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Intercultural Education
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Social representations of diversity:
multi/intercultural education in a South
African urban school
Nicole Carignan
a
, Roland G. Pourdavood
b
, Lonnie C. King
c
&
Nosisi Feza
c
a
University of Quebec at Montreal, Canada
b
Cleveland State University, USA
c
Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa
Available online: 21 Aug 2006
To cite this article: Nicole Carignan, Roland G. Pourdavood, Lonnie C. King & Nosisi Feza (2005):
Social representations of diversity: multi/intercultural education in a South African urban school ,
Intercultural Education, 16:4, 381-393
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Intercultural Education,
Vol. 16, No. 4, October 2005, pp. 381393
ISSN 1467-5986 (print)/ISSN 1469-8439 (online)/05/04038113
2005 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/14675980500304371
Social representations of diversity:
multi/intercultural education in a South
African urban school
1
Nicole Carignan
1
*, Roland G. Pourdavood
2
, Lonnie C. King
3

and Nosisi Feza
3
1
University of Quebec at Montreal, Canada;
2
Cleveland State University, USA;
3
Nelson
Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa
Taylor and Francis Ltd CEJI_A_130420.sgm 10.1080/14675980500304371 Intercultural Education 1467-5986 (print)/1469-8439 (online) Original Article 2005 Taylor & Francis 16 4000000October 2005 Dr NicoleCarignan Department of Specialized Education, Faculty of EducationUniversity of Quebec at Montreal (UQAM)University of AarhusC. P. 8888, succursale Centre-VilleMontrealQuebec, H3C 3P8Canada +514-987-3000 ext.4772 +514-987-3430 carignan.nicole@uqam.ca
The story of School X started in South Africa in 1875. At that time, the school was built for white
children only. More than hundred years later, the 1994 elections demarcated the end of the apart-
heid era and the school enrolled black Xhosa-speaking children for the first time. As a result, in
2004, 90% of the students were black Xhosa-speaking. The theoretical perspectives of our study
are based on notions of multicultural and intercultural education, and of diversity. Our study is
embedded in a socio-constructivist inquiry paradigm. Using questionnaires and interviews, we
aimed to understand the social representations regarding diversity of a principal, a teacher, seven
students and four parents in a K-7 open school. We examined diversity of values, cultures, reli-
gions, languages, attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, etc. regarding a multi/intercultural perspective in
education. We attempted to discern what the participants understandings of diversity were, how
they identified diversity, and why they justified their practices and actions with respect to diversity.
The song can only be beautiful if we all play the same tune. (Esm Goosen, Multime-
dia, 2004)
This is the title of a painting that is part of an exhibition in Nelson Mandela Metropoli-
tan Museum of Art, Port Elizabeth, South Africa
Introduction
The story of the school studied here, referred to as School X, started in South Africa
in 1875. At that time, the school was built for white children only. More than one
*Corresponding author. Department of Specialized Education, Faculty of Education, University
of Quebec at Montreal (UQAM), C. P. 8888, succursale Centre-Ville, Montreal, Quebec H3C
3P8, Canada. Email: carignan.nicole@uqam.ca
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382 N. Carignan et al.
hundred years later, the 1994 elections demarcated the end of the apartheid era and
the school enrolled black Xhosa-speaking children for the first time. In 2004, the
school became a R-7 school (R stands for remedial), which enrolls approximately
470 learners. Among the student population, 90% are black Xhosa-speaking. This
school presently attracts black parents while white parents tend to prefer schools that
cater to white children. While most of the students are black Xhosa-speaking, almost
all teachers are white English-speaking. The communication within the school is
strictly English. However, parents neither necessarily master English nor live in the
community that the school serves.
Theoretical perspectives
The study builds on theoretical perspectives relating to multicultural and intercul-
tural education, and diversity. Multiculturalism can be viewed as the potential for
social tensions and antagonism between the recognition of diversity, with the risk of
fragmentation, and the necessity of defining a common society by affirming a
common national identity. Applied to teaching and learning, multiculturalism is:
based on the assumption that the primary goal of public education is to foster the
intellectual, social, and personal development of virtually all students to their highest
potential. [It] includes the movement toward equity, curriculum reform, the process of
becoming interculturally competent, and the commitment to combat prejudice and
discrimination, especially racism. (Bennett, 1999, p. 11)
According to Hoffman (1996) and McLaren (1995), multicultural education can be
either traditional, liberal or radical. Firstly, the traditional perspective, which sees
culture as fixed, essentialist and predetermined (Taguieff, 1997), posits a superior
universal culture. It assumes that universality is the manifestation of Western
centrism and that assimilation should be promoted for others (Hannoun, 1987). In
fact, the consequences of such an approach are the perpetuation of the established
groups hegemony, as well as the marginalization of disadvantaged or segregated
groups. It favors the reproduction mainstream societys norms and values (Bourdieu
& Passeron, 1970). This perspective does not call into question processes of racism
or ethnocentric biases relating to, for instance, a Western orientation, Occidentalism
or Eurocentrism. For traditionalists, the world is as it is!
