A BEGINNERS GUIDE TO

NEW TESTAMENT
EXEGESIS
TAKING THE FEAR OUT OF CRITICAL METHOD
Richard J. Erickson
InterVarsity Press
Downers Grove, Illinois
InterVarsity Press
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I7B0s 0-9<09-2881-4
:89-0-9<09-2881-9
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication ata
'ri%-son, *i%+ar! ,.
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&et+o! 5 *i%+ar! ,. 'ri%-son.
$. %&.
In%2!es "i"io/ra$+i%a re1eren%es an! in!ex.
I7B0 0-9<09-2881-4 D$"-.# a- $a$erE
1. Bi"e. 0.@.F3riti%is&, inter$retation, et%. I. @ite.
B72<61.<.'85 2005
225.6G01F!%22
@o t+e &e&ory o1 &y 1at+er
Howar! 3ar 'ri%-son
1:21I2004
,a, &J +an eva 2ti +2n!ra!e JrK
PREFACE
Read -e .irs!/
I!s one !hin* #or an en!h&sias!ic Bi$le s!&den! !o an!ici(a!e
wi!h e,ci!e%en! !he s!&d0 o# !he Scri(!&res in !he ori*inal
lan*&a*es. I!s ano!her !hin* #or !ha! sa%e s!&den! !o end&re
wi!h (a!ience and dili*ence !he lon* and ard&o&s (rocess o#
ac1&irin* !he necessar0 !ools and skills. I!s 0e! a !hird !hin* !o
(rac!ice !hose skills #ai!h#&ll0 !hro&*ho&! s&$se1&en! 0ears,
es(eciall0 a%id !he &n(redic!a$le de%ands o# li#e and
%inis!r0. These !hree 2!hin*s3 (rovide an o$4ec! lesson in a
%a!&rin* sense o# reali!0. The #ollowin* cha(!ers re#lec! !ha!
sense o# reali!0 as i! has dawned &(on %e d&rin* !he (as!
!wen!0 0ears o# !eachin* a co&rse in New Tes!a%en! e,e*e!ical
%e!hod.
.ro% !he o&!se!, in 5678, I &sed Gordon .ees e,ce(!ional
Han!"oo- as !he (ri%ar0 !e,! #or !he co&rse.
5
I!s (rac!ical ai%,
a$&ndance o# e,a%(les, !horo&*h $i$lio*ra(h0 and
anno!a!ions, and !ri(le)level a((roach co%$ined !o %ake i!, in
%0 view, !he $es! !ool on !he %arke! #or !he 4o$. I!s lon*evi!0
and s&ccessive edi!ions con#ir% !he (oin!. 9e!, as (arades o#
ea*er s!&den!s (assed !hro&*h %0 classroo%, I #o&nd %0sel#
#re1&en!l0 on !he de#ensive #or choosin* !his !e,!$ook. No! !ha!
5

Gordon D. .ee, 0ew @esta&ent 'xe/esis# . Han!"oo- 1or 7t2!ents
an! Pastors, :rd ed. ;+o&isville' <es!%ins!er John =no,, >??>@. Earlier
edi!ions' 567: and ;revised@ 566:.
!he s!&den!s !he%selves had al!erna!ives !o s&**es!/ S!ill, I
*rad&all0 realiAed !ha! !he ver0 s!ren*!hs o# .ees $ook o#!en
worked a*ains! i!s e##ec!iveness.
The (rac!icali!0 o# i!s in!en!ions (resen!s no (ro$le%.
Ins!ead, wha! chie#l0 !ro&$les s!&den!s are !he !horo&*hness o#
i!s a((roach, on !he one hand, and, on !he o!her handB!o a
s%aller de*reeBi!s co%(le,, !hree)!iered la0o&!. The $ook %a0
s&##er #ro% i!s a!!e%(! !o $e $o!h an in!rod&c!ion !o !he work
o# e,e*esis and a hand$ook #or #&!&re re#erence. I have no
do&$! a$o&! i!s enor%o&s val&e as a re#erence !ool !o kee( a!
ones el$ow in !he re*&lar, on*oin* (rac!ice o# e,e*esis. In
s(i!e o# i!s in!rod&c!or0 in!en!ion, however, i!s 1&ali!0 as a
re#erence !ool can overwhel% a $e*inner.
Be*inners can also #eel overwhel%ed $0 !he !horo&*hness
o# .ees (resen!a!ion. In his en!irel0 la&da$le a!!e%(! !o *ive a
co%(le!e acco&n! o# !he e,e*e!es res(onsi$ili!ies, alon* wi!h a
#&ll lis!in* o# !he ver0 $es! reso&rces and !ools o# !he !rade, he
has &nin!en!ionall0 s&$4ec!ed so%e &ns&s(ec!in* s!&den!s !o
des(air, even !error. The %odel !he $ook delinea!es is !ha! o#
an ideal e,e*e!e, realiAa$le onl0 in !he $es! o# circ&%s!ances
;(erha(s onl0 in !he o##ice o# a se%inar0 (ro#essorBand no!
alwa0s !hen/@. -os! s!&den!s, however, have nei!her !he !i%e
nor !he reso&rces re1&ired #or livin* &( !o !his ad%ira$le
%odel. Nor will !he0 $e likel0 !o do so in !he #&!&re. -an0 o#
!he% are (ain#&ll0 aware o# how li!!le !heir own (as!ors have
%ade re*&lar &se o# Greek and Ce$rew in (reachin* and
!eachin*. .ee does indeed acknowled*e !his ed*e !o reali!0 in
!he !hird o# !he $ooks !hree !iers. There he (ro(oses a
shor!ened (roced&re #or (rod&cin* a ser%on in a %ini%&% o#
!en ho&rs. S!&den!s can $e *ra!e#&l #or !his. Even so, !he $ooks
ne! e##ec! ;wi!ho&! do&$!, en!irel0 &nin!ended@ is all !oo o#!en
!o convince s!&den!s !ha! !he0 will never $e a$le !o do a (ro(er
4o$, now !ha! !he0 see all !ha! is involved. In o!her words, as I
have e,(erienced i! #ro% a !eachers (ers(ec!ive, .ees
Han!"oo- *ives !oo %&ch %ea! !o $e*inners in need o# %ilk.
This $ook, !here#ore, a!!e%(!s !o (rovide a %ore di*es!i$le
die! #or $e*innin* e,e*e!es. I! in!ends !o leave s!&den!s
enco&ra*ed, en!h&sed and read0 !o %ove on !o new s!a*es o#
ac!ive e,e*e!ical li#e, a! wha!ever level !heir real circ&%s!ances
allow. I! reasons !ha! doin* an0 hones!, o(en and ori*inal
e,e*esis on a realis!icall0 re*&lar $asis is $e!!er !han doin* no
ori*inal e,e*esis o&! o# #ear o# doin* i! inade1&a!el0. To !his
end, i! dis!in*&ishes $e!ween (ro#essional, scholarl0 e,e*esis
and (ro#essional, (as!oral e,e*esis. I! does no! eleva!e one over
!he o!her $&! reco*niAes !he (lace each occ&(ies in !he work o#
Gods kin*do%. S!&den!s are invi!ed !o rela, and en4o0 !he
learnin* (rocess as a (rel&de !o en4o0in*B1in!in/ Loy inB
ori*inal e,e*esis done a! wha!ever level !he0 can do i!. Once
!he0 *e! !heir e,e*e!ical #ee! solidl0 on !he *ro&nd, once !he0
develo( so%e (ersonal con#idence #or !he !ask, !he0 can do
!he%selves no *rea!er #avor !han !o (ick &( .ees Han!"oo- as
a re#resher and as a *&ide !o i%(rovin* !heir !echni1&e. In an0
case, !he (resen! $ook owes a *rea! deal !o .ees, as will $e
eviden! !o an0one ac1&ain!ed wi!h $o!h.
The co&rse o&! o# which !his $ook has *rown is one I have
!a&*h! re*&larl0 #or !wo decades a! .&ller Theolo*ical
Se%inar0 Nor!hwes! in Sea!!le, <ashin*!on. .&ller o(era!es
on !he 1&ar!er s0s!e% ;ra!her !han !he se%es!er s0s!e%@,
which acco&n!s #or !he !en ;weekl0@ cha(!ers. B&! as s!&den!s
ro&!inel0 re%ind %e, !he a%o&n! o# %a!erial covered in !he
co&rse co&ld easil0 $e s!re!ched o&! over a lon*er (eriod, even
!o acco%%oda!e a se%es!er co&rse o# !hir!een or #i#!een weeks.
A crea!ive !eacher co&ld easil0 e,(and !he cha(!ers on s(eci#ic
*enres ;le!!ers, narra!ive, a(ocal0(se@, as well as !hose devo!ed
!o s!r&c!&ral and his!orical)c&l!&ral anal0sis.
Al!ho&*h !he &l!i%a!e *oal o# !he $ook is !o la0 a
*ro&ndwork #or !he e,e*esis o# !he Gree- New Tes!a%en!, all
re#erences !o Greek and Greek !e,!s are (rovided also in
En*lish, in order !o ena$le an0one #a%iliar wi!h En*lish !o &se
!he $ook and $ene#i! #ro% i!. Th&s !he $ook can $e &sed
e##ec!ivel0 a! $o!h !he colle*e and !he se%inar0 level. Indeed,
an0one wi!h a desire !o *ain a #oo!in* in serio&s, res(onsi$le
s!&d0 o# !he $i$lical !e,! can &se i! wi!h (ro#i!.
Addi!ional e,ercises and s&((le%en!al %a!erial ;arran*ed
accordin* !o !he a((ro(ria!e cha(!ers@ are availa$le on !he
In!er"arsi!0 Dress we$si!e, Ewww.iv(acade%ic.co%F, and can
$e #o&nd $0 searchin* #or !his $ooks !i!le. Ins!r&c!ors and
s!&den!s alike are invi!ed !o %ake #ree &se o# !hese %a!erials in
order !o enrich !he con!en! o# !he vario&s cha(!ers o# !he $ook.
S&**es!ions #or i%(rovin* $o!h !he $ook and !he we$(a*e are
welco%eG see !he link desi*na!ed #or s&**es!ions.
S!&den!s workin* individ&all0 or in s%all *ro&(s, wi!ho&! a
2!eacher,3 can also %ake e##ec!ive &se o# !his $ook and !he
we$(a*e. I! is alwa0s *ood !o have an e,(erienced (erson on
hand, one who can answer s(eci#ic 1&es!ions. Never!heless, !he
$ook is ;I !r&s!@ s&##icien!l0 reada$le and ;e,ce(! #or a #ew
(laces, (erha(s@ (lain eno&*h !ha! %os! o# i! can $e *ras(ed
and %as!ered wi!ho&! !he $ene#i! o# a live !eacher a! ones
el$ow.
An inn&%era$le clo&d o# wi!nesses has ke(! %e enco&ra*ed
in !he on*oin* e,e*e!ical !ask' #or%er (ro#essors, collea*&es,
con*re*a!ions o# ch&rches I have served and (reached in,
#a%il0 and #riends, and a crowd o# s!&den!s. -an0 o# !hese
(eo(le in recen! 0ears have con!ri$&!ed direc!l0 !o !he wri!in*
o# !his $ook, chie#l0 $0 readin* and cri!iciAin* so%e or all o# i!
in earlier s!a*es o# i!s develo(%en!, or $0 challen*in* %e
;in!en!ionall0 or no!@ !o re!hink !his or !ha! #ea!&re o# i!s
ar*&%en!.
Those who have $een (ar!ic&larl0 hel(#&l deserve !o $e
%en!ioned $0 na%e. I lis! !he% al(ha$e!icall0' -ike Evans,
Ha!h0 Johnson, -ike -oore, Joel Nord!ved!, To% Darker, Ar!
Da!Aia, Hharlie Scalise and S!eve 9o&n*. I ho(e I haven!
#or*o!!en an0one/ In!er"arsi!0 Dress edi!or Dan Reid has
walked %e !hro&*h !he en!ire (rocess, $&ckin* %e &( alon*
!he wa0, ass&rin* %e !ha! i! will all have $een wor!h doin*.
I *ive s(ecial, hear!#el! !hanks !o Randee, %0 $eloved and
#ai!h#&l wi#e, a close co%(anion #or over !hir!0)#ive 0ears, and
!o In*rid S!eele, o&r recen!l0 wedded da&*h!er. Bo!h o# !he%
have %ade i! clear in no &ncer!ain !er%s !ha! !he0 love %e.
<ho co&ld wish #or %oreI
.inall0, I dedica!e !his li!!le $ook !o !he %e%or0 o# %0
#a!her, Coward Harl Erickson, a ver0 #&nn0 %an, who died
wi!h his #a%il0 aro&nd hi%. Ce !a&*h! %e, a%on* %an0 o!her
!hin*s like $ai!in* hooks and !rollin* slowl0, !ha! in !he end,
(eo(le are wor!h i!, wha!ever it is. Deo(le and !heir everlas!in*
wor!h are !he onl0 reason I have $o!hered !o wri!e a! all.
