Electrical Controls: AENG 70 Farm Electrification Design Asst. Prof. Mark Keylord S. Onal

AENG 70 Farm Electrification Design
Asst. Prof. Mark Keylord S. Onal

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ELECTRICAL CONTROLS

have made a tremendous contribution towards mechanizing and
automating many agricultural and food processing operations
better accuracy and reliability are obtained
can safely and accurately control equipment
well-suited to work with computer-controlled systems

Classification of Electrical Controls
1. Open-loop control system
2. Closed-loop control system

Open-loop Control System
- the controlling device operates independently of the process
variable it controls
- the main characteristic of this type of system is that a person is
required to operate the switching
- a person must be available at the appropriate times to start and
stop the system

Fan controlled by manual switch (open-loop control system).

controlling device: manually operated switch
controlled device: ventilation fan
process variable: temperature in a building

Closed-loop Control System
- the switching function is done automatically by devices sensing
the process variable(s)
- uses sensor and feedback to automatically control devices

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Fan controlled by thermostat (closed-loop control system).

controlling device: thermostat
controlled device: fan
process variable: temperature in a building

Note: Thermostat uses a bimetallic strip that bends when the
temperature of the air around it changes. The bending action opens
or closes the switch. In this way information from the temperature is
used to control the switch. This flow of energy or information back
from the process to the controller is called feedback.

Switches and Switching Circuits

Simple switches and even more complex controls are often
classified according to the actions the switch can perform. Four
designations used to specify switch action are:
1. The number of poles the switch has
2. The number of throws the switch has
3. The number of breaks the switch has
4. Whether the switch is normally open or normally closed

Contacts
- the parts of a switch that actually opens and closes circuit, or
connects and disconnects circuit
- work as a pair, or a set, with one moveable contact and one
stationary contact

Pole the moveable contact in a switch
Throw the stationary contact in a switch

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Single-pole switch has one moveable contact
Double-pole switch has two moveable contacts operating together
Single-throw switch has only one position in which each pole
closes a set of contacts or completes a circuit
Double-throw switch has two positions in which each pole makes a
contact and completes a circuit

Breaks usually either single break or double break

Single-break Double-break

Normal Position of a Switch
1. Normally Open (NO)
If the switch must be physically actuated, or moved, to
complete the circuit, it is designated NO and has normally
open contacts.
2. Normally Closed (NC)
If it must be actuated to open the circuit, it is designated NC
and has normally closed contacts.

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Types of Switches
1. Toggle Switch
- the type of switch we are accustomed to using in lighting
controls
- the switch is moved from one position to another by
moving an external handle called a toggle

Common SPST toggle switch.

Wiring diagram of a three-way switch for lighting control.

Schematic diagram of a three-way switch for lighting control.


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Wiring diagram of a three-way and four-way switches for lighting control.

2. Knife Switch
- consists of hinged metal blades (the moveable contact)
and metal clips (the stationary contacts) into which the
blades fit
- a handle, insulated from the contacts, permits moving the
blades

Common DPDT knife switch.

3. Mercury Switch
- the switch is closed by liquid mercury completing a circuit
between a set of fixed contacts
- the liquid mercury and contacts are contained within a glass
tube
- common applications include the auto trunk light switch,
sump pump float switch and some thermostat switches
- can be used for only a relatively small current


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Mercury tilt switch.

4. Snap-action Switch
- widely used for limit switches
- requires very small forces to actuate and quickly snaps from
one position to the other
- often used in a control circuit to sense or limit action
- a common example is a door switch as used on a refrigerator
or a car door

Simple snap-action limit switch.

Limit switch application door switch.


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5. Push-button Switch

6. Selector Switch


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LIGHTING

a good lighting system will place the proper quantity and quality of
light where it is needed in a cost-effective way
the amount of light needed is highly dependent on the tasks being
performed
having good lighting is vital to health, comfort, convenience, and
safety

Light
- is defined as visually evaluated radiant energy
- it is a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
- visible light varies in color, color being determined by
wavelength

Electromagnetic spectrum.