Secondly, multicultural education that is liberal promotes cultural pluralism. It
views culture as dynamic and flexible. Liberal multicultural education interrogates the
social construction of superiority/inferiority, discrimination and exclusion based on
physical/ethnic differences, and notions of ethnocentric biases (Preiswerk & Perrot,
1975) and universality. This approach supports the diversification of the curriculum,
adding cultural content, adapting teaching styles, and considering differences and
similarities without folklorizing cultures proposed in the curriculum (Banks, 1999).
Banks (1999) assumes that these practices should be included throughout all aspects
of the curriculum. For liberals, the world could be different and better!
Thirdly, a radical perspective attempts to resist capitalist values relating to blind
mass consumption and hegemonic power in criticizing a dominant Occidental
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Social representations of diversity 383
worldview that supports inequity. The aim of this approach is the elimination of
oppression of one group of people by another [and] that the entire educational
program is redesigned to reflect the concerns of diverse cultural groups (Sleeter &
Grant, 1994, p. 209). It also involves students in democratic decision making,
lower-class and minority parents with schools in local community action projects,
and diverse racial, gender and disability groups in non-traditional roles. This recon-
structionist perspective promotes equity and accessibility to a rich and sound curric-
ulum in which all students can represent themselves when they attend school. It
denunciates injustice and oppression, and it favors communication, relations, inter-
action and interdependency when two cultures come into contact. The world needs
to change for proponents of radical multicultural education.
Partly due to the previous, some authors prefer the term intercultural education
because it explores alternative ways of communicating (Camilleri & Cohen-Emer-
ique, 1989) that engage all school actors in the process of transformation accepting
to transform and to be transformed by those with whom we interact (Hannoun,
1987; Ouellet, 1991; Lal, 2004). While multicultural education focuses on the adap-
tation of different aspects of the school, intercultural education emphasizes interde-
pendence among people, interaction, interrelationships, exchange, reciprocity and
solidarity. Intercultural education links to the recognition of the past, present, and
future of human realization, contribution and civilization notions of time as well
as to interactions that occur within a culture and among cultures notions of space
(Ollivier, 1988).
Diversity
According to Sleeter and Grant (1994), we cannot pretend to offer a decent educa-
tion if we do not consider diversity regarding race, culture, language, religion,
gender, disability groups, non-traditional roles, attitudes, beliefs, values and behav-
iors. Diversity also implies an understanding of the mechanisms of prejudice, stereo-
types, ethnocentrism, discrimination, assimilation, segregation, and racism. For
Remillard (2000, p. 130), teachers often enter professional programs viewing their
own cultural behaviors as the standard. Therefore, this point of view invites a shift
from a perspective seeing difference as a problem to diversity as a resource. While
multi-cultural refers to a perspective of recognizing diversities, inter-cultural refers to
interdependence, interconnections and interrelationships (Stonier, 1998). In the
context of our research, diversity needs to be seen in terms recognizing variety in
terms of race, gender, disabilities, values, cultures, traditions, religions, languages,
behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, history, contributions to humanity, and ways of think-
ing, enacting, communicating and organizing the environment.
Our study is embedded within a socio-constructivist inquiry paradigm. In terms of
ontology, socio-constructivism assumes that realities are multiple, intangible mental
constructions, socially and experientially based, local and specific in nature and
dependent for their form and content on the individual persons or groups holding
the constructions(Guba & Lincoln, 1994, p. 111). These constructions can be seen
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384 N. Carignan et al.
as created realities (Guba & Lincoln, 1989, p. 143). Also, it aims toward making
inquiries in more natural settings, collecting more situational information solicit-
ing emic viewpoints to assist in determining the meanings and purposes that people
ascribe to their actions (Lincoln & Guba, 1994, p.110).
