Mga Kontinente at ang kani-kanilang hangganan (Continents and there boundaries)

Ang Antartiko
[1]
(Ingles: Antarctica, mula Griyego , salungat ng Artiko) ay isangkontinente na
pinapalibutan ng Katimugang Dulo ng Daigdig. Ito ang pinakamalamig ng lugar sa daigdig at halos
natatakluban ng yelo ang kabuuan nito. Hindi dapat ipagkamali sa Artiko, na matatagpuan sa salungat na
bahagi ng planeta na malapit sa Hilagang Dulo ng Mundo.

Ang Timog Amerika ay isang kontinente na matatagpuan sa Kanlurang Hemispiro sa pagitan ng mga
karagatang Pasipiko at Atlantiko.
Kadalasang tinutukoy bilang kabilang sa Amerika, katulad ng Hilagang Amerika, pinangalan ang Timog
Amerika kay Amerigo Vespucci, na ang unang Europeo na nagmungkahi na ang Amerika ay hindi ang
Silangang Indies, ngunit isang hindi pa natutuklasang Bagong Mundo.

Ang Hilagang America ay isang kontinente sa hilagang hemisperyo ng Daigdig at halos na nasakanlurang
hemisperyo. Napapaligiran ito ng Karagatang Artiko sa hilaga, Hilagang Karagatang Atlantiko sa silangan,
Dagat Caribbean sa timog-silangan, at Hilagang Karagatang Pasipiko sa timog at kanluran.

Ang Komonwelt ng Australiya o Australiya
[1][2]
(Kastila: Australia) ay ang ikaanim na pinakamalaking
bansa sa mundo, ang kaisa-isang bansa na sumasakop sa isang kontinente, at ang pinakamalaki sa
rehiyon ng Australasia/Oceania.

Ang Aprika
[2]
(Ingles: Africa), ang pangalawang pinakamalaking kontinente sa daigdig at pangalawa sa
pinakamataong populasyon pagkatapos ng Asya.

Ang Europa o Yuropa (Pranses at Inggles: Europe) ay isang kontinente na bumubuo ng kanlurang bahagi
ng superkontinente ng Eurasia. Pinalilubutan ang Europa ng Karagatang Artiko sa hilaga, ngKaragatang
Atlantiko sa kanluran, ng Dagat Mediteraneo at Dagat Itim sa timog, at ng Kabundukang Ural sa silangan.

Ang Asya (Inggles: Asia) ay ang isa sa mga lupalop ng mundo. Ang Asya ang may pinakamalaking
bahagdan ng populasyon at sa lawak ng lupa, ang 8.6% ng mundo ay ang Asya. Sa kanluran ng Asya
matatagpuan ang kontinente ng Europa, sa timog-kanluran naman ang Aprika.

Ang Asya ang pinakamalaking kontinente at sumasaklaw sa humigit-kumulang na ikatlong bahagi ng
mundo. May sukat itong 43,810,582 km o 17,159,995 milya kuwadrado (mi
2
). Ito ay nahihiwalay
saEuropa sa pamamagitan ng isang makinaryang libu-libong linya and dumadaan buhat sa Bundok Ural
patungong Dagat Caspian, Bulubundukin ng Caucasus at sa Dagat Itim (Black Sea). Ang hangganang
naghahati sa Africa at Asya ay ang Suez Canal at ang hangganan sa pagitan ng Hilagang Amerika At Asya
ay ang Bering Strait. Sa hilaga ng Asya ay ang Karagatang Artiko at sa timog nito, angKaragatang Indian.
Ang Karagatang Pasipiko ang nasa silangan ng Asya at sa kanluran nito matatagpuan ang Bundok Ural,
Dagat Caspian, Dagat Itim at Dagat Egeo.