Natural sources of light:
Sun dominant source of light
Moonlight
Lightning
Bioluminiscence (such as produced by fireflies)
Thermoluminiscence (produced by heated objects)

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Manmade sources of light:
Incandescent producing light by heating a filament
Gaseous Discharge producing light when excited atoms
return to their normal state and radiate energy in the process

Lighting Quantities and Units

1. Lighting effectiveness amount and quality of light received at
a particular surface from a source per unit of power input

Variables affecting lighting effectiveness:
type of light source
how much the surroundings reflect and diffuse the light
distance from the lamp to work

2. Illuminance the intensity at a point and is measured in units of
lux (lx) for the SI-system or in footcandles (fc) for the inch-
pound system

3. Luminous Flux the quantity of light output by a source and is
measured in lumens

4. Lumen (lm) is the amount or quantity of light needed to
illuminate one square foot of area at an intensity of one
footcandle

Example:
- to produce a level of illumination of 20 fc, 20 lm for every
square foot would be required
- a level of 215 lx would require 215 lm per square meter

5. Footcandle (fc) unit of measure used when describing the
amount of light in a room and is expressed in lumens per
square foot

6. Footlambert (fl) defined as the luminance of a surface
reflecting, transmitting, or emitting one lumen (lm) of
illumination per square foot of area in the direction being
viewed


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7. Efficiency refers to the amount of energy converted to visible
light

8. Efficacy is a measure of the lumens per watt produced by the
lamp

Lighting parameters, symbol and units.

Lighting parameters.

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Light intensity.

light intensity varies inversely as the square of distance from
the source


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Types of Light Sources
Incandescent Lamps
Fluorescent Lamps
High Intensity Discharge Lamps
Mercury Lamps
Metal Halide Lamps
Sodium Lamps

Incandescent Lamps
- critically dependent on the wattage that even for a small
fluctuation of the current or voltage, its life, output and
efficiency is affected
- less than 10% of the wattage is utilized to produce light and the
rest produces heat
- considered as poor choice for energy conservation

Typical incandescent lamp.

Fluorescent Lamps
- considered as the best and widely used type of lamp
- requires ballast, made of coil with a purpose to limit the current
in the circuit, in its circuit
- about 20% of its energy input becomes light and 80% is
converted to heat including the ballast heat energy loss

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Typical fluorescent lamp.

Mercury Lamps
- combination of the arc discharge characteristics of a
fluorescent lamp and the compact focusable shape of an
incandescent lamp
- requires ballast which could be mounted away from the lamp
- dimming of mercury lamp is possible with a dimming ballast
- not suitable for installation which is subject to constant
switching

Typical mercury lamp.

Metal Halide Lamps
- are mercury lamps which have been improved by the addition
of halides of metal such as Thallium, Indium, or Sodium to the
arc tube

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- the addition of these halides makes the light frequency radiate
other than the basic mercury colors and at the same instance
increases its efficacy
- strike time is shorter than mercury lamps which is around 2 to 3
minutes

Typical metal halide lamp.

High Pressure Sodium Lamps
- the efficacy including the ballast losses is double of the
corrected mercury lamps
- has a yellowish color similar to low wattage incandescent lamp
- not sensitive to voltage changes unlike metal halide lamp

Typical high pressure sodium lamp

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Tungsten-Halogen Lamps
- a special type of incandescent lamp and its advantage over it is
its ability to maintain a constant level of light output throughout
its life
- its life span is 3 to 4 times longer than the normal incandescent
lamp
- 13% of its wattage produce light and 87% produces heat
- more efficient than incandescent lamp

Typical tungsten-halogen lamp.


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Comparison of major lamp types.

_____________________________________________________________________________


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Principles of Illumination

Illumination
- intensity of light per unit time
Electric Illumination
- production of light by means of electricity and its application to
provide efficient, comfortable, and safe vision
Quantity of Light
- refers to amount of illumination or luminous flux per unit area
Quality of Light
- refers to the distribution of brightness in the lighting installation

Factors that affect illumination:
Brightness
- is the light that seems to radiate from an object being viewed
Contrast
- the brightness ratio between an object and its background
Glare
- is a strong, steady, dazzling light or reflection
Diffuseness
- refers to the control of shadows cast by light
Perfect Diffusion
- is an equal intensities of light clashing from all direction
producing no shadows

Characteristics that define coloration:
Hue
- is the quality attributed by which we recognize and describe
colors
Brilliance or Value
- is the difference between the resultant colors of the same hue
Saturation or Chroma
- is the difference from the purity of the colors


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Rule of thumb of illumination level for a particular fixture:
10 footcandle
- is adequate for halls and corridors
30 footcandle
- is sufficient for areas between work stations such as in offices
other than desk areas
50 footcandle
- is satisfactory on spaces where office work is done

Recommended illumination for dairy farm.


