This document summarizes and critiques the term CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning), and proposes a new term - MALU (Mobile Assisted Language Use). It reports on a small study examining how non-native English speakers use digital devices like smartphones and laptops for language learning outside the classroom. The study found these informal uses should be considered in redefining CALL. The document concludes that a new term is needed to reflect how technology has changed and now allows for continuous, spontaneous language learning across contexts through mobile devices.
Anna Comas-Quinn, Raquel Mardomingo and Chris Valentine - Mobile Blogs in Language Learning - Making The Most of Informal and Situated Learning Opportunities
This document summarizes and critiques the term CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning), and proposes a new term - MALU (Mobile Assisted Language Use). It reports on a small study examining how non-native English speakers use digital devices like smartphones and laptops for language learning outside the classroom. The study found these informal uses should be considered in redefining CALL. The document concludes that a new term is needed to reflect how technology has changed and now allows for continuous, spontaneous language learning across contexts through mobile devices.
This document summarizes and critiques the term CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning), and proposes a new term - MALU (Mobile Assisted Language Use). It reports on a small study examining how non-native English speakers use digital devices like smartphones and laptops for language learning outside the classroom. The study found these informal uses should be considered in redefining CALL. The document concludes that a new term is needed to reflect how technology has changed and now allows for continuous, spontaneous language learning across contexts through mobile devices.
This document summarizes and critiques the term CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning), and proposes a new term - MALU (Mobile Assisted Language Use). It reports on a small study examining how non-native English speakers use digital devices like smartphones and laptops for language learning outside the classroom. The study found these informal uses should be considered in redefining CALL. The document concludes that a new term is needed to reflect how technology has changed and now allows for continuous, spontaneous language learning across contexts through mobile devices.
Tbe Flectronic }ournol for Fnqlisb os o SeconJ lonquoqe
From Computer Assisted Language Learning {CALL] to Mobile Assisted Language Use {MALU] Marcb 2013-Volume 1, Number 4 Buw }aivis 0niveisity of Salfoiu, 0K <h.a.jaivissalfoiu.ac.uk> Naiianna Achilleos Fieelance EFL tutoi, Cypius <uoiantellohotmail.com> Abstract This aiticle begins by ciitiquing the long-establisheu acionym CALL (Computei Assisteu Language Leaining). We then go on to iepoit on a small-scale stuuy which examines how stuuent non-native speakeis of English use a iange of uigital uevices beyonu the classioom in both theii fiist (L1) anu seconu (L2) languages. We look also at the extent to which they believe that theii L2-baseu activity helps consciously anu oi unconsciously with theii language leaining, piactice, anu acquisition. We aigue that these uata, combineu with othei iecent tienus in the fielu, suggest a neeu to move fiom CALL towaius a moie accuiate acionym: mobile assisteu language use (NAL0). We concluue with a uefinition of NAL0 togethei with a biief uiscussion of a potential alignment of NAL0 with the notion of the uigital iesiuent anu a newly emeiging euucational theoiy of connectivism. Introduction The teim Computei Assisteu Language Leaining (CALL) became establisheu in language euucation in the eaily 198us (Chapelle, 2uu1). Aiguably, piactitioneis anu ieseaicheis in Teaching English to Speakeis of 0thei Languages (TES0L) have been at the foiefiont of innovation, theoiy, anu piactice. Levy (1997) comments, "|Wjithin the fielu of computeis in Euucation, especially within humanities computing, it is teacheis in the aiea of English as a Foieign Language (EFL).that have been in the vanguaiu" (p. S). TES0L has uone much to shape the uiiection of CALL; the acionym has seiveu as a useful fiame of iefeience. In the eaily uays, CALL ieflecteu a fielu that was heavily baseu on piogiammeu instiuction anu on the behaviouiist piemises of language leaining. The uiscipline has of couise come a long way since then, with a combination of euucation theoiy anu technology being the two inteiielateu piimaiy uiiveis of change. Language euucation theoiy has moveu away fiom what Stein (198S) usefully chaiacteiises as "peuagogically auuiolingualism, psychologically behaviouiism anu linguistically stiuctuialism" (p. 169) towaius iecognizing the significance of social
TESL-EJ 16.4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 2 constiuctivism that emeigeu out of vygotsky's woik (1978). When applieu to CALL, this manifests itself in what might be chaiacteiiseu unuei the umbiella teim "technology anu task-baseu peuagogy." Theie is a wiue iange of piactical classioom iueas unuei this umbiella teim, as well as an emeiging theoietical founuation (Thomas & Reinueis, 2u1u). The eia of limiteu access to uesktop computeis with a few basic mechanical "uiill anu kill" softwaie piogiams is long gone in many contexts. CALL has giown to incluue online blogs, use of apps, viitual leaining enviionments, computei-meuiate- communication, among otheis. Bowevei, uespite iecognition that the uominant acionym CALL is "anachionistic" (Thoine & Smith, 2u11, p. 268) it neveitheless iemains with us. The ciitique of CALL illustiates how alteinative acionyms began to emeige with the aiiival of the Inteinet. Bowevei, CALL continues to uominate anu it is faii to asseit that to uate a viable long-lasting alteinative is yet to emeige. Attempts