In terms of epistemology, our study adopts a subjectivist perspective. The
constructor/investigator and the object of construction/investigation are assumed to
be interactively linked so that the findings are literally created as the investigation
proceeds (Guba & Lincoln, 1994, p. 111). In terms of methodology, it suggests that
individual constructions can be elicited and refined only through interaction between
and among the investigators and respondents (p. 111). It implies that triangulation
occurs when researchers constantly compare data independently.
Study design and method
2
We used questionnaires and interviews to better understand the social representations
regarding diversity of a principal, a teacher, seven students and four parents in a K-7
open school in South Africa (School X). We examined the existing variance in values,
cultures, religions, languages, attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, etc. that related to perspec-
tives regarding multi/intercultural approaches in education. We attempted to gain
insight into what the participants understandings of diversity were, how they identified
diversity, and why they justified their practices and actions with respect to diversity.
We conducted our research in English, the language of communication required
inside the school. The first two investigators were actively involved during the full
process of the research. The third investigator was particularly involved in the field
research during the data collection and the triangulation procedures. The fourth
person was actively involved during the process of data analysis and triangulation.
Selection of the participants
The selection of participants was based on three criteria: (1) willingness to partici-
pate in the research; (2) participants capability to articulate their thoughts; and (3)
diversity of the participants sociocultural backgrounds. The principal and the Grade
6 mathematics teacher were keen to participate and contacted students and parents,
asking them to also participate in the study. We are aware that our selection of
participants constitutes a limitation because we did not select the students and
parents ourselves. The principal and the teacher selected students and parents who
were fluent in English and able to express their opinions comfortably. In line with
standard ethical procedures, we have used pseudonyms in order to preserve confi-
dentiality.
Design procedures
The first phase of the study lasted one month and took place in January 2004. The
intention of the first phase was to establish a research framework. The second phase
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Social representations of diversity 385
of the data collection, which included questionnaires, interviews and classroom
observations, started in February and continued through April 2004. Different ques-
tionnaires were designed during this phase. The principal, one teacher, seven
students and four parents were involved in the study.
Data collection
We collected responses to the questionnaires by the principal (who was also a Grade
7 mathematics teacher), a Grade 6 mathematics teacher, seven Grade 6 students,
and four parents. We invited them for follow-up interviews that lasted between 30
and 60 minutes and occurred at the school. We met one grandparent at home. All
interviews were audio-taped and transcribed verbatim by a professional.
Data analysis
Qualitative research usually investigates individuals, groups, cultures and society
from an insiders perspective. In the framework of this analysis, the school actors
social representations might be considered as stories to be shared as a collective story
connected to collective social representations, including the voices of the silent
people who believe in a democratic education for an inclusive society. Jodelet
(1991, 1993) has proposed that representations are transmitted, socially shared and
built through experiences, knowledge and ways of thinking that can be learned.
Social representations also aim to organize practices, actions, and ways of communi-
cating, as well as contribute to establish the vision of participation in a community
(Moscovici & Abric, 1984; Sanders & Carignan, 2003).
Although they are dynamic, social representations refer to heritage, tradition and
education. As we mentioned before, social representations can be connected to
collective representations and understood through the process of transformation
seen in terms of functionality, that is, the functions of orientation, identification and
justification (Abric, 1994; Martin Sanchez, 2000). The orientation determines what
are attitudes, opinions and behaviors. The identification examines how a social
representation can be compared to other systems of values. The justification esti-
mates why social practices are pertinent in a given context. In the context of our
research, we will focus on the social representations of different school actors regard-
ing the way they understood diversity through the process of orientation, identifica-
tion and justification.
Through their reflections, when school actors express their opinions about their
social representations, they express their life story their singular but contextualized
voice. In other words, a participant can explain her/his sense of her/his social repre-
sentations regarding diversity. S/he can also express her/his own social representa-
tions that might be connected to a collective representation and shared with other
participants. This explicit and implicit content analysis focuses on multi-layers of
social representations while their characteristics emerge from data collected
(Lcuyer, 1988; Deslauriers, 1991). Both data collection and data analysis
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occurred simultaneously during the course of the study. Categories were developed
from participants responses to questionnaires, interviews and classroom observation
field notes. These categories describe the school actors social representations on
diversity.
Findings
This section describes the findings pertaining to school actors social representations
regarding diversity. We identified social representations of the principal, the teacher,
the students and the parents. For each category of participants, we will describe and
analyze who they are, what their social representations are regarding the way they
understand diversity (attitudes, opinions, behaviors, etc.), how their social represen-
tation confronted other systems of values, and why they considered their social prac-
tices pertinent in their particular context.