1
FRAMING YOUR MIND, OR HOW TO
PRONOUNCE ZMRZLINA
M7i&on son o1 ,o+n, !o yo2 ove &eNO
Peter 1et +2rt "e%a2se +e sai! to +i& t+e t+ir!
ti&e, MDo yo2 ove &eNO
.n! +e sai! to +i&, MLor!, yo2 -now everyt+in/P
yo2 -now t+at I ove yo2.O
,es2s sai! to +i&, M4ee! &y s+ee$.O
,OH0 21#18
In %0 view !here is scarcel0 an0!hin* %ore i%(or!an! !o !he
heal!h and wel#are o# !he Hhris!ian ch&rch !han a #ir% *ras( o#
!he %essa*e e%$edded in !he Col0 Scri(!&res. This %essa*e
co%es !o &s wra((ed, like !he Col0 In#an!, in !he swaddlin*
clo!hes o# his!or0, lan*&a*e and c&l!&re. <e need an ever)
renewed ar%0 o# (reachers and !eachers, dedica!ed e,e*e!es,
!o hel( &s &nwra( !ha! %essa*e. <e need e,e*e!es who know
!heir work and how !o do i!. This $ook in!ends !o hel( e1&i(
!ha! ar%0.
Two !hin*s I wish !o sa0 as we $e*in. .irs!, a#!er !eachin*
New Tes!a%en! e,e*e!ical %e!hod !o h&ndreds o# s!&den!s
over !he las! !wen!0 0ears, I have co%eBI !hinkB!o
&nders!and %&ch o# wha! e,ci!es !he% a$o&! i! and %&ch o#
wha! !erri#ies !he% a$o&! i!. I have wri!!en es(eciall0 wi!h
!hose iss&es in %ind. Second, I a% a Hhris!ian. I have wri!!en
#or !he direc! $ene#i! o# o!her Hhris!ians, #or !he ch&rch o#
Jes&s Hhris!. I !here#ore !ake !he li$er!0 o# ass&%in* cer!ain
!hin*s are !r&e wi!ho&! #eelin* !he need !o de#end %0sel#, a(ar!
#ro% sa0in* so ri*h! now, o# co&rse, so%ewha! de#ensivel0.
Cere is a lis! o# !hese ass&%(!ions.
1.1 SOME ASSUMPTIONS AT THE OUTSET
1.1.1 The Inspired Word of God
I ass&%e, #or e,a%(le, !ha! !he Bi$le, in $o!h Old and New
Tes!a%en!s, is !he ins(ired <ord o# God, co%%&nica!ed no!
onl0 !o !he ori*inal a&diences $&! also !o all o!her h&%an
co%%&ni!ies in all o# his!or0. As an heir o# !he Dro!es!an!
!radi!ion, I con#ess %0 alle*iance !o !he Dro!es!an! Bi$le, $&! I
#ind %&ch !o a((recia!e in !he $ooks !ha! %ake &( wha!
Dro!es!an!s call !he Old Tes!a%en! A(ocr0(ha and !ha! Ro%an
Ha!holics re*ard as de&!erocanonical Scri(!&re ;$ooks s&ch as
To$i!, J&di!h, !he -acca$ees and !he <isdo% o# Sirach@. In
#ac!, I re*ard !he% as essen!ial readin* #or an0one who wan!s
!o &nders!and !he New Tes!a%en! %ore #&ll0.
1.1.2 Holy Scripture and the Word of Life
I also ass&%e !ha! !he Bi$le, as Gods ins(ired word, is a
(ri%ar0 %edi&% o# li#e and &nders!andin* #or !he ch&rch and
!he world. I sa0 2a (ri%ar0 %edi&%,3 $eca&se I do no! #or a
%o%en! den0 !he si*ni#icance o# wha! Jes&s sa0s a$o&!
hi%sel#, accordin* !o !he Gos(el o# John' 2I a% !he wa0, and
!he !r&!h, and !he li#e3 ;Jn 58'J@. I #reel0 con#ess Jes&s o#
NaAare!h, !he cr&ci#ied and risen -essiah, as !he &l!i%a!e
so&rce o# li#e and !r&!h. Never!heless, I i%%edia!el0 re%e%$er
!ha! I know !his a$o&! hi% ony t+ro2/+ t+e wor!s o1 t+e
Bi"e. In #ac!, in all o# !he Bi$le onl0 Da&l ;Dhil >'5J@ and
2John3 ;5 Jn 5'5G !he a&!hor doesn! ac!&all0 iden!i#0 hi%sel#@
&se !he (hrase 2word o# li#e3 ; [] @, !ho&*h !he0
a((aren!l0 do no! &se i! !o re#er !o !he sa%e (heno%enon. Da&l
s(eaks o# co%%&nica!ed !eachin*s, whereas John has in %ind
!he incarna!ed %ani#es!a!ion o# God in !he h&%an (erson o#
Jes&s. 9e! in $o!h cases we can &nders!and !he e,(ression
wor! o1 i1e !o %ean !he word or %essa*e !ha! (rovides li#e.
Jes&s !he h&%an $ein* ca%e as Gods incarna!ed, li#e)*ivin*
wor! !o !he h&%an race. Da&l and John res!a!e !ha! 2word o#
li#e3 each in his own wordsBas do -a!!hew, -ark and +&ke.
These res!a!ed in!er(re!a!ions we now #ind de(osi!ed in !he
wri!!en wor!s o# Scri(!&re. Toda0 we %&s! cons&l! !hese
wri!!en words o# Scri(!&re when we wan! !o &nders!and wha!
God has said !o &s in his %i*h!0 ac!s and !hro&*h his Son. ;O#
co&rse, $o!h Das!or Bo$ and 0o&r %o!her res!a!e !he 2word o#
li#e3 in !heir own words, !oo, $&! we do no! re*ard !heir
res!a!e%en!s in !he sa%e reveren! wa0 as we do !hose o# Da&l,
John, -a!!hew, or !he o!hers.@
Da&l hi%sel# de%ons!ra!es awareness o# !his d0na%ic o#
res!a!e%en!. A#!er a devas!a!in* cri!i1&e o# h&%ani!0, $o!h
Jewish and Gen!ile, he (roclai%s !he $old sol&!ion' God has
si%(l0 in!ervened in %erc0 !oward &s ;Ro% :'>5@. Takin*
!hin*s in!o his own hands, God resolved !he &nna!&ral
aliena!ion $e!ween &s h&%an $ein*s and hi%sel# $0 (rovidin*
a wa0 o&! !hro&*h #ai!h in Jes&s o# NaAare!h, !he -essiah,
cr&ci#ied and raised a*ain, no! 4&s! #or Jews, $&! #or Gen!iles,
!oo. S&ch a Gen!ile)#riendl0 (ers(ec!ive alar%ed and anno0ed
!he Jews o# Da&ls da0, incl&din* Jewish Hhris!ians. In order !o
ar*&e his (oin!, Da&l !&rns !o Scri(!&re. This is no! !he #irs!
!i%e he does so, o# co&rse, $&! now he does so wi!h a rhe!orical
1&es!ion carr0in* as %&ch #orce !oda0 as i! did #or Da&l
hi%sel#' G 2.or wha! does !he Scri(!&re
sa0I3 ;Ro% 8':@. B0 a((ealin* !o Genesis 5K, Da&l shows his
readers !ha! even !he li#e o# !he Jewish (a!riarch A$raha%
ill&s!ra!es Gods o(enness !oward all na!ions o# !he world.
A$raha%s acce(!a$ili!0 $e#ore God, a!!es!ed in !he Scri(!&re,
is $ased no! on an0 o# his deeds, no! even on his Jewishness
;a#!er all, a! Gen 5K'J he was no! 0e! 2Jewish3/@, $&! on his #ai!h
in God and in Gods (ro%ise, a #ai!h o(en !o all h&%an $ein*s,
Jewish or no!.
O# co&rse, #or Da&l, A$raha% was dead and *one. All !ha!
Da&l had le#! was !he !e,!, . .or !his reason, he insis!s a
#ew verses la!er !ha! !hese words a$o&! !he ancien! #ore#a!her
were wri!!en #or 2o&r3 sake, !oo ;Ro% 8'>:L>8@. Toda0, #or &s,
Da&l hi%sel# is *one. All we have le#! is !he !e,!. Un!il !he
co%in* 2new da0,3 #or &s as #or Da&l !he !e,! re%ains !he #inal
co&r! o# a((eal.
1.1.3 Flocs and Shepherds
Third, $eca&se o# !he i%(or!ance o# Scri(!&re #or !he li#e o# !he
ch&rch, I ass&%e !ha! ever0 local %ani#es!a!ion o# !he $od0 o#
Hhris! on ear!h needs so%eone dedica!ed !o s!&d0in* !ha!
Scri(!&re and !o co%%&nica!in* i!s %essa*e !o !he #lock as
co%(le!el0 and acc&ra!el0 as (ossi$le. O# co&rse, all who can
read %a0 s!&d0 !he Bi$le #or !he%selves, a! leas! in !ransla!ion.
There is none!heless a *rea! deal involved in readin* and
hearin* !he Bi$le co%(le!el0 and acc&ra!el0. The %essa*e o#
Scri(!&re is si%&l!aneo&sl0 si%(le eno&*h #or a child !o *ras(
and co%(le, eno&*h !o kee( schools o# scholars #&ll0 occ&(ied.
<e will soon see wh0.
1.1.! The Holy Spirit as Interpreter
No!hin* I sa0 here, however, denies or overlooks !he
in!er(re!ive (ower o# !he Col0 S(iri!. .or !his reason, I
ass&%e, #inall0, !ha! !he S(iri! hi%sel# is a! work $o!h in !he
hear! o# !he child and in !he hear! o# !he scholar. S!ill, in his
inscr&!a$le wisdo%, God has a((aren!l0 seen #i! !o reveal his
%essa*e, his %0s!eries, !hro&*h !he %edi&% o# h&%an $lood,
swea! and !ears. Dro(he!s s(oke !he word and wro!e i! downB
so%e!i%es a! !he cos! o# !heir lives. <e read i! !oda0 and
s!r&**le !o (&AAle i! o&!, workin* !o*e!her !o *ras( i!s
si*ni#icance #or o&r own !i%e and (laceBso%e!i%es even
wit+o2t acri%on0.
.ro% !hese $asic ass&%(!ions we %a0 draw several
concl&sions a$o&! !he !ask laid o&! in !he co%in* cha(!ers.
The0 will hel( &s !o see wha! we are doin* here. -an0 o# !he%
s(eak !o o&r a!!i!&des, o&r #ra%e o# %ind, in a((roachin* !he
Bi$le as e,e*e!es.
1.2 AN EXEGETICAL FRAME OF MIND
-0 #a!her &sed !o !ell %e, 2No!hin* *ood co%es eas0.3 As a kid,
I never !r&l0 a((recia!ed !his $i! o# his ho%es(&n wisdo%,
&s&all0 $eca&se he delivered i! when I was leas! rece(!ive !o i!
;and I was leas! rece(!ive !o i! when I needed i! %os!@. 9e! now,
0ears la!er, I see how ri*h! %0 #a!her was. In #ac!, I see !ha! !he
%a,i% a((lies no less !o e,e*esis !han !o an0!hin* else. In her
hilario&s and insi*h!#&l *&ide #or as(irin* wri!ers, Anne
+a%o!! &r*es her readers !o ado(! 2!he wri!in* #ra%e o#
%ind.3
5
She leaves &s &nder no %isconce(!ions/ <ri!in* is
hard work. So is e,e*esis. An0one who !hinks o!herwise has
(ro$a$l0 never reall0 done i!. 9e!, !he #r&i! o# e,e*e!ical la$or
is *lor0G and $0 !he word /ory, I do no! %ean #a%e.
1.2.1 The "riority of #$e%esis
I# in one sense !he $i$lical !e,! is all we have, !hen
&nders!andin* !he !e,! is o# (ara%o&n! i%(or!ance !o !hose o#
&s who (in o&r &l!i%a!e ho(es and e,(ec!a!ions on i!s
%essa*e. <e con#ess !ha! !he Hrea!or o# !he &niverse, !he
J&d*e o# all h&%ani!0, has revealed hi%sel# !o &s in his
dealin*s wi!h Israel and in his Son, Jes&s o# NaAare!h. I# !he
s!ories o# Israel and o# Jes&s are de(osi!ed a&!hori!a!ivel0 in
!he words o# !he Bi$le, !hen &nders!andin* !hose words ri*h!l0
is essen!ial #or &nders!andin* !he na!&re o# o&r Hrea!or and
J&d*e, so%e!hin* well wor!h doin*, considerin* !he s!akes.
Those words o# Scri(!&re, however, are 1orei/n words. The
!e,! s(oke #irs! !o a stran/e c&l!&re, s!ran*e !o &s a! an0 ra!e.
Tho&sands o# 0ears, &n#a%iliar lan*&a*es no lon*er s(oken,
and !re%endo&s c&l!&ral *a(s se(ara!e &s #ro% !he %essa*e
e%$odied in !he Bi$le. I! can $e di##ic&l! eno&*h !o &nders!and
wha! so%eone in o&r own #a%il0 !ries !o sa0 !o &s. The
di##ic&l!0 increasesBal%os! $e0ond co%(rehension, so !o
5

Anne +a%o!!, Bir! "y Bir! ;New 9ork' Anchor, 5668@, (. 6K.
s(eakBwhen we !r0 !o &nders!and a %essa*e direc!ed !o an
ancien! !ri$e o# Se%i!es or !o a *a**le o# #irs!)cen!&r0
Horin!hians recen!l0 conver!ed #ro% o&!ri*h! (a*anis%. 9e!
even !his is no! eno&*hG we canno! $e con!en! wi!h
&nders!andin* 4&s! !he ancien! %essa*e. <e need !o %ake
sense o# i! as a %essa*e relevan! !o &s !oda0. <e who look !o
!he Bi$le #or a word #ro% God need #irs! !o hear !ha! $i$lical
word in i!s ori*inal con!e,!. A! leas!, so%eone needs !o hear i!
