RUN OFF

The term runoff is used for water that is on the run

or in a flowing state in contrast to the water
held in depression and water stored in the
atmosphere. The runoff expressed as cm of
water over a catchment ar the total water in
cubic-metre or hecatre-metre for given
catchment.
Runoff is broadly classified into three types
a) Surface runoff b) Sub-surface runoff c) Base
flow
Rain disposed off in the following manner a) Basin
recharge b) Direct runoff c) percolation down
to groundwater d) Evaporation and
transpiration
FACTORS AFFECTING RUNOFF
1. Precipitation characteristics
2. Shape and size of the catchment
3. Topography
4. Geological characteristics
5. Meterological characteristics
6. Character of the catchment surface
7. Storage characteristics
Groundwater
Groundwater is water, which originates from the infiltration of fluids through the
soil profile and accumulates below the earth's surface in a porous layer.
Porosity is the percentage of open void space in the subsurface material. It is
expressed as a percent.
Permeability is how readily a fluid can flow through a material. Often referred to
as "connected pore space". The property of porous material which permit the
passage of water through interconnecting voids.\
Transmissibility:
Pieziometric surface is the surface in which water is pushed up to by the
pressure below.
Spring is where water flows out without the aid of pumping. It may be caused by
hydrostatic pressure (pressure pushing upward), or the intersection of the
pieziometric surface with the ground surface. Also referred to as an Artesian
System.
An aquifer may be defined as formation that contains sufficient
saturated permeable material to yield significant quantities of
water to wells and springs. This implies an ability to store and
to transmit water E.g Unconsolidated sand and gravels .
Aquiclude A saturated but relatively impermeable material that
does not yield appreciable quantities of water to wells E.g
Clay.
Aquifuge : A relatively impermeable formation neither containing
nor transmitting water E.g. Solid granite.
Aquitard : A saturated but poorly permeable that does not yield
water freely to wells but transmit appreciable water to or
from adjacent aquifers.
Unconfined or artesian aquifer: The top most water
bearing having no confined impermeable over burden (i.e
aquiclude ) lying over it is known as unconsolidated
aquifer or non artesian aquifer.
Confined aquifer or artesian aquifer : When an aquifer is
confined on its upper and undersurface by impervious
formations (i.e aquicludes) and is broadly inclined so as
to expose the aquifer somewhere to the catchment area
at higher level for creation of sufficient hydraulic head it is
called a confined aquifer or an artesian aquifer.
Perched aquifer: It is a special case which some times
occur within an unconfined aquifer. If within zone of
saturation an impervious deposit below a pervious deposit
is found to support a body of saturated material then this
body of saturated material which is a kind of aquifer is
known as perched aquifer.
Flowing or Artesian Well Development
An aquiclude is a unit of rock or layer of rock, which is impermeable to fluids. It acts as a
barrier to fluid flow. There probably are no true aquicludes.
There are two (2) scenarios that may occur with aquifers:
1. Confined Aquifer -- when an aquifer is bounded by two (2) aquitards (one above and
one below)
2. Unconfined Aquifer -- when an aquifer is not bounded on the surface side by an
aquitard so that fluids may flow freely above the aquifer.
The distribution of groundwater is present in several distinct layers or zones:
a. Soil moisture zone -- usually top soil; much infiltration; much organic material
b. Zone of aeration (Vadose Zone) -- mostly air but some interstitial water
c. Capillary fringe -- transition between unsaturated and saturated zone; top of aquifer
d. Zone of saturation (Phreatic Zone) -- pores completely saturated with water; main
aquifer storage zone
Where does water in the ground originate?
Hydrologic Cycle explains the origin of groundwater.
Depicts the occurrence and movement of water in the earth-atmosphere system.
Water enters the GW system at recharge areas.
Water leaves GW system at discharge areas.
Occurrence of water
1. 97% of all water on earth is in oceans.
2. ~ 2% of the earth's water in ice caps & glaciers
3. About 0.6% of earth's water is groundwater
Water in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere amounts to less than
0.02% of earth's water
Movement of Water
Atmosphere to surface: precipitation
Surface to atmosphere: evaporation -- liquid to vapor
Sublimation -- solid to vapor
Transpiration -- release of water vapor by plants
On surface: downslope movement to lakes, streams, and oceans
Below surface: movement of groundwater
If GW seeps into stream, stream is a gaining stream.
If water seeps from stream into subsurface, it is a losing stream.
Precipitation
Runoff
Precipitation
Evaporation
Infiltration
Hydrologic Cycle
In areas in which soluble rock (i.e., limestone) is present in the layer near the
groundwater, a situation often develops that is characterized by rock layer
dissolving. This is referred to as karst topography.
Indiana, Kentucky, and Georgia are areas in which karst topography may develop.
The area is characterized by:
a. Soluble bedrock near the surface
b. Disappearing streams that feed downward with no end on the surface
c. Sinkholes
d. Patchy, pockmarked surface topography
e. Frequent fluctuations in water table
f. Caves
g. Submerged caves
Caves are formed by the dissolving nature of the rock fed by groundwater. Large
cavities develop as well as solid drops of rock that precipitate from the
groundwater solution.
Those overhead are called stalactites (stick tight to the ceiling) and those that
build up from the ground floor are termed stalagmites (with a ''g'').
There are several problems, which can develop, associated with the lowering of
the groundwater surface due to overuse/over pumping:
1. Cone of depression develops
2. Lowering of the pieziometric surface, thus wells dry up
3. Saltwater incursion/intrusion if near an ocean
Groundwater Contamination
Contamination results in a decline in water quality.
Common contaminants:
Types Sources
Nitrates Sewage, Fertilizers, Feedlots
Pesticides, herbicides Agriculture, lawn care
Organic chemicals Industrial wastes, landfills, spills/leaks of fuels
Metals Industrial processes
Brines Oil production
Protecting groundwater resources
Apply agricultural chemicals properly
Build better landfills
Regulate disposal of hazardous materials
Regulate underground storage tanks (USTs)
Limit contaminant levels in drinking water supplies.
Cone of Depression Development
Development of Contamination in Groundwater
Charbeneau, 2000.
porosity
Figure 15.1