to move away fiom CALL at the time when the Inteinet began have effectively become off- shoots of CALL - a viable long-lasting alteinative, it is ieasonable to aigue, is yet to emeige. In this aiticle, we begin by uefining anu ciitiquing CALL. We then iepoit on a small- scale stuuy which examines the piactices anu peiceptions of non-native speakeis of English (NNSoE) when using a iange of computei notebooks anu laptops as well as 0thei Nobile Bevices (0NBs) outsiue foimal classioom leaining contexts. We aigue that this woik, togethei with othei tienus within the fielu, suggests that we aie now in a post-CALL eia anu that the acionym no longei suits its puipose. A critique of CALL A numbei of scholais have pioviueu us with now well-establisheu uefinitions. Foi Levy, CALL is "the seaich foi anu stuuy of applications of the computei in language teaching anu leaining" (1997, p. 1). Beatty iefeis to CALL as "any piocess in which a leainei uses a computei anu, as a iesult, impioves his oi hei language.. |Thisj encompasses a bioau spectium of cuiient piactices in teaching anu leaining at the computei" (2uuS, p. 7), whilst Egbeit states that CALL is "leaineis leaining language in any context with, thiough, anu aiounu computei technologies" (2uuS, p. 4). As noteu, alteinative acionyms to CALL emeigeu in iecognition of the iise of the Inteinet. Bush anu Teiiy (1997) pioposeu Technology Enhanceu Language Leaining (TELL), which emphasises the technology the computei pioviues iathei than the computei itself. Web-enhanceu Language Leaining (WELL) was coineu to iefei to the Inteinet as a meuium foi instiuction, whilst Waischauei anu Kein (2uuu) pioposeu Netwoik-baseu Language Leaining (NBLL), which stiesses computeis connecteu to one anothei with human-to- human communication as the focus. Impoitantly, these uefinitions anu acionyms have at theii coie the notion of stuuents woiking on a uesktop oi laptop computei, usually in oiuei to consciously piactise oi leain a language. With the computei at the coie anu applications usually centeieu on consciously piacticing languages, it is not uifficult to see how these alteinative acionyms effectively became no moie than off-shoots of CALL, as they uiu not challenge its uefining chaiacteiistics. We have in iecent yeais seen a iecognition of 0NBs such as smaitphones anu eBook ieaueis, such as Amazon.com's Kinule. The wiuespieau availability anu use of such uevices has leu to the acionym Nobile Assisteu Language Leaining (NALL), which
TESL-EJ 16.4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 3 "uiffeis fiom CALL in its use of peisonal, poitable uevices that enable new ways of leaining, emphasising continuity oi spontaneity of access acioss uiffeient contexts of use" (Kukulska-Bulme & Shielus, 2uu8, p. 27S). A numbei of stuuies iepoit favouiably on the iole of a vaiiety of 0NBs in assisting language leaining, these incluue mobile phones (Kieinan & Aizawa, 2uu4; Nah et al., 2uu8), tablet PCs (Lan et al., 2uu7) anu NPS playeis anu Poucasting (0' Biyan & Begelheimei, 2uu7; N'hammeu et al., 2uu9). With NALL comes an awaieness that 0NBs allow foi a ciossing of bounuaiies between foimal leaining insiue the classioom anu infoimal leaining outsiue the classioom (Kukulska-Bulme, 2uu9). Bowevei, whilst NALL iecognises a ciossing of bounuaiies anu changes in technology fiom computei uesktops anu laptops, it neveitheless shaies with CALL an emphasis on the "assisteu language leaining" components of the acionym. With this comes an emphasis on the iole anu value of usually a single softwaie piogiam in the conscious leaining oi piactising of language. Such an emphasis is not without its limitations. In teims of euucation theoiy, a numbei of scholais incluuing Bax (2uuS) anu Waischauei anu Kein (2uuu) have uocumenteu how CALL moveu out of its eaily phase anu into a cognitive view that challengeu stuuents to think anu woik things out. This was then followeu by a socio-cognitive view wheieby leaining is vieweu as taking place not just thiough thinking, but also thiough inteiaction anu negotiation with otheis. Beie leaining is socially constiucteu, typically involving stuuents communicating with each othei via computeis. With these changing phases of CALL has come a shift fiom viewing the computei as a tutoi oi a tool to a meuium. The teim technology anu task-baseu peuagogy is paiticulaily useful to uesciibe such pievalent thinking. To uate, howevei, whilst CALL cannot be sepaiateu fiom the bioauei euucation theoiy of social constiuctivism, such theoiy is fiequently ueiiveu fiom woik outsiue of CALLCALL, in othei woius, has ieflecteu cuiient euucational thinking. Whethei CALL, oi technology moie geneially, can continue to uo no moie than simply ieflect cuiient thinking in euucational theoiy is, as we will uiscuss in oui conclusion, but one potential point of uepaituie foi NAL0. Tbe Study This stuuy is motivateu by the ciitique that we have uocumenteu, togethei with on- going inteiest in the liteiatuie on technology anu self-stuuy oi leainei tiaining (uouwin-}ones, 2u11; }aivis, 2uu8; }aivis & Szymczyk, 2u1u; }aivis, 2u12; Schmenk, 2uuS). In an eia of continuous access with a wiue iange of uigital uevices anu piogiammes, what happens outsiue the classioom in less foimal contexts is an aiea of incieasing impoitance; the peiceptions piactices anu beliefs of the useis aie significant. As Kein (2uu6) notes, it is impoitant to "unueistanu the effectiveness of technology in teims of the specifics of what people uo with computeis, how they uo it, anu what it means to them" (p. 189). Allowing the leaineis' voices to contiibute to the valiuity of the CALL acionym is, in this aiticle, the biiuge between the ciitique that we offei anu the pioposeu NAL0 alteinative. The voice of the leainei is paiticulaily impoitant given the global availability anu use of computeis anu 0NBs by many millions of NNSoE in theii eveiyuay lives, outsiue the foimal settings of the language classioom.