Principal
The principal was English-speaking and in his 40s. He had been teaching for 27
years, which included seven years in administration. He also assumed the task of
teaching mathematics in Grade 7. Although he obtained a BA degree, he still
attended several seminars and workshops for professional development purposes.
His expectations of his students reflected his philosophy of education: I want each
person to be able to manage himself/herself effectively and to care for others and to
therefore make a meaningful contribution to society, he stated. He seemed to be a
humanist, wanting the best for the present and future of his students. For him,
diversity was the key to delivering a new curriculum that proposed new ways of
teaching, learning, planning and producing original pedagogical materials, as well as
assessment. He evoked the challenges the school had to deal with:
We were all pretty comfortable with the old traditional system; weve been teaching that
way for many years. Weve been taught that way for many years and we were sure
[about] what we were doing and what we were trying to achieve there.
He was sure that this education is a good education for all. He hoped that his
school would be well on its way, slowly and without putting too much of a burden
on teachers, trying to provide resources for the teachers, training them to make their
delivery good, and help all black parents and children reach this universal culture. In
other words, he was concerned about how to deliver an effective curriculum and
maintain a caring environment in promoting the best education for all students. He
felt that he had to help develop the whole child as a well-rounded, effective individ-
ual who cares for other people.
The principal was also challenged by the issue of language and culture, as well as
the poverty and unemployment that deeply affected the black community, and
which had a huge impact on the school. He deplored the fact that black students
spoke their mother tongue (Xhosa) when they interacted in small groups during
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Social representations of diversity 387
math class or during the break. He explained that more and more white parents were
placing their children in schools that were still holding out as long as possible, stay-
ing as white as possible.
The Xhosa community constitutes a majority in The Province of Eastern Cape
and is one of the most important black ethnocultural groups in the country of South
Africa. Because of the profound transformation of society in the last decade, the
principal assumed that a multicultural society desires citizens who are going to make
their distinct personal, cultural and social contribution. Although the principals
social representations regarding diversity recognized the consequences of the estab-
lished values associated with mainstream society, he devoted little thought to the
mechanisms of racism and ethnocentrism that provoke discrimination. On the one
hand, he admitted that the world is as it is. On the other, he recognized that the
world might be improved.
Teacher
The teacher was English-speaking, in her 40s, and obtained an advanced degree in
education in 1985. She had been teaching for 16 years. She regularly attended semi-
nars and workshops for professional development purposes. The class we observed
contained 34 students (18 boys and 16 girls), which is comparable to the ratio of the
school as a whole. As a mathematics Grade 6 teacher, she expected to see her
students in successful careers in the future.
She believed that the childrens future is in the teachers hands. According to her,
if teachers do not provide students with a good education, they are to be blamed in a
sense
because without an education in this world they are not going anywhere, especially in
primary school because they all have to go to school. When they leave School after
Grade 10 or 11 they are not our problem any longer but Primary School is the molding.
She asserted that teachers probably see students more often than their parents do.
She also regretted that she wasted a lot of time disciplining instead of teaching. She
noted that ten years ago she had been able to get through much more work than she
did at the time of the interview because she now had to quiet students, ask them to
get out their books, give instructions ten times instead of once, and continually disci-
pline them. If theres noise and children walk around, children are distracted if
the children have no self-discipline, I cannot discipline them; they actually have to
learn to control themselves within a group. She also deplored that some students
engaged in bullying and fighting [although they] are not allowed in the School
Policy. However, teachers apply a positive disciplinary system and students could
get credits for good work and good behavior that allow them actually to go to the
computer room. They could get demerits, too. Moreover, she believed it was more
and more difficult to teach in a changing South Africa.
South Africa has always been a Christian-based country, which it still is, to some extent.
But it has changed with all the different cultures coming in. From my point of view,
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388 N. Carignan et al.
being a Christian, it is very difficult working with children who dont even have that
background anymore. It is hard for me because I come from a different background. I
find that children were more disciplined 10, 15 years ago than they are now and you
cant blame them.
She also addressed her concerns about cultural differences, and societal and parental
values. She commented that South Africa first got TV in 1976, and that she saw an
impact on children who were exposed to so much more of it than the children she had
taught before. The Apartheid Government did not want our children to be exposed
to what was on TV. The Afrikaner is very eng, meaning strict at home. For
her, family values had changed and South Africa had changed a lot in the previous 20
to 30 years, the implication being that black people were now allowed to attend school.