#or &s in !ha! wa0 and !o hel( &s see wha! i! %ean!. B&! !his
%eans doin* wha!ever we can !o (ro4ec! o&rselves $ack in!o
!ha! ancien! ori*inal se!!in* in order !o hear !hose ancien!
words, as well as we can, wi!h !he ears o# !heir #irs! a&diences.
Tha! is !he !ask o# e,e*esis' to $roLe%t 2s "a%- into t+at an%ient
wor!. <i!ho&! e,e*esis, we can easil0 2hear3 so%e!hin*
co%(le!el0 di##eren! #ro% !he %essa*e #irs! delivered. So&nd,
$ackward)(ro4ec!in* e,e*esis $e*ins wi!h !he lan*&a*es.
1.2.2 The I&portance of the 'ri%inal Lan%ua%es
S(eakin* o# !he% as !he 2ori/ina lan*&a*es3 does no! i%(l0
!ha! Ada%, Eve, Hain and A$el sa! aro&nd !he ca%(#ire a!
ni*h! sin*in* Ce$rew #olk son*s or s(en! !heir a#!ernoons
inven!in* new con4&*a!ions #or !he Greek con!rac! ver$.
Ins!ead, we %ean !ha! !he $i$lical !e,!s as we have !he% #ro%
an!i1&i!0 s&rvive in Ce$rew, Ara%aic and Greek. I! is a sa#e
ass&%(!ion !ha! %os! o# !hese doc&%en!s, i# no! all o# !he%,
#irs! a((eared in !hose ver0 lan*&a*esB!ha! Da&l, #or ins!ance,
ac!&all0 wro!e !o Horin!hian Hhris!ians in ever0da0 #irs!)
cen!&r0 Greek, wha! we !oda0 call Greek. This can $e
#ri*h!enin*, $&! i! is ac!&all0 ver0 convenien!. Cavin* !he very
wor!s !ha! Da&l, -a!!hew or +&ke wro!e !o s(eci#ic (eo(le in
s(eci#ic si!&a!ions *ives &s a !re%endo&s advan!a*e in
de!er%inin* wha! !hose a&!hors %ean! !o sa0 wi!h !hose
words.
In con!e%(orar0 En*lish)s(eakin* c&l!&res, we have an
e%$arrassin* weal!h o# Bi$le transations. I# we dislike !he
wa0 a (ar!ic&lar version renders a (assa*e, we can choose
ano!herG and i# we #ind o&r second choice no $e!!er, we can !r0
a !hird or a #o&r!h. The hidden (ro$le% in !his (rivile*ed
scenario is !he &ns(oken 1&es!ion, how do we decide whe!her
one !ransla!ion is $e!!er !han ano!herI <ha! do we %ean $0
2$e!!er3I I# we $ase o&r (re#erences on whe!her a !ransla!ion
s&((or!s or #ails !o s&((or! o&r chosen doc!rinal orien!a!ion,
!hen wha! have we learned #ro% Scri(!&re !ha! we did no!
alread0 knowI <e ass&%e !ha! !he %essa*e o# !he Bi$le,
(ro(erl0 &nders!ood, s(eaks (ro(he!icall0, cri!icall0 and 2li#e)
*ivin*l03 !o &s !oda0. B&! how can !he Bi$le (ossi$l0 cri!i1&e &s
;and !here$0 o##er &s li#e@ i# we o&rselves de!er%ine in advance
wha! i! is allowed !o sa0I
Ano!her %a!!er rela!ed !o !his iss&e o# lan*&a*es is a vir!&al
no)$rainer. S&((ose we enroll in a &niversi!0 !o s!&d0 .rench
li!era!&re and none o# o&r (ro#essors can read .rench. S&((ose
!he0 de(end en!irel0 on En*lish !ransla!ions o# -oliMre and
Ha%&s. 9e! we o#!en hear, and so%e!i%es e,(erience
#irs!hand, !ha! %an0 Bi$le !eachers and (reachers in ch&rches
across !his con!inen! %ake (recio&s li!!le &se o# !he Greek or
Ce$rew !he0 once learned in se%inar0, i# !he0 &se i! a! all.
There %a0 $e %an0 reasons #or !his, so%e 4&s!i#ia$le. In an0
case, I have no do&$! !he S(iri! o# God (reserves #or hi%sel# a
#ai!h#&l !es!i#0in* co%%&ni!0 in s(i!e o# !heir ina$ili!0 !o drink
as dee(l0 #ro% !he $i$lical well as so&nd e,e*esis %i*h! ena$le
!he% !o do. B&! !ha! is 4&s! !he (oin!' so&nd $i$lical e,e*esis
canno! reach i!s #&ll (o!en!ial wi!ho&! a((eal !o !he ori*inal
lan*&a*es. I have no!iced !ha! %os! o# !hose who re%ain
ske(!ical a$o&! !he val&e o# doin* ori*inal work in !he Greek
!e,! o#, sa0, -a!!hew have ac!&all0 done ver0 li!!le o# i! or none
a! all. <e %a0 resis! divin* in!o cold wa!erG 0e!, once were in
i!, !he wa!er re#reshes and invi*ora!es &s. The 4o0 o# discover0
and !he enrichin* res&l!s o# seein* !hin*s invisi$le in
!ransla!ion soon o&!wei*h !he !i%e and e##or! we s(end in
devo!in* o&rselves !o !his kind o# lin*&is!ic s!&d0. Hha(!er !en
disc&sses !he necessar0 $alance $e!ween !his (ro(he!ic
res(onsi$ili!0 and !he de%ands o# ever0da0 li#e and %inis!r0.
B&! i! needs !o $e said here and now !ha! !here is no ade1&a!e
s&$s!i!&!e #or, and no!hin* %ore !hrillin* !han, seein* !he
%essa*e o# God co%e alive in !he ancien! words o# i!s #irs!
a&!hors. The en!h&sias% o# a 2!hrilled3 e,e*e!e)
(reacherN!eacher has !he (o!en!ial !o elec!ri#0 a *ro&( or a
con*re*a!ion wi!h !he (ower o# Gods %essa*e $ro&*h!
#orward #or !he% #ro% i!s ancien! con!e,!. An en!h&sias!ic che#
who serves &( a ho%e)cooked *o&r%e! %eal *e!s $e!!er res&l!s
!han one who hea!s &( canned $eans and #roAen Swiss s!eak.
Do no! le! !he !elevision co%%ercials #ool 0o&G i! is not !he
sa%e.
1.2.3 (o&&it&ent and 'penness
<e %a0 indeed co&n! o&rselves a%on* !hose who love !he
+ord Jes&s Hhris! and are co%%i!!ed !o !he <ord o# God. 9e!,
even #or &s !here is a !i%e !o e,&l! in !ha! <ord and a !i%e !o
dissec! i!, a !i%e !o *lor0 and a !i%e !o !hink hard, a !i%e !o
e%$race and a !i%e !o re#rain #ro% e%$racin*, a !i%e #or
co%%i!%en! and a !i%e #or o(enness. In #ac!, co%%i!%en! !o
!he <ord o# God i&$ies o(enness !o i!. There are (erha(s
!hose *i#!ed #olks who can (reserve an a!!i!&de o# war%l0
devo!ed co%%i!%en! !o Col0 Scri(!&re and si%&l!aneo&sl0
(&rs&e a hard)line, cri!ical anal0sis o# i!. -an0 o# &s canno!.
Onl0 wi!h conscio&s e##or! can we dis!in*&ish $e!ween wha!
we "eieve !he Scri(!&re sa0s and wha! !he Scri(!&re does in
1a%t sa0. <e &s&all0 e,&l! over and *lor0 in wha! we $elieve i!
sa0s or in wha! o&r a&!hori!0 #i*&res have !a&*h! &s !o $elieve
i! sa0s. This is co%(le!el0 na!&ral and nor%alG o!herwise, we
co&ld no! e,&l! or *lor0 in i! a! all. 9e! all o# &s $elieve !ha!
%an0 (assiona!e Hhris!ians are an0where #ro% sli*h!l0 !o
*rossl0 %is!aken a$o&! wha! Scri(!&re !eaches. In #ac!, #or
%an0 o# &s, (assion i!sel# (reven!s &s #ro% lis!enin* !o an0
(oin! o# view di##eren! #ro% o&r own.
E,e*esis is !he !is%i$ine o# !e%(oraril0 dis!ancin*
o&rselves #ro% !he !e,!, o# se!!in* aside o&r (assion #or i! and
o&r *lor0in* in i!. <e do !his in order !o see %ore clearl0 wha!
o&r (assion %i*h! o!herwise (reven! &s #ro% seein*' anot+er
$oint o1 view, one di##eren! #ro% and (erha(s even !hrea!enin*
!o o&r own %ore co%#or!a$le (osi!ion. <e %a0 even!&all0
re4ec! !ha! o!her, !hrea!enin* (oin! o# view, $&! i! alwa0s
deserves a dis(assiona!e hearin*, &nlessBGod #or$idBwe are
convinced in advance !ha! o&r (ers(ec!ive and o&rs alone is !he
ri*h! one. <e need no! $e a#raid !o seek !he !r&!h. Tha! search
$0 i!sel# will no! ro$ &s o# o&r love #or God and Scri(!&re. Onl0
(ersons who #or o!her reasons are seekin* a wa0 o&! #ro%
&nder !he 2o((ression3 o# Scri(!&re are in dan*er o# losin*
!heir love and (assion #or !he <ord. .or !hose who !r&l0 love
!he Bi$le and !he Bi$les +ord !here is li!!le risk o# losin* !he
(assion $0 lis!enin* !o wha! o!hers !hink. These (eo(le love
Scri(!&re so %&ch !ha! !he0 are willin* !o risk wha! !he0
$elieve !he $i$lical !e,! sa0s in order !o discover %ore
acc&ra!el0 wha! in #ac! i! does sa0.
<e %a0 $e (assiona!el0 in love wi!h Das!or Bo$s
in!er(re!a!ion o# a !e,!. In !he (rocess o# e,e*esis, however, we
!e%(oraril0 dis!ance o&rselves #ro% his view o# !hin*s in order
!o ree,a%ine !he !e,! #or o&rselves. ;Re%e%$er !he 2%ore
rece(!ive3 Beroeans, in Ac!s 5O'55I@ Then we discover, (erha(s
wi!h dis%a0, !ha! !he !e,! ac!&all0 s&((or!s a di##eren!
in!er(re!a!ion. <e now $eco%e (assiona!e a$o&! o&r new
&nders!andin* o# !he !e,!. A#!er all, o&r &l!i%a!e concern is !o
$e (assiona!e a$o&! wha! !he !e,! ac!&all0 does !each, !o !he
de*ree we can discern i!, ra!her !han a$o&! wha! we want i! !o
!each.
Honsider a wo%ans love #or her h&s$and. In order !o
&nders!and hi% %ore acc&ra!el0, can she love hi% eno&*h !o
risk 2do&$!in*3 so%e (recio&s no!ion she has alwa0s held
a$o&! hi%B!ha! he likes *ardenin*, #or e,a%(leI <ha! wo&ld
she have !o do in order !o en!er!ain a new, revised no!ionI
<o&ld ad%i!!in* !o hersel# !ha! he ha!es *ardenin* %ake her
love hi% less devo!edl0I Is i! !he (erson as he reay is !ha! she
loves, or is i! onl0 her (reconce(!ions a$o&! hi%I <ill (assion
hel( or hinder her in *e!!in* !o know hi% $e!!erI <ill *e!!in*
!o know hi% $e!!er des!ro0 her (assion, i# she !r&l0 loves +i&N
Dassion, cer!ainl0 a((ro(ria!e in i!s (lace, needs !o $e se! aside
#or a !i%e in cer!ain o!her se!!in*s, al%os! as a (rere1&isi!e, a
#irs! s!e( !o i%(roved &nders!andin*. Scri(!&re e,e*esis is one
o# !hose se!!in*s. Never!heless, !he *oal o# e,e*esis is !o #ind
so%e!hin* !o $e (assiona!e a$o&!G i! seeks !he !r&!h re*ardin*
wha! !he Scri(!&re sa0s.
Take a real e,a%(le #ro% %0 own e,e*e!ical li#e. .or %an0
0ears, I $elieved God dis!ri$&!ed #or*iveness o# h&%an sins on
a (erson)$0)(erson $asis. Once an individ&al 2$elieved,3 or
2acce(!ed Hhris! as (ersonal Savior,3 !hen and onl0 !hen !ha!
