically resolved after the connec-
tion. The user need only supple-
ment existing stations with the
application software needed to
interact with the new station; e.g.
new displays or AMPL programs for
joint control.
Development trends
Industrial control systems will
continue to be developed to meet
market requirements and to exploit
the opportunities offered by modern
microprocessors. Key words in this
development are integration, pro-
gramming with functional lan-
guages, globally available data-
bases, and openness to interfacing
with other systems and communica-
tion standards. Increasing import-
ance will be attached to the life-
cycle costs of a control system,
where the costs of programming,
installation, commissioning, main-
tenance and future modifications
and expansions are taken into
account.
Thomas Pauly is with ASEA Automation AB, Vasteras, Sweden