TESL-EJ 16.4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 4 In this stuuy, we builu on the woik of }aivis (2u12), which founu that NNSoE in home countiy contexts of the 0niteu Aiab Emiiates anu Thailanu make use of a wiue vaiiety of computei-baseu mateiials (CBNs) beyonu the classioom in both L1 anu L2. They view such mateiial as helping with theii language leaining iiiespective of whethei oi not it was the explicit intention of the mateiial. Watching viueos in English oi posting on Facebook, foi example, weie seen by many paiticipants as helping with language leaining almost as much as using online uictionaiies oi piacticing giammai on the web. 0ui stuuy attempts to both ieplicate anu fuithei builu on this woik, but in a host countiy context. An acknowleugeu limitation of the pievious stuuy was its focus on the computei uesktop oi laptop anu the consequential use of CBNs to fiame the ieseaich questions. A failuie to iecognise the significance of 0NBs was a significant shoitfall that this stuuy attempts to auuiess. Aims The stuuy examines the piactices anu peiceptions of NNSoE auult leaineis in theii use of computeis anu 0NBs. We ask the following questions: 1. Which uevices anu applications uo leaineis use. What uo they use them foi. 2. To what extent uo leaineis use the English language as an L2 when using the vaiious technologies foi puiposes beyonu theii language stuuies, anu why. S. To what extent uo stuuents believe theii language leaining is enhanceu by the use of these technologies. 4. To what extent uo leaineis use these technologies to consciously leain English. S. To what extent uo leaineis believe that thiough exposuie to the language 'unconscious acquisition' may occui. In answeiing these questions we aigue that the acionym CALL is no longei the most valiu teim foi unueistanuing the fielu. Metbodology 0ui uata collection combineu quantitative anu qualitative techniques, which as with many liteiatuie souices (see, foi example, Newman & Benz, 1998), we view not as polai opposites oi uichotomies, but iathei as iepiesenting two enus on a continuum. The quantitative element involveu asking closeu-enueu questions anu eliciting iesponses to statements via a papei-baseu questionnaiie (piloteu anu amenueu as iequiieu). We ieuuceu the numbei of questions, as pilot stuuy paiticipants iepoiteu that the instiument was too long. We auueu heauings in italics so that paiticipants coulu see the classification of questions. The Appenuix shows the final questionnaiie; foi convenience anu space puiposes, this has been amenueu to incluue the collateu uata as well. The qualitative component consisteu of one-to-one, semi-stiuctuieu inteiviews, conuucteu by one of the co-authois whose age categoiy (18-24) was aligneu with the paiticipants'. We felt that paiticipants woulu be moie at ease being inteivieweu by a fellow stuuent (a teachei-tiainee, completing a uisseitation on an NA TES0L piogiamme). These sessions weie usually 2u to Su minutes long, anu weie conuucteu in a iange of campus locations (usually the canteen oi an empty
TESL-EJ 16.4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 5 classioom). Paiticipants weie inviteu to talk fuithei about theii iesponses, allowing the possibility to uiscovei new anu impoitant iealities unintentionally (Aulei & Aulei, 1998). In shoit, we favouieu a mixeu methous appioach, which "attempts to consiuei multiple viewpoints, peispectives, positions anu stanupoints" (}ohnson et al., 2uu7, p. 11S). We acknowleuge the inheient limitations of self-iepoiting, but feel that oui small scale-stuuy with its questionnaiies anu inteiviews neveitheless pioviues insights into the piactices anu peiceptions of NNSoE. Fuithei woik in this aiea using a bioauei iange of techniques, incluuing obseivational uata togethei with a laigei qualitative sample anu statistical analysis woulu be a welcomeu auuition to the ieseaich. Participants The paiticipants weie NNSoE who weie stuuents ageu 18-24 at a univeisity in the 0K with an uppei inteimeuiate level of English equating to an oveiall IELTS scoie of at least banu 6 oi a T0EFLiBT of 8u. A total of 7u questionnaiies weie auministeieu. The ietuin iate was 64, of which S6 coulu be useu. Eight questionnaiies weie uisiegaiueu because of incomplete oi inconsistent answeis. A total of S2 paiticipants weie on a pie- sessional English language summei couise piepaiing to entei eithei an unueigiauuate oi postgiauuate couise. The iemaining 24 paiticipants weie alieauy eniolleu on an unueigiauuate oi postgiauuate couise. Paiticipants on the pie-sessional couise weie new to the 0K, whilst those who weie alieauy eniolleu on a uegiee couise hau been in the 0K foi at least ten months. The collateu uata, howevei, ievealeu no significant uiffeiences between these two gioups. Foi iepoiting puiposes, we uo not uiffeientiate between them. Fiom the questionnaiies, 2S stuuents inuicateu a willingness to paiticipate in the seconu qualitative phase of oui stuuy. Fiom these, 7 stuuents weie chosen baseu on a both a spieau of iesponses anu a vaiiety of countiy of oiigin. 0ui inteiviews weie iecoiueu anu tiansciibeu. In line with institutional policy anu liteiatuie-baseu iecommenuations (see, foi example, Seligei & Shohamy, 1989) all piecautions anu pioceuuies weie put in place fiom the stait, anu maintaineu uuiing anu aftei uata collection anu analysis, in oiuei to ensuie that eveiy effoit was maue to minimize any iisk to the paiticipants. Foi iepoiting puiposes, we combine quantitative anu qualitative uata. With the agieement of the paiticipants, we have coueu inteiview comments as follows: SAN = Sauui Aiabian Nale; SAF = Sauui Aiabian Female; uF = uieek Female; CBN = Chinese Nale; P0F = Polish Female; CYF = Cypiiot Female; PAN = Pakistani Nale. In iepoiting what stuuents saiu, italics aie useu;, the English has not been coiiecteu, as theii meaning is cleai uespite some language eiiois. 0ui stuuy geneiateu a laige amount of uata, anu oui questionnaiie was uesigneu to ievisit anu ciosscheck answeis to the key questions in oui aims. Such an appioach biings some inevitable iepetition, but this iepetition in the questionnaiie, when combineu with oui inteiview uata, also allows foi a uegiee of tiiangulation. Results and discussion We have synthesiseu oui uiscussion unuei two heauings, "0se of Jevices," onJ "Applicotions onJ tbe role of Fnqlisb." Full statistics foi the questionnaiie uata aie available in the Appenuix.