(erson received Gods #or*iveness o# sins. I# so&ls 2wen! !o
hell,3 i! was $eca&se !he0 had #ailed !o seek or !o #ind Gods
#or*iveness. The da%ned wen! !o hell &n#or*ivenBin #ac!,
"e%a2se !he0 were &n#or*iven. The evan*elis!ic %essa*e o# !he
ch&rch, !hen, called (eo(le !o co%e, one a! a !i%e, !o ask God
#or #or*iveness. One 0ear, however, as I was (re(arin* an
e,!ended s!&d0 o# Da&ls le!!er !o !he Ro%ans, I %ade a
discover0 !ha! s!&nned %e. Ro%ans K'5>L>5 a((eared !o $e
!eachin* !ha! 4&s! as Ada% re(resen!ed all h&%ani!0 #or
conde%na!ion, in !he sa%e wa0 Hhris! re(resen!ed all
h&%ani!0 #or 4&s!i#ica!ion. A! #irs! I !ried !o %ake sense o# !his
idea wi!hin !he con!e,! o# %0 inheri!ed doc!rinal (osi!ion. 9e!
!he %ore I anal0Aed !he !e,!, and !he %ore I co%(ared i! wi!h
o!her $i$lical !e,!s, !he %ore I $eca%e convinced !ha! I had
had i! $ackward all alon*. I ca%e !o a new &nders!andin* o#
Gods wa0s wi!h h&%ani!0. I *rad&all0 realiAed !ha! Gods
#or*iveness, en!ailed in his 4&s!i#ica!ion o# h&%ani!0, was !he
#o&nda!ion o# his invi!a!ion !o re(en!ance. The %essa*e o# !he
*os(el was no! 2co%e !o God in order !o /ain #or*iveness3 $&!
ra!her 2co%e !o God $eca&se he +as area!y #or*iven.3 Hhris!
re(resen!s all h&%ani!0, and !h&s, !hanks !o hi%, even !he
da%ned who 2*o !o hell3 *o !o hell #&ll0 #or*iven/ B0 !he sa%e
!oken, Ada% !oo is o&r re(resen!a!iveG !h&s, !hanks !o hi%,
even !he #or*iven who 2*o !o heaven3 *o !o heaven #&ll0
da%ned. -0 (oin! here is no! !o convince an0one o# %0
e,e*esis o# Ro%ans K, $&! !o de%ons!ra!e !ha! e,e*esis, i# done
2#ro% a dis!ance3 and wi!h ri*or, has !he (ower !o chan*e o&r
&nders!andin* o# even a (recio&s doc!rine. I! sho&ld. I! did #or
Da&l. I! did #or -ar!in +&!her. I! %a0 #or 0o&. Do no! worr0
a$o&! !his, however/ 9o& are never alone in i!. This is a
co%%&ni!0 (ro4ec!, so%e!hin* we will re!&rn !o in a %o%en!.
-eanwhile, we %a0 res! ass&red !ha! we need no! lose o&r
(assion $0 $ein* ri*oro&s. Ins!ead, o&r (assion %a0 %a!&re
in!o dee(er a((recia!ion and love #or !he <ord o# God. Dassion
and lis!enin* are $0 no %eans %&!&all0 e,cl&sive. Al!ho&*h
!he0 are di##ic&l! !o (rac!ice well si%&l!aneo&sl0, !he0 lead in!o
one ano!her. Tr&e (assion ;as o((osed !o $lind (assion@ drives
&s !o inves!i*a!e %ore co%(le!el0B#ro% a 2dis!ance3Bwha! we
are (assiona!e a$o&!. Tha! kind o# lis!enin*, !he kind !ha! seeks
!he !r&!h, will #ire renewed (assion wi!hin &s. This $ook is
a$o&! !he so$er, ri*oro&s (&rs&i! o# an acc&ra!e &nders!andin*
o# !he wri!!en <ord o# God, whe!her or no! we alwa0sBor ever
B(er#ec!l0 a!!ain !ha! *oal. <e carr0 o&! !his 2so$er3 (&rs&i!
"e%a2se we are $assionate a$o&! !he <ord o# God.
Never!heless, in carr0in* i! o&! we se! o&r (assion aside #or !he
%o%en! in order !o see !ha! <ord %ore clearl0. The ac! o#
se!!in* (assion aside, !he ac! o# dis!ancin*, is #&nda%en!al !o
e,e*esis. E,e*esis re1&ires o$enness !oward hearin* !he
%essa*e o# !he Bi$le, !he Bi$le !o which we are (assiona!el0
%o&&itte!. E,e*esis re%ains a (er(e!&al 1&es!, a never)
endin* (&rs&i!. There are no *&aran!ees o# a #inal answer, one
which #orever %akes #&r!her e,e*esis s&(er#l&o&s. 9e! wi!ho&!
!he on*oin* 1&es!, we *row s!ale and die. This !e,!$ook is
a$o&! !he %e!hods #or (&rs&in* !ha! e,e*e!ical !ask.
1.2.! (o&&unity #$e%esis
As I said a %o%en! a*o, we are no! alone in !his !ask. Dar! o#
!he (rocess o# seekin* a %ore acc&ra!e &nders!andin* o# !he
wri!!en revela!ion o# God is (ar!ici(a!in* in a *rand
conversa!ion wi!h o!her readers. These o!her readers incl&de
$o!h !hose alive and ac!ive now and !hose who have had !heir
sa0 and *one on $e#ore &s in!o !he .&!&re, (erha(s cen!&ries
a*o. I! even incl&des !hose 0e! &n$orn. I! incl&des $o!h !hose
we know and love and !hose we do no! know, $o!h !hose wi!h
who% we #ind o&rselves in $asic a*ree%en! and !hose wi!h
who% we disa*ree, (erha(s (ro#o&ndl0. A #ew o# &s a%on*
!hese conversa!ion (ar!ners %a0 have conscio&sl0 #orced o&r
in!er(re!a!ions o# $i$lical !e,!s !o con#or% !o wha! we wish
!hose !e,!s !o !each. B&! !he vas! %a4ori!0 o# &s have done o&r
in!er(re!a!ive work in *ood #ai!h, onl0 2n%ons%io2sy #orcin*
Scri(!&re !o s&i! o&r e,(ec!a!ions. Th&s we #ind o&rselves o#!en
eno&*h in direc! con#lic! wi!h one ano!her. <e %a0 #eel
#r&s!ra!ed a$o&! Gods allowin* s&ch con#&sion wi!hin !he
ch&rch, $&! !here i! is none!heless. O&r role in !he kin*do% o#
God is no! !o $e alwa0s ri*h!, nor !o $e alwa0s in a*ree%en!
wi!h each o!her, $&! !o love each o!her, even in o&r
disa*ree%en!s ;Jes&s calls i! +is co%%and%en!' Jn 5K'5>@.
-ore !han !ha!, i! is !o *ive each o!her a #air and s0%(a!he!ic
hearin*. No! !o do so is !o de!er%ine ahead o# !i%eBo#!en
(assiona!el0B!ha! God has no %ore !o !each &s. This is no! a
*ood !hin*.
Ho%in* !o !he !a$le wi!h !he res! o# !he e,e*e!ical
co%%&ni!0B$e !he0 dead or alive, %ale or #e%ale, la0 or
(ro#essional, h&%$le or arro*an!, $rillian! or ordinar0Braises
so%e o!her iss&es, !oo. S&ddenl0 we are on s!a*e. I! is one
!hin* !o %&%$le awa0 in o&r li!!le (riva!e s!&dies, $&! !o s(eak
&( in !he co%%&ni!0 and *ive voice !o o&r o(inions (o!en!iall0
e,(oses &s !o an0!hin* #ro% ridic&le !o ad%ira!ion. ;<hich is
worse, ridic&le or ad%ira!ion, is hard !o sa0.@ <e %a0 #eel
ac&!e in!i%ida!ion when we #ind o&rselves in !he (resence o#
world)class scholars or !heir $ooks. <e %a0 !hink !ha! we
o&rselves have no!hin* o# val&e !o con!ri$&!e !o !his *rand
conversa!ion, since one or ano!her o# !he *ian!s has alread0
said ever0!hin* wor!h sa0in* a$o&! a *iven !e,!. <e %a0
re*ard o&rselves as inco%(e!en! co%(ared wi!h !he e,(er!s.
<e #ear we will never $e as learned as .. .. Br&ce, -orna
Cooker or N. T. <ri*h!. <e %a0 $e ri*h! a$o&! !ha!, $&! it is
+ar!y t+e $oint.
The (oin! is ra!her !ha!, in !he #ace o# s&ch in!i%ida!ion and
#ail&re o# nerve, we %a0 $e !e%(!ed !o resor! !o co%(le!e
de(endence on wha! !he e,(er!s sa0. In (lace o# doin* o&r own
e,e*esis, we %a0 si%(l0 1&o!e so%eone elses. <e %a0 #or#ei!
o&r $ir!hri*h! #or a %ess o# war%ed &( $eans. God knows we
can #ind (len!0 o# addi!ional e,c&ses !o *o !his ro&!e. The !r&!h
is !ha! we will alwa0s #ace !his sor! o# in!i%ida!ion, and !ha! is
no! a $ad !hin*. Insec&re crea!&res !ha! we are, we !&rn o&r
co%%&ni!ies in!o arenas o# co%(e!i!ion. <e #ind s!andards
a*ains! which !o %eas&re each o!her ;and o&rselves@, and
where we canno! #ind !he%, we inven! !he%. B&! ra!her !han
co%(e!in* #or (osi!ions o# *rea!er and *rea!er honor a! !he
e,e*e!ical !a$le, we si%(l0 need !o #ind a (lace !hereBan0
(laceBand s!ar! workin*. All who are called !o !his !ask ;and
%an0 o# !hose no! called !o i!/@ have as %&ch na!ive a$ili!0 and
co%%on sense as do an0 o# !he $i* sho!s. Ever0 one o# !he%
once s!ood where 0o& now s!and. I# 0o& are readin* a $ook like
!his one, i! is hi*hl0 (ro$a$le !ha! God has called 0o& !o !his
work. <ho% he has called, he will also e1&i(, and who% he
e1&i(s, he will &se/ 9o& %a0 o#!en #eel in!i%ida!ed ;as I do@,
$&! know !his' 0o& are also e%(owered. 9o& %a0 do&$! !ha!
0o& will ever have !he re1&isi!e e,(er!ise, $&! know !his' 0o&
are co%(e!en!. 9o& are co%(e!en! !o lis!en and co%(e!en! !o
!each wha! 0o& learn #ro% lis!enin*. 9o& are a *i#! o# God !o his
(eo(le and !o !he world. @+at is wh0 0o& are here.
There is also a 2*ood3 side !o !he in!i%ida!in* as(ec! o# !he
co%%&ni!0' i! hel(s (reven! &s #ro% $eco%in* $&llies. I! can
$e a head0 e,(erience when a con*re*a!ion re*ards &s as !he
oracle o# God. <e %a0 even co%e !o $elieve i! o&rselves. The
(a*es o# ch&rch his!or0 !ee% wi!h s!ories o# leaders who have
#allen in!o !his !ra(. As (ar!ic&larl0 #la*ran! e,a%(les #ro%
recen! !i%es, Ji% Jones and David =oresh co%e !o %ind.
There are do&$!less !ho&sands %ore we have never heard
a$o&!. Indeed, so%e (ro%inen! evan*elical scholars (&$lish
vol&%e a#!er vol&%e o# !heir a&!hori!a!ive e,(osi!ions o# !he
<ord o# God, which !heir ad%irin* disci(les !ake !o $e !he
#inal s!a!e%en! on !he s&$4ec!. In one sense i! is wonder#&l
when !he sain!s in !he (ews lis!en ra(!l0 !o !he (rocla%a!ion o#
!he <ord o# God, (erha(s even scri$$lin* no!es #as! and
#&rio&sl0. Scenes like !his, however, can all !oo easil0
de*enera!e in!o &nheal!h0 de(endence on a lone ran*ers
readin* o# !he Bi$le. .or s&ch si!&a!ions, !here is scarcel0 an0
$e!!er re%ed0 !han !he in!erna!ional, !rans%illennial,
!ranscon#essional conversa!ion a! !he e,e*e!ical !a$le. S!&d0
*ro&(s, re#resher co&rses, con#erences, co%%en!aries and
readin* !he classics all hel( in !his re*ard. <e will !ake &(
%an0 o# !hese in !he co%in* cha(!ers. Do no! #or#ei! 0o&r
$ir!hri*h!/ .or#ei! nei!her 0o&r ri*h! !o lis!en nor 0o&r ri*h! !o
s(eak. +is!en !o !he Bi$le and lis!en !o !he ch&rchs disc&ssion.
Be willin* !o %ake 0o&r con!ri$&!ion, and $e willin* !o hear
!he con!ri$&!ions o# o!hers. Be willin* !o hold 0o&r *ro&nd, and
$e willin* !o chan*e 0o&r %ind. =now when !o hold !he%G
know when !o #old !he%. Be a (ar! o# !he ch&rch.
1.2.) Le*els of #n%a%e&ent
In o!her words, e,e*esis en*a*es &s on %an0 levels. I! is
nei!her si%(l0 a !ool #or scholarl0 s!&d0 o# !he Bi$le, nor i! is
%erel0 a s!a*e in (re(arin* ser%ons. I! is (ri%aril0 a lis!enin*
device, a s0s!e%a!iAed (rocess we can &se #or (ro4ec!in*
o&rselves $ackward in!o !he c&l!&ral se!!in*s o&! o# which !he
$i$lical doc&%en!s arose. Once !here, we can %ore acc&ra!el0
hear !he %essa*e as i!s a&!hors #irs! delivered i!. And once !ha!
or so%e!hin* close !o i! is clearer !o &s, we are all !he %ore
likel0 !o hear !he %essa*e !he Scri(!&re has #or &s in o&r own
se!!in*s. I! %i*h! s(eak !o %e (ersonall0, reass&rin* %e o#
Gods &nchan*in* love #or %e or convic!in* %e o# s(eakin*
shar(l0 !o %0 s(o&se !his %ornin*, or $o!h. I! %i*h! s(eak !o
%0 con*re*a!ion and !o %e, re%indin* &s o# o&r role as !he
2li*h! o# !he world,3 reorien!in* o&r (ers(ec!ive on o&r (resen!
