Universe

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Universe (disambiguation).
Part of a series on
Physical cosmology
Ilc 9yr moll4096.png
Big Bang Universe
Age of the universe
Chronology of the universe
Early universe[show]
Expansion and future[show]
Components and structure[show]
Experiments[show]
Scientists[show]
Subject history[show]
Category Category
Portal icon Astronomy portal
v t e
The Universe is all of spacetime and everything that exists therein, including a
ll planets, stars, galaxies, the contents of intergalactic space, the smallest s
ubatomic particles, and all matter and energy.[1][2][3][4][5][6] Similar terms i
nclude the cosmos, the world, reality, and nature.
The observable universe is about 46 billion light years in radius.[7] Scientific
observation of the Universe has led to inferences of its earlier stages. These
observations suggest that the Universe has been governed by the same physical la
ws and constants throughout most of its extent and history. The Big Bang theory
is the prevailing cosmological model that describes the early development of the
Universe, which is calculated to have begun 13.798 0.037 billion years ago.[8][
9] Observations of supernovae have shown that the Universe is expanding at an ac
celerating rate.[10]
There are many competing theories about the ultimate fate of the universe. Physi
cists remain unsure about what, if anything, preceded the Big Bang. Many refuse
to speculate, doubting that any information from any such prior state could ever
be accessible.[citation needed] There are various multiverse hypotheses, in whi
ch some physicists have suggested that the Universe might be one among many or e
ven an infinite number of universes that likewise exist.[11][12]
Contents [hide]
1 Historical observation
2 History
3 Etymology, synonyms and definitions
3.1 Broadest definition: reality and probability
3.2 Definition as reality
3.3 Definition as connected space-time
3.4 Definition as observable reality
4 Size, age, contents, structure, and laws
4.1 Fine tuning
5 Historical models
5.1 Creation
5.2 Philosophical models
5.3 Astronomical models
6 Theoretical models
6.1 General theory of relativity
6.2 Special relativity and space-time
6.3 Solving Einstein's field equations
6.4 Big Bang model
6.5 Multiverse theory
7 Shape of the Universe
8 See also
9 Notes and references
10 Bibliography
11 Further reading
12 External links
12.1 Videos
Historical observation[edit]
Hubble eXtreme Deep Field (XDF)
XDF size compared to the size of the Moon several thousand galaxies, each consis
ting of billions of stars, are in this small view.
XDF (2012) view each light speck is a galaxy some of these are as old as 13.2 bi
llion years[13] the visible Universe is estimated to contain 200 billion galaxie
s.
XDF image shows fully mature galaxies in the foreground plane nearly mature gala
xies from 5 to 9 billion years ago protogalaxies, blazing with young stars, beyo
nd 9 billion years.
Throughout recorded history, several cosmologies and cosmogonies have been propo
sed to account for observations of the Universe. The earliest quantitative geoce
ntric models were developed by the ancient Greek philosophers and Indian philoso
phers.[14][15] Over the centuries, more precise observations and improved theori
es of gravity led to Copernicus's heliocentric model and the Newtonian model of
the Solar System, respectively. Further improvements in astronomy led to the rea
lization that the Solar System is embedded in a galaxy composed of billions of s
tars, the Milky Way, and that other galaxies exist outside it, as far as astrono
mical instruments can reach. Careful studies of the distribution of these galaxi
es and their spectral lines have led to much of modern cosmology. Discovery of t
he red shift and cosmic microwave background radiation suggested that the Univer
se is expanding and had a beginning.[16]
History[edit]
Main article: Chronology of the universe
According to the prevailing scientific model of the Universe, known as the Big B
ang, the Universe expanded from an extremely hot, dense phase called the Planck
epoch, in which all the matter and energy of the observable universe was concent
rated. Since the Planck epoch, the Universe has been expanding to its present fo
rm, possibly with a brief period (less than 10-32 seconds) of cosmic inflation.
Several independent experimental measurements support this theoretical expansion
and, more generally, the Big Bang theory. The universe is composed of ordinary
matter (5%) including atoms, stars, and galaxies, dark matter (25%) which is a h
ypothetical particle that has not yet been detected, and dark energy (70%), whic
h is a kind of energy density that seemingly exists even in completely empty spa
ce.[17] Recent observations indicate that this expansion is accelerating because
of dark energy, and that most of the matter in the Universe may be in a form wh
ich cannot be detected by present instruments, called dark matter.[18] The commo
n use of the "dark matter" and "dark energy" placeholder names for the unknown e
ntities purported to account for about 95% of the mass-energy density of the Uni
verse demonstrates the present observational and conceptual shortcomings and unc
ertainties concerning the nature and ultimate fate of the Universe.[19]
On 21 March 2013, the European research team behind the Planck cosmology probe r
eleased the mission's all-sky map of the cosmic microwave background.[20][21][22
][23][24] The map suggests the universe is slightly older than thought. Accordin
g to the map, subtle fluctuations in temperature were imprinted on the deep sky
when the cosmos was about 370,000 years old. The imprint reflects ripples that a
rose as early, in the existence of the universe, as the first nonillionth (10-30
) of a second. Apparently, these ripples gave rise to the present vast cosmic we
b of galaxy clusters and dark matter. According to the team, the universe is 13.