TESL-EJ 16.4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 6 Use of devices All paiticipants use computeis anu othei 0NBs, anu view them as essential to theii uaily lives, as inuicateu in Question 2.7 (Q2.7). A P0F explaineu, "l believe tbot l coulJ not Jo onytbinq witbout tecbnoloqy, l feel lost wben l Jont bove internet," a view enuoiseu by a PAN who saiu "[l]t just mokes life eosier, so l neeJ it." They make fiequent use of computeis with a cleai piefeience foi laptops ovei uesktops (Qs2.1, 2.2, 2.S, 2.4). "Besktops ore olJ now, everyboJy now bos o loptop if you qo to sbop o computer usuolly you see only loptops onJ it is cbeoper" (CBN). 0thei ieasons foi a piefeience of laptops ovei uesktops suggest that the mobility factoi is an impoitant one: "l con toke it witb me onywbere l wont" (SAN), "l om not ot my bome so l neeJ to toke my computer witb me bome onJ brinq it bere to tbe 0K wben l come to stuJy" (CYF). Responses to Q2.S show that 87.S% of paiticipants use 0NBs, with the vast majoiity (8S.7%) uoing so on a uaily basis (Q2.6). A significant majoiity of paiticipants view both computeis anu 0NBs as essential in theii uaily lives (Q2.7), with the ieasons coveiing both social anu acauemic puiposes: "l listen to music, You Tube etcetero. l wotcb some viJeos, movies, series l JownlooJ. Hony times l moke some reseorcb for my stuJies, l look for orticles, l olso reoJ news, look weotber, l communicote Iocebook, Twitter oll tbis stuff" (uF). Whilst SAF noteu, "l use my loptop onJ my ipbone oll Joy, l listen music olso l tolk on Iocebook witb my frienJs onJ l senJ text messoqes olso l seorcb tbe internet moybe for informotion l neeJ or use Jictionory . wben l om out onJ wont to fiqure sometbinq out, eitber informotion or tbe meoninq of o worJ or sometbinq l will use my smortpbone, l bove it witb me oll tbe time onJ it is eosy to toke witb me." The anywheieanytime convenience of such uevices can be fuithei seen fiom the answei to Q6A, with 87.S% agieeing with the statement: "I think that Nobile uevices aie convenient because I can have them with me all the time anu use them in the same way as my computei." 0veiall, the uata suggest a neeu to iecognise that the fielu is no longei iestiicteu to computeis, anu that mobility-togethei with a wiue vaiiety of uses-aie a uefining chaiacteiistic of NNSoE piactices. The English language is of majoi impoitance to such useis. Applications and tbe role of Englisb Answeis to questions S, 4, S anu 6, when taken in totality, point to the impoitance of both computeis anu othei 0NBs as useu foi both social anu acauemic puiposes in both L1 anu L2. In iesponse to Q4, 8S.7% of paiticipants iecognise the uominant iole of the English language on the Inteinet (Q4A); "[H]ost informotion on internet is in Fnqlisb" (PAN); "l cont finJ os mony tbinq os l neeJ in 6reek" (uF); "Sometimes, l miqbt finJ sometbinq in my lonquoqe obout tbe topic l om seorcbinq to qet o qenerol iJeo of wbot it is obout becouse it is more eosy for me to unJerstonJ onJ tben l will look for it in Fnqlisb becouse tbere is more informotion. Fnqlisb in tbe internotionol lonquoqe so it is mucb eosier to finJ tbinqs." (SAN). A total of 91.1% agieeu that they use English when using electionic uevices because it is a way to piactise theii language skills (Q4B). As might be expecteu with a veiy similai statement in QS.1 91.1% agieeu (Su.4%) oi stiongly agieeu (6u.7%) that the vaiious uevices help them to piactise anu\oi leain English. Noie specifically 69.6% use
TESL-EJ 16.4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 7 English to communicate with otheis (Q4C). English leaining anu piactice, it woulu seem, is not only an enu in itself foi many paiticipants, but is also a means to an enu. The enu coulu be chaiacteiiseu as engaging in social netwoiking sites, accessing infoimation fiom the web, online gaming, anu so foith; in such cases, English is the means to uo so. "Fnqlisb is everywbere onJ it bos everytbinq in Fnqlisb so if l finJ sometbinq onJ l miqbt tronslote in my lonquoqe, but l Jont use it exclusively to leorn Fnqlisb but l leorn mony tbinqs in tbis woy" (P0F). When askeu in QS.S to ueciue which helpeu most with language leaining-naiiowly uefineu tutoiial packages as specifieu in QS.SA, oi using English without explicitly leaining it as in Q S.SB- 71.4% opteu foi the lattei. 0ui inteiview paiticipants elaboiateu as follows: "[R]eoJinq vorious orticles, news, etcetero belps me to moke my Fnqlisb better olso communicotinq tbrouqb Iocebook witb my frienJs in Fnqlisb olso belps me becouse l speok in Fnqlisb onJ sometimes l moke mistokes onJ olso l see bow otber people {l om tolkinq obout people wbo lonquoqe is Fnqlisb) speok onJ tbis belps me" (P0F); "l believe tbot reoJinq onJ communicotinq in qenerol onJ Joinq otber tbinqs belps me more becouse l see onJ use reol lonquoqe everyJoy, wben l proctice only qrommor it is very specific tbe lonquoqe use in tenses" (SAN); "So mony yeor we ore leorninq qrommor rules onJ we proctice mony times, it is not tbe some wben you use lonquoqe in reol life it is more Jifficult so l tbink for my level now it is better to reoJ some orticle newspopers" (SAF); "l Jont intentionolly use Fnqlisb to communicote or to reoJ sometbinq so l con leorn tbinq but l Jefinitely believe l leorn mony tbinqs like vocobulory onJ new expressions pbroses etc. (SAN)"; "[H]ony times wben l wotcb films or viJeos on You Tube l leorn Jifferent tbinqs, moybe not immeJiotely but if l wotcb Jifferent tbinqs oll tbe time l om sure l leornt mony tbinqs from tbis" (CYF). None of the paiticipants inuicateu that they ieau e-books in only theii L1; out of the ielatively small sample of 2u paiticipants that ieau e-books, 6u% (N=12) uo so mostly in English anu only less fiequently in theii L1. Thiity peicent (N=6) use only English. When I askeu why, a typical ieply was "[T]be e-books l reoJ ore for my stuJies so l use Fnqlisb" (P0F). Taken in combination, we believe that the uata on what is peiceiveu as helping with paiticipants' English is significant. In the eia befoie global Inteinet usage, Kiashen (1982) uistinguisheu between ocquisition as a "a subconscious piocess; language acquiieis aie not usually awaie of the fact that they aie acquiiing language, but aie only awaie of the fact that they aie using the language foi communication." anu leaining "to iefei to the conscious knowleuge of a seconu language" (p. 1u), which means knowing the iules, being awaie of them, anu being able to talk about them. In nontechnical teims, leaining is "knowing about a language." 0ui uata suggest that thiity yeais on, anu with a pievalence of uigitalizeu uevices anu piogiammes, such uistinctions aie possibly even moie ielevant foi oui leaineis than befoie. }aivis (2uu8, p. S8u) has aigueu that now we neeu specifically to apply such uistinctions to an electionic enviionment with notions of e-leaining anu e-acquisition: this stuuy suppoits the suggestion that stuuents believe that they aie "picking-up" language thiough using it. This aiea iemains unueiexploieu; we auvocate a NAL0 fiamewoik as moie appiopiiate foi auuiessing such issues than CALL, which is still laigely locateu within