(&r(ose and o&r &l!i%a!e des!in0 and on how *enero&s God
%&s! #eel !oward !hose who ha!e hi%. I! can en*a*e &s a! !he
level o# scholarshi(, where so%e!i%es hea!ed, so%e!i%es
(edan!ic and so%e!i%es ill&%ina!in* disc&ssion o# e,e*e!ical
%in&!iae can !hrow new li*h! on ancien! (rac!ices, a!!i!&des or
e,(ec!a!ions. 9e! no %a!!er a! wha! level we en*a*e Scri(!&re
or i! en*a*es &s, e,e*esis (rovides !he (rocesses we need #or
lis!enin* !o i!.
This a$$revia!ed lis! o# iss&es and a!!i!&des %akes &( so%e
o# wha! we %i*h! call, wi!h !hanks !o Anne +a%o!!, !he
e,e*e!ical #ra%e o# %ind. A #riend o# %ine who *rew &( in
Dra*&e once !old %e !ha! !o s(eak HAech, one needed !o *e!
ones %o&!h se! in a cer!ain (osi!ion. ;I can! !ell 0o& wha! i!
is/@ The reason (eo(le #ro% A%erica s(eak HAech wi!h an
A%erican accen! is (ar!l0 !heir #ail&re !o *e! !heir %o&!hs se!
ri*h!. I! is a lo! like !ha! #or !he $&siness o# e,e*esis, onl0 now
we %&s! *e! o&r %inds se! ri*h!B#ra%ed ri*h!, so !o s(eak. So
!akin* &( !he ac!&al e,e*e!ical !ools wi!h !his #ra%e o# %ind is
a $i! like !r0in* !o (rono&nce !he word Q&rQina in order !o ask
#or ice crea% in Dra*&e.
1.3 A VIEW FROM THE TOP
Be#ore !akin* &( !he vario&s s(eci#ic !ools o# New Tes!a%en!
e,e*esis, we can wra( &( !his in!rod&c!or0 cha(!er $0
s&rve0in* !he in!er(re!ive !ask #ro% !he !o( down. .i*&re 5.5
*ra(hicall0 re(resen!s !he lar*er in!er(re!a!ive (rocess, a! leas!
as !his $ook conceives i!. The dia*ra% !here %a0 serve as a
%a(, a 2$i* (ic!&re3 o# !ha! lar*er (rocess and !he (lace
e,e*esis occ&(ies wi!hin i!. A #ew co%%en!s !ake &s !hro&*h i!.
.or one !hin*, !he dia*ra% (res&((oses !he ass&%(!ions
acknowled*ed a$ove in sec!ion 5.5, (ar!ic&larl0 !ha! !he New
Tes!a%en! ;like !he Bi$le as a whole@ s(eaks Gods %essa*e !o
h&%ani!0 in an0 c&l!&ral se!!in*. <e re*ard !his as !r&e even
!ho&*h !ha! %essa*e ori*inall0 ca%e !o ver0 (ar!ic&lar *ro&(s
o# (eo(le in ver0 s(eci#ic his!orical)c&l!&ral circ&%s!ances. The
(rocess de(ic!ed in #i*&re 5.5 is !heore!icall0 a((lica$le also !o
Haesars Gai% Wars or !o Hha&cers @+e @ae o1 t+e Wi1e o1
Bat+. <e do no! &s&all0 &nders!and !hose li!erar0 (ieces,
however, as havin* !he sa%e si*ni#icance #or con!e%(orar0
co%%&ni!ies as Hhris!ians clai% #or !he New Tes!a%en!.
Rarel0 will cri!ics o# Haesar or Hha&cer a!!e%(! !o draw o&! a
%essa*e #or, sa0, !he Cakka (eo(le o# Taiwan in !he wa0 a
Hhris!ian %issionar0 !o !he Cakka (eo(le %a0 !r0 !o do wi!h
New Tes!a%en! %a!erial. <i!h !ha! cavea!, we can look a! !he
dia*ra% i!sel#.
I! $e*ins wi!h an ancien! %essa*e con!e,!&aliAed #or an
ancien! (eo(le, a %essa*e %ore or less inco%(rehensi$le !o
%odern readers &n#a%iliar wi!h !ha! ancien! con!e,!. I! ends
wi!h !he sa&e &essa/e now re)con!e,!&aliAed in !er%s
relevan! !o so%e o!her c&l!&re and (eo(le. To *e! #ro% !he one
#or% o# !he %essa*e !o !he o!her re1&ires !wo %a4or s!e(s. One
o# !he% is e,e*esis. Be#ore even e%$arkin* on !he e,e*e!ical
s!e(, however, an in!er(re!er %&s! acknowled*e en!erin* a
s!ran*e world where li!!le is (redic!a$le in !er%s o# his own
world. The ancien! wri!er %a0 or %a0 no! !ake i! #or *ran!ed
!ha! !he ear!h is ro&nd or !ha! !he *overn%en! sho&ld o&!law
slaver0 i%%edia!el0. This sor! o# her%ene&!ical (reorien!a!ion
will (ave !he wa0 #or !he in!er(re!er !o lis!en !o !he ancien! !e,!
wi!h s0%(a!h0 and h&%ili!0. I! #or%s (ar! o# !he e,e*e!ical
#ra%e o# %ind.
<i!h !he ri*h! her%ene&!ical a!!i!&de, !hen, !he #irs! s!a*e
in %ovin* #ro% ancien! !e,! !o con!e%(orar0 si*ni#icance is !o
hear as acc&ra!el0 as (ossi$le wha! !ha! ancien! !e,! ac!&all0
said !o i!s #irs! readers. The in!er(re!er sends !he !e,! !hro&*h
an e,e*e!ical *rid. <ha! is reall0 ha((enin*, however, is !ha!
!he in!er(re!er sends +erse1 !hro&*h !he e,e*e!ical *rid. She
&ses !he !ools o# e,e*esis !o (ro4ec! hersel# $ack in!o !he
ancien! c&l!&re, recons!r&c!in* aro&nd her, as we as s+e %an,
!he ele%en!s cons!i!&!in* !ha! #irs! se!!in*, $e*innin* wi!h !he
!e,! and !he lan*&a*e. The vario&s e,e*e!ical 2cri!icis%s3 lis!ed
in !he lar*e &((er oval o# !he dia*ra% indica!e %an0 o# !he
%ore i%(or!an! (ieces o# !he e,e*e!ical !ask. The res&l! o# !his
(rocess is !he $i$lical %essa*e e,e*e!icall0 anal0AedB
&nders!ood, !ha! is, $0 !he in!er(re!er who has en!ered !ha!
ancien! con!e,! $0 %eans o# !he e,e*e!ical !ools.
!igure "#"# T$e %&ig Picture'
<i!h an e,e*e!icall0 i%(roved *ras( on !he ori*inal
%essa*e !ha! Da&l, #or ins!ance, delivered !o !he Horin!hian
Hhris!ians, an in!er(re!er (asses !he res&l!s !hro&*h a
2recon!e,!&aliAa!ion *rid3 %ean! !o rela!e !he ancien! and
%odern con!e,!s !o one ano!her. In !his (rocess, !he
in!er(re!er !akes in!o considera!ion !he relevan! (oin!s o#
si%ilari!0 and con!ras! $e!ween #irs!)cen!&r0 Horin!hian
c&l!&re and his own con!e%(orar0 c&l!&re. Iss&es o# lan*&a*e,
socio(oli!ical circ&%s!ances, (hiloso(h0, ideolo*0, econo%ics,
c&l!&ral val&es and %an0 o!her #ac!ors, as !he0 are relevan! !o
!he 1&es!ion a! hand, are $ro&*h! !o $ear on !he (rocess. The
desired res&l! o# !his is !he $i$lical %essa*e a((ro(ria!el0
a((lied !o a new (eo(le in !heir own c&l!&ral se!!in*. The
(rocess 2recon!e,!&aliAes3 !he si*ni#icance o# !he ancien!
%essa*e !o Horin!h, recas!in* i! in !er%s !ha! s(eak
%eanin*#&ll0 !o !he new se!!in*, 0e! in a wa0 co%(a!i$le wi!h
!ha! ori*inal %essa*e.
I! is i%(or!an!, however, !o kee( well in %ind !ha! !he
res&l!s o# $o!h %a4or s!e(s in !he in!er(re!ive (rocess ;!he
e,e*e!ical and !he her%ene&!ical@ are alwa0s s&$4ec! !o review
$0 !he co%%&ni!0. There can never $e a$sol&!e cer!ain!0 a$o&!
!hose res&l!s in an0 %a!he%a!ical or (hiloso(hical sense. <e
are alwa0s dealin* wi!h !he #&nda%en!al charac!eris!ic o#
his!orical s!&d0' !he wei*hin* o# (ro$a$ili!ies.
The lions share o# !his $ook is devo!ed !o !he #irs! o# !hese
!wo %a4or s!a*es o# in!er(re!a!ion. The reason #or !his is
!wo#old. .or one !hin*, !he e,e*e!ical (rocess, (ro(erl0 done, is
hi*hl0 co%(le,, %ore !han can $e #&ll0 descri$ed even in a
$ook like !his. In #ac!, co%(ara!ivel0 #ew (eo(le ever a((roach
#&ll %as!er0 o# e,e*e!ical !echni1&e. Al%os! as soon as !he0 do,
so%e new develo(%en! e%er*es, a((earin* !o render
ever0!hin* else o$sole!e/ Si%(l0 intro!2%in/ e,e*e!ical
%e!hod will $e eno&*h #or now. B0 !he sa%e !oken, !he o!her
reason #or #oc&sin* (ri%aril0 on e,e*esis, ra!her !han on !he
her%ene&!ical s!a*e o# in!er(re!a!ion, is !ha! !he la!!er is also
co%(le, eno&*hBand con!roversial eno&*hB!o %eri! %ore
s(ace !han hal# !his $ook can (rovide. S!ill, in cha(!er !en, we
will look ever so $rie#l0 a! !he s&$4ec!. Now, however, we are
read0 #or a s0s!e%a!ic look a! e,e*e!ical %e!hod.
1.4 A LOOK AT WHATS TO COME
The re%ainder o# !his $ook #alls $roadl0 in!o !wo
co%(le%en!ar0 (ar!s. Hha(!ers !wo !hro&*h #ive cover
e,e*e!ical iss&es relevan! !o all New Tes!a%en! li!era!&re,
whereas cha(!ers si, !hro&*h nine deal wi!h iss&es (er!inen! !o
s(eci#ic *enres o# !he li!era!&re. Hha(!er !wo !akes &( !he
1&es!ion o# wha! we have !o work wi!h' !e,! and !ools. I!
disc&sses !e,!&al cri!icis% and in!rod&ces !he &se o# !ools s&ch
as concordances, co%%en!aries, dic!ionaries, s0no(ses and so
on. Hha(!er !hree is concerned wi!h !he wa0 !e,!s are
cons!r&c!ed #ro% s%aller (ar!s, which !he%selves are
cons!r&c!ed o# even s%aller (ar!s. The rela!ion o# !he (ar!s !o
!he whole, and !he whole !o !he (ar!s, has (ower#&l
i%(lica!ions #or a !e,!s %eanin*. B&il! on !he insi*h!s *ained
in cha(!er !hree, cha(!er #o&r deals wi!h anal0Ain* !he
s!r&c!&re o# !he whole, whe!her $0 2!he whole3 we %ean an
en!ire $ook or a %ere (hrase in a sen!ence. Te,!s have wa0s o#
!0in* 2wholes3 !o*e!her as coheren! &ni!s, and !his #ac! !oo has
i%(or!an! in#l&ence on %eanin*. Bo!h cha(!ers !hree and #o&r
have !o do wi!h !his sor! o# li!erar0 and lin*&is!ic con!e,!.
Hha(!er #ive !hen !&rns !o !he s&$4ec! o# his!orical and c&l!&ral
con!e,!. The New Tes!a%en! !e,!s all addressed s(eci#ic,
his!oricall0 real (eo(le and s(eci#ic, his!oricall0 real se!!in*s.
In order !o &nders!and !hese !e,!s !oda0, we need !o (a0 close
a!!en!ion !o !he his!or0 and c&l!&res re(resen!ed $0 !hose
s(eci#ic !i%es and (laces.
In !he second hal# o# !he $ook, !he disc&ssion !&rns !o
s(eci#ic *enres and s(ecial considera!ions (er!inen! !o each
one. Hha(!er si, #oc&ses a!!en!ion on New Tes!a%en! e(is!les.