798 0.037 billion years old,[9][25] and contains 4.9% ordinary matter, 26.8% dar
k matter and 68.3% dark energy. Also, the Hubble constant was measured to be 67.
80 0.77 (km/s)/Mpc.[20][21][22][24][25]
An earlier interpretation of astronomical observations indicated that the age of
the Universe was 13.772 0.059 billion years,[26] and that the diameter of the o
bservable universe is at least 93 billion light years or 8.801026 meters.[27] Acc
ording to general relativity, space can expand faster than the speed of light, a
lthough we can view only a small portion of the Universe due to the limitation i
mposed by light speed. Since we cannot observe space beyond the limitations of l
ight (or any electromagnetic radiation), it is uncertain whether the size of the
Universe is finite or infinite.
Etymology, synonyms and definitions[edit]
See also: Cosmos, Nature, World (philosophy) and Celestial spheres
The word Universe derives from the Old French word Univers, which in turn derive
s from the Latin word universum.[28] The Latin word was used by Cicero and later
Latin authors in many of the same senses as the modern English word is used.[29
] The Latin word derives from the poetic contraction Unvorsum first used by Lucr
etius in Book IV (line 262) of his De rerum natura (On the Nature of Things) whi
ch connects un, uni (the combining form of unus, or "one") with vorsum, versum (
a noun made from the perfect passive participle of vertere, meaning "something r
otated, rolled, changed").[29]
An alternative interpretation of unvorsum is "everything rotated as one" or "eve
rything rotated by one". In this sense, it may be considered a translation of an
earlier Greek word for the Universe, pe??f???, (perifor, "circumambulation"), or
iginally used to describe a course of a meal, the food being carried around the
circle of dinner guests.[30] This Greek word refers to celestial spheres, an ear
ly Greek model of the Universe. Regarding Plato's Metaphor of the sun, Aristotle
suggests that the rotation of the sphere of fixed stars inspired by the prime m
over, motivates, in turn, terrestrial change via the Sun. Careful astronomical a
nd physical measurements (such as the Foucault pendulum) are required to prove t
he Earth rotates on its axis.
A term for "Universe" in ancient Greece was t? p?? (t pn, The All, Pan (mythology)
). Related terms were matter, (t? ????, t lon, see also Hyle, lit. wood) and place
(t? ?e???, t kenn).[31][32] Other synonyms for the Universe among the ancient Gre
ek philosophers included ??s?? (cosmos) and f?s?? (meaning Nature, from which we
derive the word physics).[33] The same synonyms are found in Latin authors (totu
m, mundus, natura)[34] and survive in modern languages, e.g., the German words D
as All, Weltall, and Natur for Universe. The same synonyms are found in English,
such as everything (as in the theory of everything), the cosmos (as in cosmolog
y), the world (as in the many-worlds interpretation), and Nature (as in natural
laws or natural philosophy).[35]
Broadest definition: reality and probability[edit]
See also: EssenceEnergies distinction Distinction between created and uncreated
The broadest definition of the Universe is found in De divisione naturae by the
medieval philosopher and theologian Johannes Scotus Eriugena, who defined it as
simply everything: everything that is created and everything that is not created
.
Definition as reality[edit]
See also: Reality and Physics
More customarily, the Universe is defined as everything that exists, (has existe
d, and will exist).[36] According to our current understanding, the Universe con
sists of three principles: spacetime, forms of energy, including momentum and ma
tter, and the physical laws that relate them.
Definition as connected space-time[edit]
See also: Eternal inflation
It is possible to conceive of disconnected space-times, each existing but unable
to interact with one another. An easily visualized metaphor is a group of separ
ate soap bubbles, in which observers living on one soap bubble cannot interact w
ith those on other soap bubbles, even in principle. According to one common term
inology, each "soap bubble" of space-time is denoted as a universe, whereas our
particular space-time is denoted as the Universe, just as we call our moon the M
oon. The entire collection of these separate space-times is denoted as the multi
verse.[37] In principle, the other unconnected universes may have different dime
nsionalities and topologies of space-time, different forms of matter and energy,
and different physical laws and physical constants, although such possibilities
are purely speculative.