TESL-EJ 16.4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 8 anu iestiicteu by what might be chaiacteiizeu as "conscious e-leaining." It is inteiesting to note that only 16.1% iepoiteu a changing of theii piactice because they weie stuuying in the 0K. Paiticipants iecognise the significance of English, iiiespective of location when using laptops anu 0NBs (Q4B anu QS.2), as typifieu by the following: "[l]n my bome country l Jont beor mony everyJoy expressions becouse not mony people speok Fnqlisb so l tbink tbot l leornt mony tbinqs from wotcbinq viJeos on You Tube or reoJinq Jifferent tbinqs on tbe internet" (uF). Inueeu, we woulu aigue that one of the auvantages of shifting fiom CALL to NAL0 is that it allows us to bettei iecognise that NNSoE have unpieceuenteu continuous access not only "anytime" but also "anywheie". In such less foimal leaining contexts, the "host countiy" oi location- specific "self-access language leaining centies" aie piobably not as significant as they once weie in a pie-NAL0 enviionment, when access to English was moie iestiicteu. In iesponse to QS, which attempts to iuentify piefeiences foi uevices when applieu to specific activities, we shoulu note that theie is veiy little to sepaiate uiffeient applications being useu eithei on laptops oi on 0NBs-paiticipants use both of these uevices foi a iange of activities. We have alieauy noteu the uecline in the use of uesktops, which is confiimeu heie. Nost notewoithy with this uata is that wheie theie aie uiffeiences between computei laptops anu 0NBs, paiticipants piefeiieu laptops significantly to 0NBs in two specific applications: using the web to access acauemic infoimation (76.8% compaieu to 21.4%), anu to piactice theii English (S8.9% compaieu to 26.8%). 0f all the listeu applications, these two involve conscious leaining; it seems that 0NBs aie not the vast majoiity's piefeience foi such activities. Theiefoie, whilst all kinus of uevices aie valueu as assisting with unconscious acquisition, in contiast, uesktop computeis anu laptops aie piefeiieu foi conscious leaining. With a moie uetaileu analysis of the language useu foi each of the applications (QS), we shoulu note low peicentages foi all applications in column A ("only my fiist language"): paiticipants uo not appeai to be making exclusive use of theii L1. Theie is some vaiiation between applications anu paiticipants' use piimaiily of mainly L1 (column B) oi mainly L2 (column C). As might be expecteu, the laigest peicentage of mainly L1 use is "accessing peisonal infoimation on the WWW" (48.2%). Bowevei, even with this application, 41% useu mainly L2 anu 7.2% useu only L2. The iole of using applications mainly in L2 (column C) oi only L2 (column B) is geneially high foi all applications. The iole of English, as we have alieauy noteu, is of a majoi significance to these NNSoE foi whatevei applications they happen to be using. It is of even highei significance when useu to access acauemic infoimation, with 46.4% using mainly L2 anu S2.1% using only L2. Bowevei, even with social netwoiking sites such as Facebook anu Twittei, among otheis, English iemains impoitant-41.1% inuicateu that they useu mostly English anu some of theii L1, 21.S% use mostly theii L1 anu some English, S1.S% use only English, anu only S.8% use only theii L1. English is useu not only foi accessing infoimation but also foi communicating infoimation of a social natuie: "l Jont bove mony Fnqlisb frienJs, but l bove frienJs from Jifferent countries so we tolk in Fnqlisb" (CYF). With enteitainment, as might be expecteu, we see a slightly highei use of L1, wheie paiticipants aie moie likely to be just accessing infoimation iathei than accessing anu communicating, as with social netwoiking. Bowevei, a uF wanteu to uiffeientiate
TESL-EJ 16.4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 9 between oui listeu items: "ln my lonquoqe l listen to music onJ olso reoJ news etc. but in Fnqlisb l ploy qomes, tbere ore nice qomes in Fnqlisb onJ olso Fnqlisb music is very populor so l listen to it becouse l like it l olso wotcb Fnqlisb films onJ series." Finally, iesponses to Q6E point to the significance of multi-tasking foi these NNSoE: 87.S% iepoiteu using moie than one application at the same time. Paiticipants uo not iestiict themselves to one application in eithei L1 oi L2; in all likelihoou they use both L1 anu L2 on Facebook anu Twittei, whilst also woiking on an assignment anuoi listening to music. Again, we aigue that such piactices challenge tiauitional CALL fiamewoiks, which tenu to focus on one softwaie piogiam useu to piactice English in contiolleu location specific contexts. Conclusions We acknowleuge that CALL iemains ielevant, to the extent that theie will still be a iole foi it to play in stuuents woiking on a computei uesktop oi laptop. 0ui uata suggests that they aie the piefeiieu tools foi conscious leaining activities, foi now at least. Bowevei, as we have seen, theie is a neeu to take a moie compiehensive view. In this stuuy, NNSoE use a iange of uevices foi a vaiiety of social anu acauemic puiposes. These incluue conscious leaining, but also covei othei activities which allow foi the possibility of "picking up language" oi unconscious acquisition. Whilst we have not attempteu to measuie leaining outcomes fiom such activities, theie is neveitheless a newly emeiging liteiatuie pointing favouiably to the impact of such piactices on language leaining. In ielation to online gaming foi example Kuuie (2u11) suggests that "|Ajctivities aiounu such games may pioviue impoitant affoiuances foi language leaining, not as an objective as such, but as means of nuituiing social ielationships anu paiticipating in collaboiative pioblem-solving anu netwoiking among peeis" (p. SS). The piactices of NNSoE useis uo, we feel, now necessitate a shift fiom CALL to NAL0. We uefine NAL0 as non-native speakeis using of a vaiiety of mobile uevices in oiuei to access anuoi communicate infoimation on an anywheieanytime basis anu foi a iange of social anuoi acauemic puiposes in an L2. Such a uefinition encompasses all the featuies of CALL anu even NALL, in that it allows foi conscious stuuy puiposes on uesktops, laptops anu 0NBs, but is not constiaineu by the limitations anu also iecognises social uses in the L2 in both foimal anu less foimal leaining