Narra!ive %a!erial in *eneral ;!he Gos(els and Ac!s@ occ&(ies
&s in cha(!er seven, and s(eci#ic s&$*enres o# narra!ive !e,!s
co%e &( #or !rea!%en! in cha(!er ei*h!. The s!ran*e world o#
New Tes!a%en! a(ocal0(!ic li!era!&re is !he s&$4ec! o# cha(!er
nine. .inall0, cha(!er !en raises !he 1&es!ion, wha! nowI <ha!
are we !o do wi!h all !his in#or%a!ion, no! !o %en!ion !he
res&l!s o# o&r e,e*esisI Cow are we realis!icall0 !o kee(
la$orin* awa0 as e,e*e!es #or !he res! o# o&r na!&ral lives, and
wh0 sho&ld weI
So now, wha! do we have !o work wi!hI
2
TEXT AND TOOLS
-owin* !he New Tes!a%en! +awn
W+en yo2 %o&e, "rin/ t+e %oa- t+at I e1t wit+
3ar$2s at @roas, aso t+e "oo-s, an! a"ove a
t+e $ar%+&ents.
2 @I;O@HB 4#1<
In %0 earl0 !eens I %ade s(endin* %one0 $0 %owin* lawns in
!he nei*h$orhood. The #irs! re1&ire%en! #or a 4o$ was !ha!
!here had !o "e a lawn. No lawnI No 4o$Band no (a0/ The
second re1&ire%en! was access !o !ools. No$od0 envisioned %e
on %0 hands and knees sni((in* o## individ&al $lades o# *rass
wi!h %0 #in*ers. E%(lo0ers (rovided %ower, rake, cli((ers
and $roo%B!he !ools o# !he !rade. As e,e*e!es o# New
Tes!a%en! !e,!s, we have a 4o$ !o do and !ools #or !he 4o$. No
!e,!I No e,e*e!ical !askBand no %essa*e/ B&! !here is a !e,!/
The 1&es!ion is, wha! is !his !e,! likeI <e have (len!0 o#
reso&rces #or !he !ask, $&! wha! are !hese reso&rces likeI <ha!
do !he0 do #or &s as we carr0 o&! !he !askI This cha(!er !akes a
lon* look a! !he !e,!, #ollowed $0 a shor! look a! so%e o# !he
availa$le e,e*e!ical !ools. <ha!, in #ac!, do we have !o work
wi!hI
2.1 THE NEW TESTAMENT TEXT: ORIGINALS,
COPIES, TRANSLATIONS AND EDITIONS
<ha! is !he <ord o# God, an0wa0I <ha! is !he Bi$le, or ;#or
o&r (&r(oses in !his $ook@ !he New Tes!a%en!I Are !he New
Tes!a%en! and !he <ord o# God in so%e sense !he sa%e !hin*I
I# so, how sho&ld we &nders!and John 5'58, which !ells &s !ha!
!he <ord $eca%e #lesh and lived, as in a !a$ernacle, a%on* &sI
I# we need !o %ake a dis!inc!ion $e!ween !he New Tes!a%en!
and !he <ord o# God, how sho&ld we descri$e !ha! dis!inc!ionI
<ha! 1&ali#ies as !he New Tes!a%en!I Is i! !he =in* Ja%es
"ersion ;=J"@I I# so, which edi!ionI Or is i! +&!hers Ger%an
Bi$leI Cow a$o&! !he ori*inal Greek !e,!I Is !he !r&e <ord o#
God onl0 !he ori*inal 2a&!o*ra(hs,3 ri*h! #ro% -arks (en or
Da&lsI Or is i! ins!ead so%e s&rvivin* ancien! co(0, like Hode,
"a!ican&s, or so%e (ar!ic&lar %odern edi!ion, like Nes!le)
Aland ;which well re!&rn !o (resen!l0@I I# !he 2real3 New
Tes!a%en! is in #ac! a h0(o!he!ical collec!ion o# !he ori*inal
a&!o*ra(hs, which are now los!, !hen wha! is !he a!!rac!ion o#
!his $ook, Greek or o!herwise, !ha! we carr0 aro&nd wi!h &s !o
ch&rch or !o classI
I# we clai% !ha! !he New Tes!a%en! is in an0 sense Gods
word !o &s, we sho&ld !r0 !o answer 1&es!ions like !hese. No
%a!!er how we answer !he%, however, i! is i%(or!an! !o *ras(
!he dis!inc!ions a%on* ori/inas, %o$ies, transations and
e!itions o# !he New Tes!a%en! !e,!. The ori/ina New
Tes!a%en! doc&%en!s, !he ones ac!&all0 held in !he hand $0
!heir a&!hors ;!he 2a&!o*ra(hs3@, areBa((aren!l0B*one
#orever. Tha! is (ro$a$l0 a *ood !hin*, since we wo&ld worshi(
!he% and #i*h! over !he% i# we s!ill had !he%. <ha! have
s&rvived ins!ead are so%e !hree !ho&sand %o$ies ;or co(ies o#
co(ies@ o# !hose los! Greek ori*inals, (reserved and handed
down !o &sBs!ill in GreekBover !he las! nine!een cen!&ries or
so. <e also have so%e !wo !ho&sand o!her ancien! wri!!en
wi!nesses. These incl&de co(ies o# transations ;or versions@ in
which !he %essa*e o# !hese Greek doc&%en!s has $een
rendered in!o di##eren! lan*&a*es #or !he $ene#i! o# !hose who
do no! &nders!and Greek. Deo(le have $een !ransla!in* New
Tes!a%en! li!era!&re since ver0 earl0 in !he ch&rchs his!or0
;+a!in versions, #or e,a%(le, a((eared a! leas! as earl0 as !he
second cen!&r0@, and new !ransla!ions con!in&e !o a((ear in
o&r own da0. So%e lan*&a*es, no!a$l0 En*lish, $oas! %an0
di##eren! !ransla!ions o# !he New Tes!a%en!, while o!her
lan*&a*es %a0 have onl0 one version, or a (or!ion o# one.
.inall0, we also have e!itions. There are vario&s edi!ions o#
!ransla!ions, #or e,a%(le. The Revised S!andard "ersion ;RS"@,
co%(le!ed in 56K>, a((eared in a new 2version3 in 5676,
known as !he New Revised S!andard "ersion ;NRS"@. This new
version i!sel# ca%e o&! in a s!&d0 e!ition in 5665 and a*ain in
5668. +ikewise, !he Greek New Tes!a%en! has seen n&%ero&s
edi!ions over !he cen!&riesG !he Nes!le)Aland 0ov2&
@esta&ent2& Grae%e a((eared in over !wen!0)#ive edi!ions
d&rin* !he !wen!ie!h cen!&r0 alone.
5
To (&! i! ano!her wa0, !ho&sands o# handwri!!en %o$ies o#
!he Greek New Tes!a%en! &l!i%a!el0 *o $ack !o !he ori/ina
5

0ov2& @esta&ent2& Grae%e# $ost '"er+ar! et 'rwin 0este, >O!h
ed., rev. $0 =. Aland e! al. ;S!&!!*ar!' De&!sche Bi$el*esellscha#!, 566:, c.
5767@G co%%onl0 a$$revia!ed NA
>O
.
doc&%en!s. Based on s&rvivin* co(ies, vario&s e!itions o# !he
Greek New Tes!a%en! have a((eared. +ikewise, $ased on
co(ies ;in earlier !i%es@ and on edi!ions o# !he Greek New
Tes!a%en! ;%ore recen!l0@, scholars have *iven &s h&ndreds o#
transations, incl&din* %an0 in En*lish, %os! o# !he% (rin!ed
in !ho&sandsBeven %illionsBo# co(ies. -an0 o# !hese
!ransla!ions have a((eared in vario&s edi!ions, each
(res&%a$l0 i%(rovin* on !he las!, or (rovidin* so%e #ea!&re
o!hers do no!. S!&den!s o# !he New Tes!a%en! who canno! read
Greek %&s! de(end on !ransla!ions and vario&s !ools !ha! hel(
%ake !he Greek !e,! se%i)accessi$le. 9e!, an0 %odern reader
de(enden! on a !ransla!ion o# !he New Tes!a%en! alread0
s!ands a! #ive de*rees o# se(ara!ion #ro% !he New Tes!a%en!
a&!hors and !heir %essa*es' a&!hor, ori*inal a&!o*ra(h, co(ies
in Greek, edi!ions o# !he Greek !e,!, !ransla!ion, %odern
reader. Greek)readin* s!&den!s can red&ce !ha! dis!ance $0 a!
leas! one de*ree.
Does eli%ina!in* !ha! one de*ree %ake a di##erenceI I! does
indeed, !ho&*h i! wo&ld $e o&!ra*eo&s !o clai% !ha! onl0 !hose
wi!h Greek skills can in!er(re! !he New Tes!a%en! (ro(erl0.
Ins!ead, in!er(re!a!ion is o#!en a %a!!er o# n&ances. O# co&rse,
readers can #ind %an0 o# !hose Greek)$ased n&ances e,(lained
in Bi$le co%%en!aries. Never!heless, !here is scarcel0 an0 4o0
like !ha! o# discoverin* !he New Tes!a%en! %essa*e #or
o&rselves. In an0 case, wi!ho&! access !o !he Greek !e,!, we
have no e##ec!ive wa0 o# eval&a!in* wha! a co%%en!ar0 sa0s or
#ails !o sa0Bor #or !ha! %a!!er, o# eval&a!in* !he acc&rac0 o# a
!ransla!ion. .or !hese reasons alone, s!&den!s o# !he New
Tes!a%en! o&*h! !o do ever0!hin* !he0 can !o learn New
Tes!a%en! Greek.
<ha! %os! o# &s have !o work wi!h in s!&d0in* !he New
Tes!a%en!, !hen, is a! leas! a !ransla!ion and a! $es! an edi!ion
o# !he Greek !e,!. 9e!, how relia$le is !ha! edi!ed Greek !e,!I
Users o# !he New Tes!a%en! in !ransla!ion so%e!i%es no!ice
#oo!no!es or %ar*inal re#erences !o al!erna!ive readin*s, o#!en
worded so%e!hin* like 2o!her ancien! a&!hori!ies read.P3
No!a!ions o# !his kind aler! readers !o !he (ro$le% o# text2a
%riti%is&, which we are a$o&! !o !ake &(. I! will no! $e eas0 #or
readers !o eval&a!e !hese %ar*inal no!es in !heir Bi$les, &nless
!he0 can re#er !o and &se a recen! edi!ion o# !he Greek New
Tes!a%en!. Even wi!ho&! Greek skills, however, readers can
*ain an a((recia!ion #or !he iss&es $ehind !hese di##ic&l!ies.
The0 can learn wh0, #or e,a%(le, !he (roviso in !he =J"
renderin* o# Ro%ans 7'5 ;2who walk no! a#!er !he #lesh, $&!
a#!er !he S(iri!3@ is a$sen! #ro% %an0 la!er !ransla!ions.
2.2 TEXTUAL CRITICISM: ESTALISHING THE TEXT
FOR EXEGETICAL PURPOSES
Cere, !hen, is !he (ro$le%. <e have inheri!ed #ro% an!i1&i!0
so %an0 !ho&sands o# New Tes!a%en! %an&scri(!s wi!h so
%an0 !ho&sands o# di##erin* readin*s #or vario&s New
Tes!a%en! (assa*es !ha! we canno! i%%edia!el0 !ell wha! i!
was !ha! -ark, Da&l or John ori*inall0 wro!e. The densel0
(acked 2#oo!no!e3 %a!erial Dtext2a a$$arat2sE a! !he $o!!o%
o# an0 (a*e o# NA
>O
or o# !he #o&r!h edi!ion o# !he Uni!ed Bi$le
Socie!ies Gree- 0ew @esta&ent ;UBS
8
@
>
is in!ended !o hel( &s
recover !hose ori*inal readin*s !hro&*h !he 2science3 o# !e,!&al
cri!icis%. ;See #i*s. >.5 and >.>.@ Tha! %a!erial can look like
co%(&!er)*enera!ed *i$$erish, which hi*hli*h!s !he #ac! !ha!
!e,!&al cri!icis% can $e an in!i%ida!in* and, a! !he leas!, a
con#&sin* s&$4ec!.
There#ore, hear !his, now, #ro% !he $e*innin*/ Do not "e
a1rai!K No one e,(ec!s 0o&, (ersonall0, !o recons!r&c! !he
en!ire !e,! o# !he New Tes!a%en! in order !o $e a #ai!h#&l
e,e*e!e/ This enor%o&s !ask has $een in !he hands o# %an0
coworkers over !he cen!&ries and will (ro$a$l0 con!in&e !o $e
&n!il !he da0 we no lon*er need a Bi$le. So%e o# !hese (eo(le
(&rs&e !e,!&al cri!icis% as a (ro#ession, devo!in* %&ch o# !heir
workin* li#e !o !he s&$4ec!. O!hers ;and !his incl&des !he vas!