The teacher described what she considered to be acceptable attitudes through
giving students a good education and an opportunity to achieve results, as well as
acceptable behaviors, when supported by a punitive and rewarding discipline struc-
ture. She was still disappointed by the lack of discipline of students in the present as
compared to those she taught at the beginning of her career. She believed that she
had to give students a good grounding as well as a well-rounded development spiri-
tually, physically and mentally. She expressed her disappointment in the cultural
changes she saw around her, comparing them to the past. For her, universality
implied the manifestation of Western-centrism, referring to Afrikaners values and
the assimilation that should be promoted for the others, which meant that blacks
were to learn from the established groups hegemonic values. For her, the world was
better before. She saw diversity as a problem rather than a resource.
Students
We selected seven students, three boys and four girls identified as S1 to S7. In total,
five children out of seven lived with both parents, one lived with a single mother, and
one lived with her grandmother, although she had both parents. Among the fathers,
two of them were engineers, one was unemployed, and three belonged to the cate-
gory of highly educated professionals one was a medical doctor and the other an
engineer. Three mothers were receptionists, one was a domestic worker, one a
worker and two were unemployed. One child had his parents, but an aunt who was a
nurse and an uncle who was a taxi driver supported his family. It is interesting to
note that five out of seven families had two incomes, which is particularly significant
because many Xhosa/black families have to confront problems of massive unemploy-
ment and HIV/AIDS, which has decimated the population. Some children, because
of the death of their parents, have had to take care of younger brothers and sisters. In
this particular school, parents were most likely able to afford school tuition fees
something that is not a typical situation in South Africa.
The size of childrens families was small: two families had one child, four families
had two children, and one family had three. In total, the seven families included 13
children 7 girls and 6 boys. They were all between 10 and 12 years old. If we
consider the language spoken at home, four students spoke Xhosa and the other
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Social representations of diversity 389
three spoke English. Although the school required parents and children to speak
English at home, four children identified Xhosa has their home language.
When we asked students if they were happy at school, it is interesting to note that
five out of seven answered happy while two girls answered fairly happy. All
students stated that what they liked the most is learning to have a good future (S1),
you will never grow up without it (S2), discovering new things (S3), learning
areas are exciting (S4), to know more animals, natural sciences, and people (S5),
history of ancient things (S6), and Bible and maths (S7). Two also specified the
importance of playing with friends during the breaks and being encouraged by them.
As to what they liked the least, they noted that they dont like detention because it
is just a waste of time, hate Afrikaans [language spoken by Dutch settlers] because
it is too complicated, Xhosa and English because it is boring, difficult, and dont
like writing stories and stuff. We can identify answers here that relate to the
students background. In general, students mostly valued their language and culture
at home as well as at school. Obviously, parents (and grandparents) valued a good
education because all children stated without any hesitation that they received
support at home for their homework.
The establishment of social norms among boys and girls differed. Boys were
concerned about the future and being with their friends while girls liked drawing and
reading. Students expressed how they identified their realization when they
connected it to the world: We are like the same people and we are killing the world
and nature. Thats why we are all connected. Related to their beliefs, students could
justify their actions because for them it was important to balance their life and they
felt that without fun and education they were nothing.
Three girls and two boys stated that they received support from their community
when doing homework. Five out of seven seemed very confident, believing that they
would reach university and make it happen. Students valued a good education and
enjoyed discovering knowledge when they were learning. It [education] is important
to me because my mother and father did not have the education that we have now,
so it is important for me to learn more than they did, so that if they dont know
something, I can tell them and correct them (S2). Boys were more concerned than
girls about receiving passing grades, having a successful career in the future, and
being with their friends. Students identified their realization when they connected it
to the world. Students seemed to understand culture and education as dynamic,
flexible and open. For them, the world was improving.
Parents
We selected three parents and one grandparent, among them three females and one
male. The grandmother was in her 60s, the father was in his 40s, and the two moth-
ers were in their 30s. Only one mother was single. At home, the grandmother spoke
English and the father spoke Xhosa, one mother spoke Xhosa as well as English, and
the other one spoke English. Their children were aged 11 and 12. The grandmother,
who had been an accountant, was now retired. The father was a medical doctor, one
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390 N. Carignan et al.
mother was a domestic worker, and the other, who was not employed at the time of
the study, had experience as a librarian.