Ang kontinenteng ito ay ang pinakamalaking lupalop sa buong mundo at tinaguriang isa sa pinagsibulan
ng mga dakilang Kabihasnan na nagpabago at humubog sa kaisipan at paniniwala ng mga tao sa daigdig
nating ito.Ilan sa mga kilalang kabihasnan na nagmula dito sa Asya ay angkabihasnang Tsina, India,
Mesopotamia, Persia at kabihasnang Armaiko na may dalawang sangay-ang Israel at arabo. Sa Asya rin
matatagpuan ang Karagatang Indian, Dagat Timog Tsina (ang pinakamalaking dagat sa mundo),
Karagatang Pasipiko at Karagatang Artiko. Ang Europa ang kadikit nitong continente na pinaghiwalay
lang ng mga hangganan ng kabundukan ng URAL, Dagat ng caspia,Itim na dagat at ng kabundukan ng
Cawkasus. Ang Suez Canal naman ang siyang hangganan nito bago dumating sa bansangEhipto ng
kontinenteng Aprika. Sa dami ng mga pangkat ng lahi ng mga tao, ang Asya pa rin ang nangunguna at
patuloy na yumayabong sa paglabas nito patungo sa iba pang mga bansa at pagdagsa din dito ng mga
ibang lahi ng tao mula sa kontinente ng Europa, Amerika at Afrika.

Saan matatagpuang kontinente ang mga sumusunod:

!.) AFRICA
a.Sahara Desserts
b.Nile River
c. Egypt

2.) NOTHERN AMERICA
a. Hutson Bay
b. Appalachian
c. Rocky Mountain

3.) SOUTH AMERICA
a. Andes Mountain
b. Cape Horn
c. Argentina

4.) ASIA
a. K2 Mountain
b. Lhotse Mountain
c. Tibet Mountain

5.) AUSTRALIA
a. Kangaroo
b. Tasmanian Devil
c. Micronesia

6.) EUROPA (Yuropa)
a. Iberian Peninsula
b. Balkan
c. Haly
Jan Myka Mamawan
Science-9


Diseases in the Circulatory System

Angina
Angina is commonly referred to as chest pain in layman terms and referred to as the sharp and shooting
pain that is severe in intensity and develop when the blood supply to the heart muscles is altered as a
result of ischemia. The pain is usually felt to the left of sternum or in epigastrium and radiates to neck,
arms, and back (especially concentrated at the scapular region). It may persist up to 5-15 min. The
patients should be taken immediately to the hospital as it is usually a warning sign of impending heart
attack. It is usually relieved by rest, nitroglycerin and oxygen administration.
Cardiomyopathy
Cardiomyopathy is the disease of the heart muscles that may lead to enlarged, thick or rigid heart
muscles. It can be acquired or inherited in nature and causes weakening of the heart muscles especially
of the ventricles. If left untreated; it may spreads to involve upper chambers of heart. As
cardiomyopathy worsens it can cause scarring and weakening of the heart muscles resulting
in congestive heart failure and even death.
Rheumatic Heart Disease
It is an inflammatory condition that mainly involves cardiac valves as a result of chronic history of
untreated or poorly managed rheumatic fever. The condition is mainly associated with strep-throat
infection that may lead to obstruction of the heart valves or insufficiency as a result of auto-immune
destruction.
Arrhythmia
An arrhythmia is an abnormal rate or rhythm of the heartbeat. It can beat too fast, too slow, or with an
irregular rhythm. If the heart beat is fast it is called as tachycardia and if is too slow, it is referred to as
bradycardia. Generally mild arrhythmias are harmless, but if left poorly managed, the rhythm
abnormalities may prove life threatening.
Congenital Heart Defects
Congenital heart defects are abnormalities in the morphological or physiological functioning of the heart
that are present at the time of birth. The primary cause is the incomplete or abnormal development of
the fetal heart during the early weeks of pregnancy. The exact aetiology is unknown but it can be
associated with genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome or use of certain drugs by pregnant mommy
during pregnancy. It is not possible to prevent congenital heart defect but there are many treatments to
manage the cardiac defects early in the neonatal period to prevent complications.
Vascular Diseases
Vascular diseases are referred to as disorders of blood vessels.