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Recommended illumination for poultry farm.


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Recommended illumination for general areas associated with dairy and poultry facilities.

Recommended illumination for residences.


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Types of Lighting Systems

Classification by layout and location
a. General lighting system
b. Localized lighting system
c. Local or supplementary lighting system

Classification of luminaires
a. Direct
b. Semi-direct
c. General diffuse (direct-indirect)
d. Semi-indirect
e. Indirect

Luminaire
- is the complete lighting unit made of a light source together with
other parts

Classification by layout and location
a. General lighting system
- provides an approximately uniform level of illumination
over the entire area
- the chief advantage is that it permits flexibility in task
location
- the luminaires are usually arranged in a symmetrical plan
to fit the physical characteristics of the area

b. Localized lighting system
- has luminaires located such that lighting is more
concentrated at designated areas

c. Local or supplementary lighting system
- provides lighting only over a relatively small task area and
its immediate surroundings
- this is an economical means of providing higher
illumination levels over a small area
- it usually permits some adjustment of lighting to suit the
requirements of the individual
- example are table lamps and spot lights

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Classification of luminaires
a. Direct system have the most efficient use of light
b. Indirect system tend to give better glare control

Lighting Calculations for Interior Areas

lighting calculations can determine how many luminaires are
needed to provide the needed illumination
involves both photometric and environmental data
photometric data describe the light-emitting characteristics
of the lighting equipment
environmental data describe the nature of the interaction
of light and surfaces and the physical dimension of the
space

theoretically, the level of illumination could be calculated as:

o if the area is in square meters, the illumination is in
units of lux (lumens per square meter)
o if the area is in square feet, the illumination is in units of
footcandles (lumens per square feet)


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in actual application, a portion of the light produced will be lost
before it reaches the work plane
losses occurs both in the luminaire and at the room surface
losses are described by coefficient of utilization (CU) and light
loss factor (LLF)
coefficient of utilization represents the portion of light that
reaches the work area
light loss factor include the estimated deterioration in the
light source and estimated losses from dirt collection on
the luminaires and room surfaces

Uniformity of Light
the purpose of footcandle lighting calculation is to determine
the average illumination in a room to a working level
this working level refers to a height of about 75 cm above the
floor
the average illumination at the working level is directly related
to the maximum spacing of the light to the mounting height ratio
(S / mh)
S spacing of light fixture
mh mounting height


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Spacing and mounting height ratio.

System S/mh Ratio
Direct Concentrating 0.40
Direct Spreading 1.20
Direct Indirect Diffusing 1.30
Semi-Direct-Indirect 1.50

Example:
A 40-watt fluorescent lamp 120 cm long produces 3200 lumens of
light in a room having a general dimension of 10 x 20 ft. Find the
illumination on the floor.

Solution:

Example:
Compute for the brightness of a fixture with a 1 x 4 plastic diffuser
having a transmittance of 0.6 and illuminated by 2 pieces of 3200 lm
lamp assuming 100% use of light flux.

Solution:


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Example:
A school classroom with a general dimension of 24 x 30 ft is lighted
with 10 fixtures of four F40 T12 WW rapid start lamp. Calculate the
maintained illumination assuming that CU is 0.35 and LLF is 0.70.

Solution:
Referring to the table of fluorescent lamp data, each 40 W
fluorescent lamp has an output of 3,200 lumens.

Assignment:
A 6m x 18m poultry handling area is to be lighted at an average
maintained footcandle of 50 fc. How many 3-lamp fixtures of
120cm long F40 T12 WW rapid start fluorescent lamps are
required assuming the CU is 0.38 and the LLF is 0.75?


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Example:
A room with a ceiling height of 3 meters is to be lighted with directly
concentrating fluorescent lamps. What is the maximum fixture
spacing?

Solution:
Referring to the table on spacing and mounting height ratio: The
S/mh ratio of direct concentrating is 0.40

Spacing and mounting height ratio.

System S/mh Ratio
Direct Concentrating 0.40
Direct Spreading 1.20
Direct Indirect Diffusing 1.30
Semi-Direct-Indirect 1.50

Therefore, 1.2 meters is the maximum side to side distance of the
fixtures.

Electrical Controls: AENG 70 Farm Electrification Design Asst. Prof. Mark Keylord S. Onal

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Asst. Prof. Mark Keylord S. Onal

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