A complex number is a number that can be expressed in the form a + bi, where a and b are real

numbers and i is the imaginary unit, which satisfies the equation i

2
= 1.
[1]
In this expression, a is
the real part and b is the imaginary part of the complex number. Complex numbers extend the
concept of the one-dimensional number line to the two-dimensional complex plane (also called
Argand plane) by using the horizontal axis for the real part and the vertical axis for the imaginary
part. The complex number a + bi can be identified with the point(a,b) in the complex plane. A
complex number whose real part is zero is said to be purely imaginary, whereas a complex number
whose imaginary part is zero is a real number. In this way, the complex numbers contain the
ordinary real numbers while extending them in order to solve problems that cannot be solved with
real numbers alone.
As well as their use within mathematics, complex numbers have practical applications in many fields,
including physics, chemistry, biology,economics, electrical engineering, and statistics. The Italian
mathematician Gerolamo Cardano is the first known to have introduced complex numbers. He called
them "fictitious" during his attempts to find solutions to cubic equations in the 16th century.
[2]

Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
o 1.1 Definition
o 1.2 Notation
o 1.3 Complex plane
o 1.4 History in brief
2 Relations
o 2.1 Equality
o 2.2 Ordering
3 Elementary operations
o 3.1 Conjugation
o 3.2 Addition and subtraction
o 3.3 Multiplication and division
o 3.4 Square root
4 Polar form
o 4.1 Absolute value and argument
o 4.2 Multiplication and division in polar form
5 Exponentiation
o 5.1 Euler's formula
o 5.2 Natural logarithm
o 5.3 Integer and fractional exponents
6 Properties
o 6.1 Field structure
o 6.2 Solutions of polynomial equations
o 6.3 Algebraic characterization
o 6.4 Characterization as a topological field
7 Formal construction
o 7.1 Formal development
o 7.2 Matrix representation of complex numbers
8 Complex analysis
o 8.1 Complex exponential and related functions
o 8.2 Holomorphic functions
9 Applications
o 9.1 Control theory
o 9.2 Improper integrals
o 9.3 Fluid dynamics
o 9.4 Dynamic equations
o 9.5 Electromagnetism and electrical engineering
o 9.6 Signal analysis
o 9.7 Quantum mechanics
o 9.8 Relativity
o 9.9 Geometry
9.9.1 Fractals
9.9.2 Triangles
o 9.10 Algebraic number theory
o 9.11 Analytic number theory
10 History
11 Generalizations and related notions
12 See also
13 Notes
14 References
o 14.1 Mathematical references
o 14.2 Historical references
15 Further reading
16 External links
Overview[edit]
Complex numbers allow for solutions to certain equations that have no solutions in real numbers.
For example, the equation

has no real solution, since the square of a real number cannot be negative. Complex numbers
provide a solution to this problem. The idea is to extend the real numbers with theimaginary
unit i where i
2
= 1, so that solutions to equations like the preceding one can be found. In this
case the solutions are 1 + 3i and 1 3i, as can be verified using the fact that i
2
= 1:


In fact not only quadratic equations, but all polynomial equations with real or complex
coefficients in a single variable have a solution in complex numbers.
Definition[edit]


An illustration of thecomplex plane. The real part of a complex numberz = x + iy is x, and its
imaginary part is y.
A complex number is a number of the form a + bi, where a and b are real
numbers and i is an imaginary unit, satisfying i
2
= 1. For example,3.5 + 2i is a
complex number.
The real number a is called the real part of the complex number a + bi; the real
number b is called the imaginary part of a + bi. By this convention the imaginary part
does not include the imaginary unit: hence b, not bi, is the imaginary part.
[3][4]
The real
part of a complex number z is denoted by Re(z) or (z); the imaginary part of a
complex number z is denoted by Im(z) or (z). For example,

Hence, in terms of its real and imaginary parts, a complex number z is equal
to . This expression is sometimes known as the Cartesian
form of z.
A real number a can be regarded as a complex number a + 0i whose imaginary
part is 0. A purely imaginary number bi is a complex number0 + bi whose real part
is zero. It is common to write a for a + 0i and bi for 0 + bi. Moreover, when the
imaginary part is negative, it is common to write a bi with b > 0 instead of a +
(b)i, for example 3 4i instead of 3 + (4)i.
The set of all complex numbers is denoted by , or .
Notation[edit]
Some authors write a + ib instead of a + bi. In some disciplines, in
particular electromagnetism and electrical engineering, j is used instead
of i,
[5]
since i is frequently used forelectric current. In these cases complex numbers
are written as a + bj or a + jb.
Complex plane[edit]
Main article: Complex plane