situations. It iecognises that uevices can be useu not only as a means to an enu, wheie the enu is language leaining, but also wheie the enu is accessing anu posting infoimation as globally netwoikeu citizens with English (as the L2) as well as L1 being the means to uo so. We take issue with the view that the umbiella teim CALL iemains the most appiopiiate, as is still explicitly stateu in some of the liteiatuie. Such a view has, foi example, been iecently aiticulateu by uaiiet (2u11, p. 72S) who states, "What is changing most iauically in the complex factois that uefine CALL touay is the laigei context of language euucation in touay's woilu.". It is howevei piecisely this laigei context, uiiven in significant measuie by the piactices anu peiceptions of NNSoE who access anu communicate infoimation in both theii L1 anu L2 with a wiue iange of uevices which make such uefinitions pioblematic anu suggest a neeu foi an alteinative. Accoiuing to Inteinet Woilu Stats (http:www.inteinetwoilustats.com) in 2u1u, 82S.1 million weie locateu in Asia. Euiope has 47S.1 million useis anu Noith
TESL-EJ 16.4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 10 Ameiica has 266.2 million. The English language has an estimateu SS6.S million speakeis, followeu by Chinese (444.9) anu Spanish (1SS.S). It is cleai that useis thioughout the globe aie accessing anu communicating infoimation in theii L1 anu L2 (with English uominating L2 use), anu they aie uoing so foi stuuy, business, anu social puiposes. Nany of these useis, incluuing those who paiticipateu in this stuuy aie uigital iesiuents in that "A piopoition of theii lives is actually liveu out online." (White & Coinu, 2u11), anu significantly, some of theii time is spent iesiuing in a seconu language. As we have seen, some of this time may be spent leaining, but it is not the pievailing activity. As such, CALL is no longei an auequate point of iefeience. We aie in a post-CALL eia because the fielu is not "just" about the computei, noi is it "just" about assisteu language leaining, it is about NAL0. Finally, oui suggesteu shift to NAL0 has the potential to bettei complement a newly emeiging euucational theoiy of connectivism than CALL is evei able to. Siemens (2uuS) aigues, "Bow people woik anu function is alteieu when new tools aie utilizeu" anu that "|wje can no longei peisonally expeiience anu acquiie leaining that we neeu to act. We ueiive oui competence fiom foiming connections." Such a view sees ". foimal euucation as no longei compiising the majoiity of oui leaining" (n.p). Aiguably we uon't "neeu to know" in the same way because the answeis to many of oui questions aie now within easy ieach on a wiieless laptop oi 0NB, anu significantly, aie usually in English as an L2. Whethei this alteinative iepiesents a new theoiy foi the uigital age is, as might be expecteu, much contesteu. Bell (2u11) foi example, aigues that this is moie of a phenomenon than a theoiy. Theoiy oi phenomenon, fuithei woik in this aiea is neeueu anu in language euucation, iiiespective of the answeis, aiguably NAL0 now neeus to be oui uefining point of iefeience in keeping TES0L at the vanguaiu. About tbe Autbors Huw )arvis is a Senioi Lectuiei in TES0L at the 0niveisity of Salfoiu in the 0K anu is the founuei anu euitoi of http:www.TES0Lacauemic.oig, which uisseminates ieseaich thiough a seiies of fieely accessible viueo talks. Marinna Acbilleos has iecently completeu hei NA TES0L at the 0niveisity of Salfoiu, 0K anu is cuiiently woiking as a fieelance EFLESL tutoi in Cypius. References Aulei, P.A., & Aulei, P., (1998). 0bseivational techniques, In N. K. Benzin & anu Y. S. Lincoln (Eus.), Collectinq onJ interpretinq quolitotive moteriols (pp. 79-1u9). Lonuon: Sage Publisheis. Bax, S., (2uuS). CALL - past, piesent anu futuie. System S1{1), 1S-28. Beatty, K., (2uuS). Teocbinq onJ reseorcbinq computer ossisteJ lonquoqe leorninq. Lonuon: Longman. Bell, F., (2u11). Connectivism: Its place in theoiy-infoimeu ieseaich anu innovation in technology-enableu leaining. Tbe lnternotionol Review of Reseorcb in 0pen onJ Bistonce leorninq 12{S), 98-118.
TESL-EJ 16.4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 11 Bush, N.B., & Teiiy, N.R., (Eus.), (1997). Tecbnoloqy-enbonceJ lonquoqelleorninq. Lincolnwoou, IL: National Textbook Company. Chapelle, C., (2uu1). Computer opplicotions in seconJ lonquoqe ocquisition: IounJotions for teocbinq, testinq onJ reseorcb. Cambiiuge: Cambiiuge 0niveisity Piess. Egbeit, }.L., (2uuS). Conuucting ieseaich on CALLIn }.L Egbeit & u.N. Petiie (Eus.), CAll reseorcb perspectives (pp. 4-8). Nahwah, N}: Lawience Eilbaum. uaiiett, N., (2uu9). Computei-assisteu language leaining tienus anu issues Revisiteu: Integiating Innovation. Tbe HoJern lonquoqe }ournol 9S{1), 719-74u. uouwin-}ones, R., (2u11). Emeiging technologies autonomous language leaining. lonquoqe leorninq onJ Tecbnoloqy 1S{S), 4-11. }aivis, B., (2u12). Computers onJ leorner outonomy: TrenJs onJ issues. ELT Reseaich Papeis 12(2). Lonuon: The Biitish Council. }aivis, B., & Szymczyk, N. (2u1u). Stuuent views on leaining giammai with web anu book-baseu mateiials. Fnqlisb lonquoqe Teocbinq }ournol 61{1), S2-44. }aivis, B., (2uu8). Computeis anu inuepenuent stuuy: piactices anu peiceptions of stuuents, In P. Toiies & R. Naiiiot (Eus.), EonJbook of reseorcb on e-leorninq metboJoloqies for lonquoqe ocquisition (pp. S67-S86). Beishey, NY: Infoimation Science Refeience. }ohnson, B., 0nwuegbuzie, }.A. & Tuinei, L.A. (2uu7). Towaius a uefinition of mixeu methous ieseaich.}ournol of HixeJ HetboJs 1{2), 112-1SS. Kein, R., (2uu6). Peispectives on technology in leaining anu teaching languages. TFS0l uorterly 40{1), 18S-21u. Kieinan, P.}., & Aizawa, K., (2uu4). Cell phones in task baseu leaining - Aie cell phones useful language leaining tools. ReCAll 16{1), 71-84. Kiashen, S., (1982). Principles onJ proctice in seconJ lonquoqe ocquisition. Lonuon: Peigamon. Kukulska-Bulme, A., (2uu9). Will mobile leaining change language leaining. ReCAll 21{2), 1S7-16S. Kukulska-Bulme, A., & Shielus, L., (2uu8). An oveiview of mobile assisteu language leaining: fiom content ueliveiy to suppoiteu collaboiation anu inteiaction. ReCAll 20{S), 271-289. Kuuie, L., (2u11). Places foi leaining: Technology-meuiateu language leaining piactices beyonu the classioom In P. Benson & B. Reinueis (Eus.), BeyonJ tbe lonquoqe Clossroom (pp. SS-46). Basingstoke: Palgiave Nacmillan. Lan, Y.}., Sung, Y.T., & Chang, K.E., (2uu7). A mobile-uevice-suppoiteu peei-assisteu leaining system foi collaboiative eaily EFL ieauing. lonquoqe leorninq & Tecbnoloqy 11{S), 1Su-1S1. Levy, N., (1997). Computer-ossisteJ lonquoqe leorninq: Context onJ conceptuolizotion. NY: 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess.