Diseases in the Respiratory System
Term Definition Cause Effect (Symptoms)
Asthma Bronchial
Asthma is the
condition of
subjects with
May be precipitated by exposure
to one or more of a wide range
of stimuli, including allergens,
drugs (such as aspirin and other
Treatment: is with
bronchodilators, with or
without corticosteroids,
usually administered via
widespread
narrowing of the
bronchial airways,
which changes in
severity over short
periods of time
(either
spontaneously or
under treatment)
and leads to
cough, wheezing,
and difficulty in
breathing.
NSAIDs and beta blockers),
exertion, emotion, infections,
and air pollution.The onset of
asthma is usually early in life
and in atopic subjects may be
accompanied by other
manifestations of
hypersensitivity, such as hay-
fever and dermatitis; however
the onset may be delayed into
adulthood or even middle or old
age.
aerosol or dyr-powder
inhalers, or if the
condition is more severe
via a nebulizer. Oral
corticosteroids are
reserved for patients who
fail to respond
adequately to these
measures. Severe
asthmatic attacks may
need large doses of
corticosteroids.Avoidance
of known allergens,
especially the house dust
mite, allergens arising
from domestic pets, and
food additives, will help
to reduce the frequency
of attacks, as will the
discouragement of
smoking.
Cardiac
Asthma occurs in
left ventricular
heart failure and
must be
distinguished from
bronchial asthma,
as the treatment
is quite different.

Bronchitis Acute
Bronchitis:
Is caused by viruses or bacteria.
Coughing
The production of
mucpurulent
sputum.
Narrowing of the
bronchi due to
spasmodic
contraction.
Chronic
Bronchitis:
Is not primarily an
inflammatory
condition,
although it is
frequently
complicated by
acute infections.
The disease is particularly
prevalent in Britain in
association with cigarette
smoking, air pollution, and
emphysema.
The patient
coughs up
excessive mucus
secreted by
enlarged
bronchial mucus
glands.
The
bronchospasm
cannot always be
relieved by
bronchodilator
drugs.
Emphysema Pulmonary
emphysema:
The air sacs
(alveoli) of the
lungs are
enlarged and
damaged, which
reduces the
surface area for
the exchange of
oxygen and
carbon dioxide.
Normal lung tissue contains:

Over-expansion of aveloar sacs
leads to:

Loss of elasticity

Loss of surface area

Loss of lung capacity

Insufficient take-up of
oxygen
It is particularly common in men
in Britain and is associated with
chronic bronchitis, smoking,
and advancing age.
Severe emphysema
causes
breathlessness/severe
breathing difficulty, which
is made worse by
infections.
Surgical
emphysema:
Air may escape into the tissues
of the chest and neck from leaks
in the lungs and oesophagus;
occasionally air escapes into
other tissues during surgery, and
bacteria may form gas in soft
tissues. The presence of gas or
air gives the affected tissues a
characteristic crackling feeling to
the touch, and it may be visible
on X-rays. It is easily absorbed
once the leak or production is
stopped.
The presence of gas or
air gives the affected
tissues a characteristic
crackling feeling to the
touch.
Hay Fever A form of allergy
due to the pollen
of grasses, trees,
and other plants,
characterized by
inflammation of
the lining of the
nose and
sometimes of the
conjunctiva.
Pollens of grasses, trees, and
other plants.
The symptoms of
sneezing, running or
blocked nose, and
watering eyes are due to
histamine release and
often respond to
treatment with
antihistamines.If the
allergen is identified it
may be possible to
undertake
desensitization.
Pleurisy Inflammation of
the pleura.
Often due to pneumonia in the
underlying lung. The normally
shiny and slippery pleural
surfaces lose their sheen and
become slightly sticky, so that
there is pain on deep breathing.
Pleurisy is always associated
with some other disease in the
lung, chest wall, diaphragm, or
abdomen.

Pain on deep
breathing.

A characteristic rub
can be heard through
a stethoscope.
Pneumonia Inflammation of
the lung caused
by bacteria, in
which the air sacs
(alveoli) become
filled with
inflammatory cells
and the lung
becomes solid.
Bacteria

Pneumonias may be classified
in different ways:

According to X-ray
appearance,

According to the infecting
organism,

According to the clinical
environmental circumstances
under which the infection is
acquired (e.g. community-
acquired pneumonia,
hospital-acquired
(nosocomial) pneumonia).
Symptoms include those
of any infection:

Fever, Malaise,
Headaches etc.,
together with

Cough and chest
pain.

Treatment:
Appropriate antibiotic
therapy, based on the
clinical situation and on
microbiological studies,
results in complete
recovery in the majority
of patients.