Figure 1: A complex number plotted as a point (red) and position vector (blue) on anArgand
diagram; is therectangular expression of the point.
A complex number can be viewed as a point or position vector in a two-
dimensional Cartesian coordinate system called the complex plane or Argand
diagram (see Pedoe 1988 and Solomentsev 2001), named after Jean-Robert
Argand. The numbers are conventionally plotted using the real part as the horizontal
component, and imaginary part as vertical (see Figure 1). These two values used to
identify a given complex number are therefore called its Cartesian, rectangular,
or algebraic form.
A position vector may also be defined in terms of its magnitude and direction
relative to the origin. These are emphasized in a complex number'spolar form.
Using the polar form of the complex number in calculations may lead to a more
intuitive interpretation of mathematical results. Notably, the operations of addition
and multiplication take on a very natural geometric character when complex
numbers are viewed as position vectors: addition corresponds to vector addition
while multiplication corresponds to multiplying their magnitudes and adding their
arguments (i.e. the angles they make with the x axis). Viewed in this way the
multiplication of a complex number by i corresponds to rotating the position
vectorcounterclockwise by a quarter turn (90) about the
origin: .
History in brief[edit]
Main section: History
The solution in radicals (without trigonometric functions) of a general cubic
equation contains the square roots of negative numbers when all three roots are
real numbers, a situation that cannot be rectified by factoring aided by
the rational root test if the cubic is irreducible (the so-called casus irreducibilis).
This conundrum led Italian mathematicianGerolamo Cardano to conceive of
complex numbers in around 1545, though his understanding was rudimentary.
Work on the problem of general polynomials ultimately led to the fundamental
theorem of algebra, which shows that with complex numbers, a solution exists
to every polynomialequation of degree one or higher. Complex numbers thus
form an algebraically closed field, where any polynomial equation has a root.
Many mathematicians contributed to the full development of complex numbers.
The rules for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of complex
numbers were developed by the Italian mathematician Rafael Bombelli.
[6]
A
more abstract formalism for the complex numbers was further developed by the
Irish mathematician William Rowan Hamilton, who extended this abstraction to
the theory of quaternions.
Relations[edit]
Equality[edit]
Two complex numbers are equal if and only if both their real and imaginary
parts are equal. In symbols:

Ordering[edit]
Because complex numbers are naturally thought of as existing on a two-
dimensional plane, there is no natural linear ordering on the set of complex
numbers.
[7]

There is no linear ordering on the complex numbers that is compatible with
addition and multiplication. Formally, we say that the complex numbers
cannot have the structure of anordered field. This is because any square in
an ordered field is at least 0, but i
2
= -1.
Elementary operations[edit]
Conjugation[edit]
Main article: Complex conjugate


Geometric representation of z and its conjugate in the complex plane
The complex conjugate of the complex number z = x + yi is defined to
be x yi. It is denoted or z*.
Formally, for any complex number z:

Geometrically, is the "reflection" of z about the real axis. In particular,
conjugating twice gives the original complex number: .
The real and imaginary parts of a complex number z can be extracted
using the conjugate:


Moreover, a complex number is real if and only if it equals its
conjugate.
Conjugation distributes over the standard arithmetic operations:




The reciprocal of a nonzero complex
number z = x + yi is given by

This formula can be used to compute the
multiplicative inverse of a complex number
if it is given in rectangular
coordinates. Inversive geometry, a branch
of geometry studying reflections more
general than ones about a line, can also
be expressed in terms of complex
numbers.
Addition and subtraction[edit]


Addition of two complex numbers can be
done geometrically by constructing a
parallelogram.
Complex numbers are added by adding
the real and imaginary parts of the
summands. That is to say:

Similarly, subtraction is defined by

Using the visualization of complex
numbers in the complex plane, the
addition has the following
geometric interpretation: the sum
of two complex numbers A and B,
interpreted as points of the
complex plane, is the
point X obtained by building
a parallelogram three of whose
vertices are O, A and B.
Equivalently, X is the point such
that the triangles with
vertices O, A, B, and X, B, A,
are congruent.
Multiplication and
division[edit]
The multiplication of two complex
numbers is defined by the
following formula:

In particular, the square of the
imaginary unit is 1:

The preceding definition
of multiplication of general
complex numbers follows
naturally from this
fundamental property of
the imaginary unit.
Indeed, if i is treated as a
number so
that di means d times i,
the above multiplication
rule is identical to the
usual rule for multiplying
two sums of two terms.
(distributive law)
(commutative law of additionthe order of the summands
can be changed)
(commutative and distributive laws)
(fundamental property of the imaginary unit).
The division of two
complex numbers is
defined in terms of
complex
multiplication, which
is described above,
and real division.
Where at least one
of c and d is non-
zero:

Division can be
defined in this
way because of
the following
observation:

As shown
earlier, c di
is the
complex
conjugate of
the
denominator
c + di. The
real
part c and the
imaginary
part d of
the denomina
tor must not
both be zero
for division to
be defined.
Square
root[edit]
See
also: Square
roots of
negative and
complex
numbers
The square
roots
of a + bi (wit
h b 0)
are
,
where

and

wher
e sgn
is
the si
gnum
funct
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This
can
be
seen
by
squar
ing
to
obtai
n a +
bi.
[8][
9]
Her
e
is
calle
d
the m
odulu
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+ bi
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squar
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calle
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rinci
pal
squa
re
root;
also
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wher
e
.
[10]

Pol
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for
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Main
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coord
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syste
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Fi
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Ab
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edit]
An
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This section does
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reliable sources.
Unsourced material may
be challenged
and removed. (June 2013)
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