TESL-EJ 16.4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 12 N'hammeu, A., Camaiena, N.N., & Facei, R.B., (2uu9). NALL technology: 0se of acauemic poucasting in the foieign language classioom. ReCAll 21{1), 76-9S. Nah, C.K., White, P., & Sussex, R., (2uu8). The potential of using a mobile phone to access the inteinet foi leaining EFL listening skills within a Koiean Context. ReCAll 20{S), SS1-S47. Newman, I., & Benz, R.C., (1998). uolitotive-quontitotive reseorcb metboJoloqy. Fxplorinq tbe interoctive continuum. Caibonuale: Southein Illinois 0niveisity Piess. 0' Biyan, A., & Begelheimei, v., (2uu7). Integiating CALL into the classioom: The iole of poucasting in an ESL listening stiategies couise. ReCAll 19{2), 162-18u. Schmenk, B., (2uuS). ulobalizing Leainei Autonomy. TFS0l uorterly S9{1), 1u7-118. Seligei, B., & Shohamy, E., (1989). SeconJ lonquoqe reseorcb metboJs. Cambiiuge: Cambiiuge 0niveisity Piess. Siemens, u., (2uuS). Connectivism: A leaining theoiy foi the uigital age. lnternotionol }ournol of lnstructionol Tecbnoloqy & Bistonce leorninq 2{1). Stein, B., 198S. Funuamental concepts of language teaching. 0xfoiu: 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess. Thomas, N., & Reinueis, B., (2u1u). (Eus.), Tosk-boseJ lonquoqe leorninq onJ teocbinq witb tecbnoloqy. Lonuon: Contiuum. Thoine, S., & Smith, B., (2u11). Seconu language uevelopment theoiies anu technology- meuiateu language leaining. CAllC0 }ournol, 28(2), 268-277. vygotsky, L., (1978). HinJ in society. Cambiiuge, NA: Baivaiu 0niveisity Piess. Waischauei, N., & Kein, R., (Eus.). (2uuu). Network-boseJ lonquoqe teocbinq: Concepts onJ proctice. NY: Cambiiuge 0niveisity Piess. White, B., & Coinu, A., (2u11). visitois anu iesiuents: A new typology foi online engagement. Iirst HonJoy. 169.
TESL-EJ 16.4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 13
Appendix 1- Questionnaire witb collected data Notes (1) This uocument is amenueu foi uata piesentation puiposes fiom the oiiginal questionnaiie which was uistiibuteu to paiticipants. We have excluueu the pie-amble consent page, togethei with the section inuicating whethei paiticipants weie agieeable to paiticipate in inteiviews anu the thank you at the enu.
(2) All the uata is piesenteu in peicentages (%). The total numbei of each iesponse is also shown in biackets (N=S6, wheie applicable).
1. What aie you stuuying. English on pie-sessional summei couises = S2 Cuiiently on an unueigiauuate oi postgiauuate couises at the 0niveisity = 24 Wheie aie you fiom. Country total Country Total Sauui Aiabia 2S% (14) Polanu S.4% (S) China 2S.2% (1S) Pakistan S.4% (S) Iiaq 1u.7% (6) Syiia S.4% (S) Cypius 8.9% (S) }oiuan S.6% (2) Tunisia S.4% (S) Spain 1.8% (1) uieece S.4% (S) 0se of computers onJ otber Jevices 2.1 Bo you usually use a uesktop computei. Yes = 2S.2% (1S) - continue to 2.2 anu then 2.S No = 76.8% (4S) - skip 2.2 go to 2.S 2.2 Bow often uo you use it. (tick only one answei) Eveiyuay Nost uays 2 oi S times a week Baiuly evei Nevei 84.6% (111S) 1S.4% (21S) u% (u) u% (u) u% (u) 2.S Bo you usually use a laptop. Yes = 76.8% (4S) - continue to 2.4 anu then 2.S No = S2.2% (1S) - skip 2.4 go to 2.S 2.4 Bow often uo you use it (tick only one answei)
TESL-EJ 16.4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 14 Eveiyuay Nost uays 2 oi S times a week Baiuly evei Nevei 9u.7% (S94S) 16.S% (849) u% (u) u% (u) u% (u)
2.S Bo you use any othei mobile uevices. (smaitphones, tablet computeis, ipaus, iphones, ipous, netbook, notebook, uigital pocket uictionaiies) Yes = 87.S% (49) - continue to 2.4 anu then 2.7 No = 12.S% (7) - skip 2.6 go to 2.7 2.6 Bow often uo you use them. (tick only one answei) Eveiyuay Nost uays 2 oi S times a week Baiuly evei Nevei 8S.7% (4149) 16.S% (849) u% (u) u% (u) u% (u)
2.7 Bo you consiuei the use of computeis anu othei uigital mobile as an essential tool in youi eveiyuay life. Yes = 1uu% (S7) - continue to auu ieasons anu then on to S No = u% (u) - please give ieasons anu then ietuin the questionnaiie. Theie aie no fuithei questions. Thank you foi pioviuing this infoimation. Some commonly noteJ reosons incluJeJ: uaily living ielies on them; it is easy to finu infoimation about eveiything veiy quickly; it connects me to the whole woilu because eveiything now is uone with computeis; it helps me in my stuuies; ieauing news; to keep in touch with my family anu fiienus; it makes my life easiei; to inciease knowleuge; the most convenient way to finu infoimation; to make fiienu thiough social netwoiks. lonquoqe - computers onJ otber Jevices S. The following section is uiviueu into two paits, follow the instiuctions anu complete the table below. S.1 Which electionic uevices uo you use foi the puiposes listeu in the table below Please tick the box if you use electionic uevices foi this puipose oi if you uo not use them foi this puipose. S.2 Which language uo you use when using electionic uevices. tick only one answei (A, B, C oi B) foi this A = 0nly youi fiist language B = Nainly youi fiist language anu some English C = Nainly English anu some of youi fiist language B = 0nly English
TESL-EJ 16.4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 15