Parents stated that school was a place where their children could get a good and
spiritual education (P1), a high level of education (P2), and knowledge (P3). It
was also a place with a good [social] environment (P1), provided by good leader-
ship and administration (P4). A good school was regarded as related to the develop-
ment of children. Besides the fact that a school should favor good education and
good environment, and adequate children growth, a good school, according to these
caregivers, should offer dedicated teachers (P4), encourage good behavior (P1)
like punctuality (P2) as well as provide good facilities (P4) and sports (P1) that
should be realized when parents take the responsibility of paying school fees (P2).
Parents explained how they identified their concerns when they connected the
present to their past experiences. Related to their beliefs, parents desired a promising
education for their children and a good societal environment. They wanted to see
their children become responsible citizens through life in a democratic and equitable
society. Although black parents in South Africa attach value to good schooling and
sound education for their children, some have been disappointed, even frustrated,
because open schools do not recognize family values and traditional customs (Ston-
ier, 1998). Therefore, the important challenges that schools as well as families have
to deal with in the new South Africa are: (1) to speak a common language without
neglecting the language of the majority, which is Xhosa in the Province of Eastern
Cape; (2) to be able to understand diversity; and (3) to communicate for the
purpose of childrens education, multiculturally and interculturally.
Challenges ahead
This article aims to contribute to the recognition of diversity that impacts teaching
and learning. Often, cultural differences are regarded as a disadvantage, a depriva-
tion or a lack of something. Our reflection encourages understanding cultural differ-
ences as a challenge and as a resource rather than a problem. We can dream that in
each classroom it will be possible to recognize students language and culture as well
as to prepare them adequately for a successful life. As Darling-Hammond (2002,
p. 201) points out, it is possible to learn that to teach for social justice is explor-
ing the experiences of others and appreciating how those inform their worldviews,
perspectives, and opportunities; and evaluating how schools and classrooms operate
and to enable learning for all students.
Furthermore, ethnocentrism, discrimination and racism do not allow all students
to receive a good education. Du Toit notes that the most important problem expe-
rienced by Black students has to do with feelings of alienation and rejection, feelings
of not belonging, and of racism (1994, p. 113, cited in Stonier, 1998, p. 224).
Instead, school actors have to promote social justice, equity, equality, tolerance and
mutual respect. Cilliers (1993, cited by Stonier 1998), argues that teacher and
non-Black students are largely unaware of the feelings of rejection and estrangement
experienced by Black students in open schools (p. 224). It is interesting to note that
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Social representations of diversity 391
school actors rarely talk about discrimination and racism; it seems talking about
cultural, social and economic issues is taboo, a kind of proscription observed by
people for their own protection.
From our perspective, we should move beyond the recognition of diversity and
cultural differences to a concern for equitable interaction and cultural pluralism. If
ethnic/cultural diversity does not exist in a homogeneous classroom, then diversity
should be clearly demonstrated in the materials and textbooks associated with all
subject areas, as well as pedagogical strategies. We agree with Stonier (1998) that we
should not only refer to a perspective of recognizing diversities (multi-cultural perspec-
tives), but also refer to interdependence, interconnections and interrelationships
(inter-cultural perspectives) in all aspects of education for all children. In the era of
globalization, multi/intercultural education encourages us to find alternatives in
teaching, learning and schooling, as well as to learn to establish a togetherness
based on equal terms.
Notes on contributors
Nicole Carignan is an Associate Professor in comparative and intercultural educa-
tion. She is also interested in intercultural music education, intercultural math-
ematics education, the role of women in musical creation and primary and
secondary teacher education.
Roland G. Pourdavood is an Associate Professor in mathematics education. He was
Fulbright Grantee in South Africa in 2004. He is also interested in ethnomathe-
matics, socioconstructivist inquiry and primary and secondary mathematics
teacher transformation.
Lonnie C. King is a lecturer in mathematics education. He was a mathematics
teacher and deputy principal in a primary school of Port Elizabeth (South
Africa) for many years. He is particularly interested in geometry.
Nosisi Feza obtained a masters degree in education in 2004. She is a lecturer in
mathematics education. She is involved in doing research in township schools
regarding the impact of students language and sociocultural backgrounds in the
process of learning mathematics.
Notes
1. An earlier draft of this paper was presented at the American Educational Research Associa-
tions Annual Conference (AERA), Montreal, April 2005.
2. This research was supported by the Fulbright Scholar Program, the Nelson Mandela Metro-
politan University (NMMU), and the Department of Science, Mathematics, and Technology
in Education (SMATE) in Port Elizabeth (South Africa) in 2004. However, all opinions
expressed in this paper belong to authors.
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