%a4ori!0 o# e,e*e!es@ do no! have !he necessar0 !i%e or
!rainin* !o (&rs&e i! a! !ha! level, $&! !he0 &se i! as !he0 are
a$le in wha! we co&ld call 2(as!oral e,e*esis.3 <e can de#ine
2(as!oral e,e*esis3 as e,e*esis done #or !he (&r(oses o#
(ersonal Bi$le s!&d0 or #or !he (rod&c!ion o# an e,e*esis (a(er,
a ser%on or so%e o!her (resen!a!ion. The !ask o#
recons!r&c!in* !he New Tes!a%en! !e,! does no! res! on an0
one (ersons sho&lders, cer!ainl0 no! on 0o&rs or %ine. .or
%os! o# &s, e,e*esis is %ore a (as!oral (&rs&i! !han a s!ric!l0
acade%ic one. In ano!her sense, o# co&rse, even !he
(ro#essional !e,!&al cri!ics render an inval&a$le $astora
>

@+e Gree- 0ew @esta&ent, 8!h ed., ed. B. Aland e! al. ;S!&!!*ar!'
Uni!ed Bi$le Socie!ies, 566:@G co%%onl0 a$$revia!ed UBS
8
.
service !o !he ch&rch !hro&*h !heir work, $&! o&r !e,!)cri!ical
1&es!ions will $e less co%(le, !han !heirs are.
S!ill, !his is o2r !e,!, and we are !he e,(er!s on i! #or
wha!ever #lock o# $elievers we serve. .or !his reason we %&s!
a! leas! &nders!and !he iss&es involved and have an ele%en!ar0
*ras( o# !he (roced&res scholars &se #or dealin* wi!h !he
(ro$le%. <e can lar*el0 de(end on !he New Tes!a%en! !e,! as
!he edi!ors o# NA
>O
and UBS
8
have es!a$lished i! #or &s, $&!
!he0 (rovide &s a ra!ionale #or !heir decisions on !he vario&s
(ro$le% (oin!s. -&ch o# !heir ra!ionale is de(osi!ed in !he
!e,!&al a((ara!&s #o&nd a! !he #oo! o# an0 (a*e in !hese !wo
s!andard edi!ions o# !he Greek New Tes!a%en!. The
in#or%a!ion !he edi!ors (rovide !here is e%$edded in an
in*enio&s s0s!e% o# s0%$ols and a$$revia!ions, a s0s!e% !ha!
has evolved over %an0 0ears and is e,(lained in !he
in!rod&c!ions !o !he Greek New Tes!a%en!s.
In a wa0, !hese edi!ions o# !he Greek New Tes!a%en!
con!ain $o!h lawn and lawn %ower in one (acka*e. The0
(rovide !he !e,!, $&! !he0 also serve as a (ri%ar0 !ool #or
inves!i*a!in* i!. The s%ar! !hin* !o do a#!er (&rchasin* a new
John Deere ridin* %ower is !o s!&d0 !he ins!r&c!ions. @+ere is
si&$y no s2"stit2te 1or rea!in/ %are12y t+ro2/+ t+e
intro!2%tion to 0.
28
or 6B7
4
. ;No!e !ha! NA
>O
(rovides $o!h
Ger%an and En*lish in!rod&c!ions, 4&s! as %an0 !ools and
*ad*e!s sold !oda0 co%e wi!h ins!r&c!ions in %&l!i(le
lan*&a*es. I!s alwa0s a relie# !o realiAe !ha! I have !o read onl0
#ive (a*es o# !e,! a$o&! %0 new ca%era ins!ead o# all #i#!0)nine
(a*es in !he $ookle!.@ Doin* !his will !ake a li!!le !i%e, $&! once
0o& *e! a #eel #or wha! is *oin* on, and a sense o# where !o !&rn
when 0o& #or*e! so%e!hin*, %&ch o# !he (o!en!ial #or
in!i%ida!ion and con#&sion will eva(ora!e. <ha! we disc&ss in
!he #ollowin* (ara*ra(hs ass2&es !ha! 0o& have read !he
in!rod&c!ion !o 0o&r Greek New Tes!a%en!. Never!heless, i!
will hel( &s in sor!in* !his all o&! i# we clari#0 a #ew !hin*s &(
#ron!.
!igure (#"# Sa)*le *age fro) NA(+ ," -n "."/01 ,2se3 by
*er)ission#1
The lower, 2#oo!no!e3 %a!erial is !he !e,!&al a((ara!&sG on !his (a*e i! is
divided $e!ween co%%en!s on !he las! words o# > De!er, which ends on !his
(a*e, and !hose on !he o(enin* o# 5 John, $e*innin* wi!h !he varian!s #or
!he !i!le ;inscri(!io@. The ri*h! hand %ar*in, down !o !he a((ara!&s,
con!ains !he %ar*inal re#erences. The re%ainder o# !he (a*e con!ains !he
Nes!le)Aland (re#erred !e,!.

!igure (#(# Sa)*le *age fro) 2&S4 ," -n "."/+1 ,2se3 by
*er)ission#1
The !o( (or!ion o# !he (a*e con!ains !he (re#erred !e,! #or UBS8, iden!ical
!o !ha! o# NA>O. The lower (or!ion is divided $e!ween ;a@ !e,!&al a((ara!&s,
;$@ s0%$ols #or !he readin*s o# vario&s !ransla!ions and edi!ions, and ;c@
%ar*inal ;cross)@re#erences.
2.2.1 (larifyin% So&e Ter&s and (oncepts
"is&aliAe #or a %o%en! an Ar!h&r Honan Do0le %0s!er0' !here
is a %&rder and several s&s(ec!sG Sherlock Col%es
inves!i*a!es, acco%(anied $0 Dr. <a!son. "is&aliAe also a
(arallel &niverse in which a New Tes!a%en! !e,!, sa0 -a!!hew
5'57, s&rvives in %ore !han one #or% in ancien! $i$lical
%an&scri(!s and o!her wri!!en 2wi!nesses.3 9o& are !he
inves!i*a!or. 9o& %&s! decide which o# !he e,is!in* o(!ional
readin*s #or a *iven $ro"e& $oint in a $i$lical !e,! is %os!
likel0 !he ori*inal one. This $e*s !he 1&es!ion, o# co&rse, wh0
!he ori*inal readin* is so i%(or!an!, and even wha! we %ean
$0 2ori*inal readin*.3 <e alread0 ass&%ed in cha(!er one !ha!
in one sense !he %essa*e o# God resides in !he !e,!s o# !he
Bi$le. B0 !ha! we %ean !he !e,!s as co%(osed $0 !he ori*inal
a&!hors ;or edi!ors@ o# a $ook. 9e! !hose ori*inal a&!o*ra(hs
are now los!, and d&rin* cen!&ries o# co(0in* and reco(0in*,
!he wordin* o# !heir !e,! was al!ered in so%e %an&scri(!s. <e
have !o ask, !hen, which %an&scri(!s (reserve !he ori*inal
wordin* #or a (ar!ic&lar !e,!. Tha! !e,! needs recons!r&c!in* i#
we are !o have an0 con#idence !ha! we ac!&all0 do (ossess i! in
so%e!hin* like i!s ori*inal #or%. Na!&rall0, (er#ec!ion will
el&de &s, $&! we do !he $es! we can wi!h wha! we have. This
!akes &s $ack !o Sherlock Col%es.
@ext2a $ro"e&, or $ro"e& $oint. A text2a $ro"e& is
like !he %0s!er0, !he %&rder. ;Deo(le also call i! a 2!e,!&al
variantOB$&! I !hink !his $eco%es con#&sin*, since !he !er%
variant is &sed !o re#er !o an al!erna!e readin* as well. <e will
re!&rn !o !his in a %o%en!.@ A !e,!&al (ro$le% is a (ar!ic&lar,
sin*le $ro"e& $oint in a !e,!s (reserva!ion !ha! needs !o $e
resolved, like !he one involvin* !he !hird and #o&r!h words o#
-a!!hew 5'57. ;See #i*. >.:G En*lish)onl0 readers, (lease $ear
wi!h &s here/@ Col%es wan!s !o know which o# several s&s(ec!s
is !he %&rdererG we wan! !o know which o# !he !wo or %ore
o(!ional readin*s #or a (ar!ic&lar !e,! is !he correc! one. Did
!he ori*inal !e,! o# -a!!hew 5'57 read 2Jes&s Hhris!3 or 2Hhris!
Jes&s3 or 2Jes&s3 or 2Hhris!3I The a((ara!&s !ells &s !ha! all
#o&r o# !hese o(!ions show &( here in !he ancien! %an&scri(!
!radi!ion. <e wan! !o know which o# !hese #o&r 2s&s(ec!s3 is
2*&il!03 o# re(resen!in* !he a&!hors ori*inal wordin*. ;+ook, I
know !his crea!es an odd analo*0 $e!ween a %&rderer and !he
Col0 <ord o# God. B&! s!ick wi!h %e hereG i!s onl0 an
analo*0/@
!igure (#5# Mt "."6/(" in NA
(+
,2se3 by *er)ission#1
<herever 0o& see one o# !he !e,!&al s0%$ols in !he NA
>O
!e,! ; , e!c., descri$ed in !he in!rod&c!ion/@ or a
#oo!no!e %arker in !he UBS
8
!e,!, !here 0o& have a 2!e,!&al
(ro$le%,3 a 2(ro$le% (oin!3B!he si!e o# a 2%&rder,3 so !o
s(eak. There are ac!&all0 two 2%&rders3 in -a!!hew 5'57.
Re#errin* !o #i*&re >.:, see i# 0o& can iden!i#0 !he second one
and de!er%ine how %an0 2s&s(ec!s3 !here are #or i!. ;I# 0o&
#ind !wo s&s(ec!s, 0o& are ri*h!.@ In !his verse, "ot+ NA
>O
and
UBS
8
!rea! "ot+ !e,!&al (ro$le%s. This is no! alwa0s !he case.
In -a!!hew 5'56L>K, NA
>O
no!es no #ewer !han !welve (ro$le%
(oin!s, whereas #or !he sa%e s!re!ch o# !e,! UBS
8
ci!es onl0
one, in verse >K. The reason #or !his di##erence is !ha! !he UBS
!e,! is desi*ned (ri%aril0 #or !he &se o# Bi$le !ransla!ors, and i!
!here#ore !rea!s onl0 !hose !e,!&al (ro$le%s !he edi!ors #eel
will $e si*ni#ican! in !he (rocess o# Bi$le !ransla!ion. In
-a!!hew 5'56, #or e,a%(le, !he edi!ors o# UBS
8
si%(l0 i*nore
!he varian! readin* ;2(&$licl0 e,(ose !o
sha%e3@ read $0 so%e ancien! %an&scri(!s in (lace o#
. UBS
8
considers !he %eanin*s o# !hese !wo words as
!oo si%ilar !o one ano!her in !his con!e,! !o %ake an0 real
di##erence in transation. The NA !e,! ;all edi!ions@, however,
incl&des #or &s as %an0 !e,!&al varian!s as (ossi$le, *iven !he
cons!rain!s o# s(ace. I! does so $eca&se !his edi!ion has !he
needs o# New Tes!a%en! scholars in %ind, and !horo&*hness is
a %ark o# *ood and #ai!h#&l s%+oars+i$.
Variant rea!in/s. .or an0 *iven !e,!&al (ro$le% (oin!,
each o# !he (reserved o(!ional readin*s ;s&s(ec!s in a
2%&rder3@ is a variant, or a variant rea!in/. This incl&des !he
edi!ors $re1erre! rea!in/ (rin!ed in !he $od0 o# !he NA
>O
and
UBS
8
!e,!s ;whereas !he re4ec!ed o(!ions are (rin!ed in !he
a((ara!&s a! !he $o!!o% o# !he (a*e@. All !hese varian! readin*s
are !he 2s&s(ec!s3 #ro% which we %&s! selec! one as %os! likel0
!o $e !he 2*&il!03 ori*inal.
I# Dro#essor -oriar!0 con#esses !o %&rderin* -iss -ar(le
;anachronis!icall0, o# co&rse@ and !here are no o!her s&s(ec!s
!o consider, !hen Col%es has no %0s!er0, no 2(ro$le%3 !o
solve. On !he o!her hand, i# -oriar!0 and his $&!ler are $o!h
individ&all0 s&s(ec!ed o# !he cri%e, and nei!her con#esses,
!hen Col%es does have a (ro$le%' <ho ac!&all0 did i!I The
(l&rali!0 o# s&s(ec!s is wha! crea!es !he %0s!er0. In !he sa%e
wa0, a (ar!ic&lar !e,!&al (ro$le% (oin! is in #ac! a (ro$le%
(recisel0 $eca&se !he ancien! wi!nesses (reserve a! leas! !wo
di##eren! ;varian!@ readin*s #or !he !e,! in 1&es!ion. I# !here is
onl0 one serio&s con!ender #or !he ori*inal readin*, !here is no
serio&s !e,!&al (ro$le% !o solve.
Pre1erre! rea!in/ Dt+e MtextOE an! aternative variants. O#
!he !wo or %ore varian! readin*s #or a *iven !e,!&al (ro$le%,
we call !he one (re#erred $0 a (ar!ic&lar 2ins(ec!or3 ;0o&,
Nes!le, Aland, -e!A*er, a co%%i!!ee, an0one else@ t+e
$re1erre! rea!in/ na!&rall0. A (ar!ic&lar ins(ec!or, like
Col%es, (re#ers i! a$ove all !he o!her varian!s, or 2s&s(ec!s.3
O# co&rse, <a!son %a0 (re#er one o# !he o!her s&s(ec!s. NA
>O
and UBS
8
(rin! !heir (re#erred readin*s as !he 2!e,!3 ;like
verdic!s@ and rele*a!e all !he o!her (res&%a$l0 innocen!