Definition as observable reality[edit]
See also: Observable universe and Observational cosmology
Jump up ^ Wetherill, George W. (1989). "Leonard Medal Citation for Victor Sergee
vich Safronov". Meteoritics 24: 347. Bibcode:1989Metic..24..347W. doi:10.1111/j.
1945-5100.1989.tb00700.x.
Jump up ^ Schneider, Jean (10 September 2011). "Interactive Extra-solar Planets
Catalog". The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2011-09-10.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Andre, Philippe; Montmerle, Thierry (1994). "From
T Tauri stars protostars: circumstellar material and young stellar objects in th
e ? Ophiuchi cloud". The Astrophysical Journal 420: 837862. Bibcode:1994ApJ...420
..837A. doi:10.1086/173608.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Haisch, Karl E.; Lada, Elizabeth A.; Lada, Charles J. (2
001). "Disk frequencies and lifetimes in young clusters". The Astrophysical Jour
nal 553 (2): L153L156. arXiv:astro-ph/0104347. Bibcode:2001ApJ...553L.153H. doi:1
0.1086/320685.
^ Jump up to: a b Padgett, Deborah L.; Brandner, Wolfgang; Stapelfeldt, Karl L.
et al. (1999). "Hubble space telescope/nicmos imaging of disks and envelopes aro
und very young stars". The Astronomical Journal 117 (3): 14901504. arXiv:astro-ph
/9902101. Bibcode:1999AJ....117.1490P. doi:10.1086/300781.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kessler-Silacci, Jacqueline; Augereau, Jean-Charles; Dullemo
nd, Cornelis P. et al. (2006). "c2d SPITZER IRS spectra of disks around T Tauri
stars. I. Silicate emission and grain growth". The Astrophysical Journal 639 (3)
: 275291. arXiv:astro-ph/0511092. Bibcode:2006ApJ...639..275K. doi:10.1086/499330
.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Kokubo, Eiichiro; Ida, Shigeru (2002
). "Formation of protoplanet systems and diversity of planetary systems". The As
trophysical Journal 581 (1): 666680. Bibcode:2002ApJ...581..666K. doi:10.1086/344
105.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Raymond, Sean N.; Quinn, Thomas; Lunine, Jonathan I. (
2006). "High-resolution simulations of the final assembly of earth-like planets
1: terrestrial accretion and dynamics". Icarus 183 (2): 265282. arXiv:astro-ph/05
10284. Bibcode:2006Icar..183..265R. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2006.03.011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Wurchterl, G. (2004). "Planet Formation Towards Estima
ting Galactic Habitability". In P. Ehrenfreund et al. Astrobiology:Future Perspe
ctives. Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 6796.
Jump up ^ Devitt, Terry (January 31, 2001). "What Puts The Brakes On Madly Spinn
ing Stars?". University of Wisconsin-Madison. Retrieved 2013-04-09.
^ Jump up to: a b c Klahr, H.H.; Bodenheimer, P. (2003). "Turbulence in accretio
n disks: vorticity generation and angular momentum transport via the global baro
clinic instability". The Astrophysical Journal 582 (2): 869892. arXiv:astro-ph/02
11629. Bibcode:2003ApJ...582..869K. doi:10.1086/344743.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Nakamoto, Taishi; Nakagawa, Yushitsugu (1994). "Format
ion, early evolution, and gravitational stability of protoplanetary disks". The
Astrophysical Journal 421: 640650. Bibcode:1994ApJ...421..640N. doi:10.1086/17367
8.
^ Jump up to: a b c Youdin, Andrew N.; Shu, Frank N. (2002). "Planetesimal forma
tion by gravitational instability". The Astrophysical Journal 580 (1): 494505. ar
Xiv:astro-ph/0207536. Bibcode:2002ApJ...580..494Y. doi:10.1086/343109.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Inaba, S.; Wetherill, G.W.; Ikoma, M. (2003). "Formation
of gas giant planets: core accretion models with fragmentation and planetary en
velope" (PDF). Icarus 166 (1): 4662. Bibcode:2003Icar..166...46I. doi:10.1016/j.i
carus.2003.08.001.
Jump up ^ Papaloizou 2007 page 10
Jump up ^ George H. A. Cole (2013). Planetary Science: The Science of Planets ar
ound Stars, Second Edition, Michael M. Woolfson, p. 190
Jump up ^ Brester, David (1876), "More Worlds Than One: The Creed of the Philoso
pher and the Hope of the Christian", Chatto and windus, piccadilly, p. 153
Jump up ^ As quoted by David Brewster, "More worlds than one : the creed of the
philosopher and the hope of the Christian", Fixed stars and binary systems. p. 2
33
^ Jump up to: a b c d Pudritz, Ralph E. (2002). "Clustered Star Formation and th
e Origin of Stellar Masses". Science 295 (5552):