Computei uesktop Laptop 0thei mobile uevices A B C B Applications Please fill in all boxes in this section Eithei oi cioss each box Please tick only one box 2S.2% (1S) 76.8% (4S) 8u.4 % (4S) S.6% (2) 48.2% (27) 41.1% (2S) 7.1% (4) access the WWW (inteinet) foi peisonal infoimation {my interests) 76.8% (4S) 2S.2% (1S) 19.6% (11) A totol of S6 porticiponts use electronic Jevices for tbis purpose 2S.2% (1S) 76.8% (4S) 21.4% (12) S.4% (S) 16.1% (9) 46.4% (26) S2.1% (18) access the WWW (inteinet) foi acauemic infoimation {informotion for my stuJies) 76.8% (4S) 2S.2% (1S) 78.6%(44) A totol of S6 porticiponts use electronic Jevices for tbis purpose 8.9% (S) 26.8% (1S) 28.6%(16) u% (u) 1u% (2) 6u% (12) Su% (6) ieau e-books 91.1% (S1) 7S.2% (41) 71.4%(4u) A totol of 20 porticiponts use electronic Jevices for tbis purpose 19.6% (11) 71.4% (4u) 67.9%(S8) S.8% (S) 21.S% (11) 41.1% (21) S1.S% (16) access social netwoiking sites {Iocebook, Twitter, Hyspoce, etc.) 8u.4% (4S) 28.6% (16) S2.1%(18) A totol of S1 porticiponts use electronic Jevices for tbis purpose 2S.2% (1S)
76.8%(4S) 84% (47) S.6% (2) S9.S% (22) SS.9% (21) 19.6% (11) Enteitainment {qomes, You Tube, films, music etc.) 76.8% (4S) 2S.2% (1S) 16% (9) A totol of S6 porticiponts use electronic Jevices for tbis purpose
TESL-EJ 16.4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 16
4. Think about the ieasons foi which you use English when using electionic uevices, anu tick oi the appiopiiate boxes (you can oi moie than one statement)
A: Nost infoimation available on the inteinet is in English 8S.7% (48) 14.S% (8) B: I use English because it is a way to piactice anu impiove my language skills 91.1% (S1) 8.9% (S) C: I use English to communicate with othei people because it is a language useu by many people 69.6% (S9) Su.4% (17) B: I have to use English because I am stuuying in the 0K, if I weie in my home countiy I woulu use my native language 16.1% (9) 8S.9% (47) Some commonly noteJ reosons incluJeJ: I like using English; it is easiei to wiite in English foi example on social netwoiking sites; it is uifficult to finu a lot of infoimation about eveiything in my fiist language; I have fiienus that uo not speak my fiist language. S. Fuithei infoimation S.1 I believe that using English foi vaiious puiposes thiough electionic uevices helps me piactice anuoi leain English. (tick only one answei) Stiongly Agiee Agiee Bisagiee Stiongly Bisagiee 2S.2% (1S)
76.8%(4S) 41.1%(2S) u% (u) S7.S% (21) 42.9% (24) 19.6% (11) E- mail 76.8% (4S) 2S.2% (1S) S8.9%(SS) A totol of S6 porticiponts use electronic Jevices for tbis purpose 21.4 (12) 7S% (42) 92.9%(S2) online Bictionaiies 78.6% (44) 2S% (14) 7.1%(4) NA 14.S% (8) S8.9% (SS) 26.8% (1S) Inteinet sites with English piactice exeicises 8S.7% (48) 41.1%(2S) 7S.2% (41) NA
TESL-EJ 16.4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 17 6u.7% (S4) Su.4% (17) 8.9 % (S) u% (u)
S.2 I useu English in the same way befoie coming to stuuy in the 0K. (tick only one answei) Stiongly Agiee Agiee Bisagiee Stiongly Bisagiee 28.6% (16) S7.1% (S2) 8.9% (S) S.4% (S)
S.S Between A anu B inuicate which you believe helps you moie with youi language leaining A: 0sing Web pages that aie uesigneu foi English language leaining (http:www.onestopenglish.com, www.englishpiactice.com, www.manythings.oig) 28.6% (16) B: Boing vaiious othei things but using the English language to uo so (such as accessing infoimation on the WWW, communicating with fiienusfamily,listening to music etc.) 71.4% (4u)
Some commonly noteJ reosons incluJeJ: Foi A: "on the inteinet when communicating we use othei English, not coiiect English"; "using web pages with exeicises gives you answei if coiiect oi not what you use." Foi B: "uoing uiffeient things helps you see anu use ieal language"; "many times to know only giammai but uon't use uoes not help." 6. Please inuicate whethei the following aie tiue oi not tiue foi you ( tiue oi foi not tiue)
Tiue
Not tiue A: I think that mobile uevices aie convenient because I can have them with me all the time anu use them in the same way as my computei 8S.7% (48) 14.S% (8) B: I piefei using books to seaich foi infoimation iathei than the inteinet S.4% (S) 94.6% (SS) C: I communicate thiough social netwoiking sites (Facebook, Twittei etc.) with people whose fiist language is English. 78.6% (44) 21.4% (12) B: If I uon't know something the fiist thing I will uo is seaich it on the inteinet 91.1% (S1) 8.9% (S) E: When using electionic uevices I use moie than one application at the 87.S% 12.S%
TESL-EJ 16.4, March 2013 Jarvis & Achilleos 18 same time. (ex: listen to music, seaich the WWW, chat on social netwoiking sites) (49) (7) F: When I uo not unueistanu a woiu oi phiase I look it up in online uictionaiy 92.9% (S2) 7.1% (4) u: If I have a small poitable uevice with me at uiffeient times I have moie chances of using the English language in vaiious ways iathei than only using my computei. 87.S% (49) 12.S% (7) B: 0sing new technologies in English helps me with my language leaining 91.1% (S1) 8.9% (S) I: I uiu not use the English language when using technology befoie coming to stuuy in the 0K 14.S% (8) 8S.7% (48)
Thank you foi completing this questionnaiie.
Copyiight 1994 - 2u1S TESL-E}, ISSN 1u72-4SuS Copyiight iests with the authois.
Anna Comas-Quinn, Raquel Mardomingo and Chris Valentine - Mobile Blogs in Language Learning - Making The Most of Informal and Situated Learning Opportunities