2s&s(ec!s3 !o !he cri!ical a((ara!&s a! !he $o!!o% o# !he (a*e.
All !he 2ac1&i!!ed3 s&s(ec!s in a *iven ins(ec!ors !heor0 are
aternative variants, ra!her !han $re1erre! varian!s. Beca&se
o# !heir di##erin* (&r(oses, NA
>O
inves!i*a!es %an0 %ore
%0s!eries !han UBS
8
doesG 0e!, !he ;(ar!iall0 overla((in*@
edi!orial co%%i!!ees o# NA
>O
and UBS
8
have a*reed !o 2(re#er3
!he sa%e readin*s !hro&*ho&! !he Greek New Tes!a%en!. Even
!ho&*h !he desi*ns o# !heir res(ec!ive cri!ical a((ara!&ses
di##er, !heir (re#erred !e,!s are iden!ical. O!her con!e%(orar0
cri!ics o# !he Greek New Tes!a%en! !e,! co%e !o di##eren!
2(re#erred3 res&l!s. In #ac!, so did earlier edi!ions o# !he NA
and UBS !e,!s. Theore!icall0, !he 1&es!ion re%ains an o(en
one a! ever0 !e,!&al (ro$le% (oin!, and i! alwa0s will.
2.2.2 +ns,erin% the -uestion
<ha! do we do, !hen, when we enco&n!er a !e,!&al (ro$le% in
a (assa*e we are s!&d0in*I Tha! is, how do we resolve i!I As we
will see in a %o%en!, no! ever0 !e,!&al (ro$le% is in #ac!
wor!h0 o# o&r a!!en!ion. Iden!i#0in* !he wor!h0 ones, however,
re1&ires so%e &nders!andin* o# !he (rocess. As i! ha((ens, !he
ar! and science o# recoverin* !he %os! likel0 wordin* o# !he
ori*inal New Tes!a%en! doc&%en!s is e,ceedin*l0 co%(le,,
re1&irin* #ar %ore s(ace !o e,(lain #&ll0 !han can $e devo!ed !o
i! here. ;In addi!ion !o !he in!rod&c!ions in edi!ions o# !he
Greek New Tes!a%en!, we have #&ll)scale s!andard
in!rod&c!ions, s&ch as !hose $0 -e!A*er and Ehr%an and $0
Aland.@
:
<ha! we will (rovide here, however, is a s&rve0 o# !he
:

Br&ce -. -e!A*er and Bar! D. Ehr%an, @+e @ext o1 t+e 0ew
@esta&ent# Its @rans&ission, 3orr2$tion, an! *estoration, 8!h ed. ;New
9orkNO,#ord' O,#ord Universi!0 Dress, >??K@G B. Aland and =. Aland, @+e
@ext o1 t+e 0ew @esta&ent# .n Intro!2%tion to t+e 3riti%a '!itions an! to
t+e @+eory an! Pra%ti%e o1 ;o!ern @ext2a 3riti%is&, >nd ed. ;Grand
%ain considera!ions scholars %ake in de!er%inin* which one
o# a se! o# varian! readin*s is %os! likel0 !he ori*inal. These
considera!ions or*aniAe !he%selves accordin* !o e,!ernal and
in!ernal evidenceG we will look #irs! a! !he e,!ernal evidence,
!he so)called !e,!&al witnesses.
'xterna evi!en%e# @+e witnesses. The enor%o&s %ass o#
ancien! da!a #ro% which !e,!&al cri!ics recons!r&c! !he !e,! o#
!he New Tes!a%en! as!rono%icall0 e,ceeds wha! has s&rvived
#or an0 o!her ancien! wri!in*. This %ass o# ancien! %a!erials
sor!s i!sel# in!o 1o2r &ain %ate/ories# ;5@ Greek New
Tes!a%en! %an&scri(!s, ;>@ %an&scri(!s o# ancien!
!ransla!ions ;versions@ o# !he New Tes!a%en!, ;:@ 1&o!a!ions o#
New Tes!a%en! !e,!s $0 earl0 !heolo*ians ;!he ch&rch #a!hers@,
and ;8@ selec!ed New Tes!a%en! !e,!s (reserved in ancien!
ch&rch lec!ionaries ;lis!s o# li!&r*ical readin*s #ro% Scri(!&re@.
<hile !here are %an0 e,ce(!ions, !he *eneral r&le is !ha! Greek
!e,!s carr0 %ore wei*h! !han !ransla!ions do, and co(ies o#
$i$lical $ooks carr0 %ore wei*h! !han do 1&o!a!ions #ro% !he%
in lec!ionaries and in !he wri!in*s o# !he ch&rch #a!hers.
The e,ce(!ions !o !his *eneral r&le incl&de !he (ossi$ili!0
!ha! a care#&ll0 done !ransla!ion or 1&o!a!ion was %ade #ro% a
Greek %an&scri(! ;now los!@ whose !e,! (reserved !he ori*inal
wordin* %ore #ai!h#&ll0 !han does !he !e,! o# so%e o!her Greek
%an&scri(! we %a0 wish !o co%(are wi!h i!. .or e,a%(le,
s&((ose !ha! !he ch&rch #a!her Ori*en, wri!in* a co%%en!ar0
on Johns Gos(el, care#&ll0 1&o!ed (assa*es #ro% !he Gos(el
here and !here !hro&*ho&! !he co%%en!ar0. S&((ose !oo !ha!
Ra(ids' Eerd%ans, 566K@.
Ori*ens co(0 o# John was a ver0 earl0 one, 1&i!e close in
wordin* !o !he ori*inal, $&! !ha! !his co(0 o# John &sed $0
Ori*en is now los! !o &s #orever. -eanwhile, we have ano!her
ancien! co(0 o# Johns Gos(el, one !ha! #re1&en!l0 disa*rees
wi!h Ori*ens 1&o!a!ions. Sho&ld we si%(l0 2#ollow !he r&le3
and *o wi!h !he wordin* o# !he Gos(el co(0, se!!in* aside !he
co%%en!ar0s 1&o!a!ions as o# less wei*h!I No! necessaril0.
.or no! ever0 Greek %an&scri(! is o# e1&al val&e. So%e
(reserve a $e!!er !e,! !han o!hers do, even i# all !ha! s&rvives o#
a $e!!er one are 1&o!a!ions !ha! Ori*en, or so%e o!her ancien!
wri!er, has le#! &s.
As 0o& have seen ;$0 now@ in !he in!rod&c!ion !o 0o&r
Greek New Tes!a%en!, !he ancien! Greek %an&scri(!s divide
!he%selves in!o !hree s&$*ro&(s' ;a@ 2(a(0ri,3 wri!!en on
(a(0r&s ;!he 2(a(er3 o# !he ancien! world@, ;$@ 2&ncials,3
wri!!en &s&all0 on (arch%en! ;s(eciall0 (re(ared ani%al
skins@ and &sin* onl0 ca(i!al le!!ers, and ;c@ 2%in&sc&les,3
wri!!en in c&rsive Greek. Onl0 a ver0 #ew %an&scri(!s con!ain
!he en!ire New Tes!a%en! or even %os! o# i!. So%e con!ain as
li!!le as a #ew verses #ro% a sin*le $ook, and o!hers !he
collec!ion o# a sin*le a&!hors wri!in*s ;Da&ls, #or ins!ance@ or
one or %ore o# !he Gos(els. -an0 are da%a*ed, %issin*
s%aller or lar*er sec!ions #ro% !heir ori*inal s!a!e. -in&sc&le
%an&scri(!s o&!n&%$er (a(0ri and &ncials co%$ined $0 %ore
!han ei*h! !o one, $&! ver0 #ew %in&sc&les (reda!e !he !en!h
cen!&r0. As a *ro&(, (a(0ri *enerall0 (reda!e &ncials $0 one or
%ore cen!&ries ;and (reda!e %in&sc&les $0 a! leas! si, or
seven@. Da(0ri !here#ore en4o0 %ore a&!hori!0 as a *ro&(, on
!he (rinci(le !ha! #ewer errors will have !i%e !o cree( in i#
!here is less !i%e #or !ha! !o ha((en. In o!her words, t+e o!er
a witness is, t+e &ore i-ey it is to "e reia"e.
There are %an0 reasons #or %akin* e,ce(!ions !o !his r&le,
!oo. <e %&s! a((l0 i! wi!h o&r e0es o(en. This is $eca&se
co(ies o# New Tes!a%en! !e,!s sor! !he%selves in!o *ro&(s ;or
2#a%ilies3@ re(resen!in* di##eren! 2!e,!)!0(es,3 each
charac!eriAed $0 a loosel0 associa!ed selec!ion o# varian!
readin*s. Errors %ade in one %an&scri(!, &nless ca&*h! and
correc!ed, !ended !o rea((ear in s&$se1&en! *enera!ions o#
%an&scri(!s $ased &l!i%a!el0 on !ha! #a&l!0 (aren!
%an&scri(!. Te,!&al cri!ics *ive na%es !o !hese !e,!)!0(esB
s&ch as Ale,andrian, <es!ern, B0Aan!ine and so%e!i%es
HaesareanBand !he0 ra!e !he% #or rela!ive relia$ili!0. Their
na%es also hi*hli*h! !he /eo/ra$+i%a ele%en! in !heir his!or0G
!he Ale,andrian readin*s a((ear %os!l0 !o $e associa!ed wi!h
E*0(!, while !he <es!ern readin*s cen!er %ore or less aro&nd
Ro%e. <es!ern readin*s !end !o $e #&ller and %ore word0, and
#or !ha! reason are held in %ore s&s(icion !han !he leaner,
cleaner Ale,andrian readin*s. Th&s a %an&scri(! wi!h a
<es!ern !e,!)!0(e %a0 (reda!e ano!her wi!h an Ale,andrian
!e,!)!0(e, $&! !he la!er Ale,andrian readin* %i*h! !r&%( !he
earlier da!e o# !he %an&scri(! wi!h !he <es!ern readin*. In
ot+er wor!s, t+e a/e o1 a &an2s%ri$t &ay %arry ess wei/+t
t+an its 1a&iy text-ty$e, an! vi%e versa.
The vas! &aLority o# individ&al wi!nesses, incl&din* %os!
%in&sc&le ;c&rsive@ %an&scri(!s, $elon* !o !he B0Aan!ine !e,!)
!0(eG $&! as a #a%il0, !he0 !end $0 #ar !o $e !he leas! ancien!.
The !e,!&al a((ara!&s o#!en re#ers !o wi!nesses o# !his !e,!)!0(e
as !he 2-a4ori!0 Te,!3 ;o$vio&sl0, since !here are so %an0 o#
!he%/@ and &s&all0 s0%$oliAes !he% wi!h a *o!hic . .or !he
%os! (ar!, %an&scri(!s re(resen!in* !he so%ewha! less
relia$le B0Aan!ine !e,!)!0(e da!e a! !he earlies! #ro% !he !en!h
cen!&r0. Th&s ironicall0 ;$&! no! s&r(risin*l0@ !he 0o&n*er, less
relia$le !e,!)!0(e s&rvives in !he %a4ori!0 o# %an&scri(!s. This
#ac! ill&s!ra!es !he (rinci(le !ha! t+e !e%ision a"o2t a
$arti%2ar variant rea!in/Cs ori/inaity %annot "e sette! "y
%o2ntin/ &an2s%ri$ts i-e votes. O# a !ho&sand wi!nesses, one
%i*h! $e ri*h! and 666 wron*.
O# co&rse, knowin* a$o&! !e,!)!0(es is rela!ivel0 &seless #or
2readin*3 !he !e,!&al a((ara!&s in a Greek New Tes!a%en!,
&nless we have so%e idea a$o&! which wi!nesses ;%an&scri(!s
es(eciall0@ $elon* !o which !e,!)!0(es. In #ac!, !e,!)!0(e can
var0 even wi!hin a sin*le %an&scri(!, since vario&s (ar!s o# a
%an&scri(! ;individ&al $ooks, #or e,a%(le@ %a0 &l!i%a!el0
derive #ro% exe&$ars o# di##eren! !e,!)!0(es. ;An 2e,e%(lar3
is !he co(0 #ro% which a scri$e %akes a new co(0.@ Hode,
Sinai!ic&s ;s0%$oliAed as or ?5, and da!in* #ro% !he #o&r!h
cen!&r0@ con!ains !he en!ire Greek New Tes!a%en!, and #or !he
%os! (ar! re(resen!s !he Ale,andrian !e,!)!0(e. ;The !er%
%o!ex re#ers !o wha! we wo&ld call a $ook, wi!h (a*es and
s(ine, as o((osed !o a rolled &( scroll.@ 9e! in !he o(enin*
ei*h! cha(!ers o# Johns Gos(el, Hode, Sinai!ic&s reads %ore
like !he <es!ern !e,!. Those o# &s who (rac!ice 2(as!oral
e,e*esis3 will need !o *e! !his kind o# in#or%a!ion #ro% (ar!ial
lis!s (re(ared $0 e,(er!s in !he #ield. .i*&re >.8 ill&s!ra!es !he
$asic ca!e*ories o# !e,!&al wi!nesses and an e,a%(le or !wo #or
each.
Pa*yrus
)anuscri
*ts
2ncial
)anus
cri*ts
Minusc
ule
)anus
cri*ts
Anci
ent
7ersi
ons
C$urc
$
!at$er
s
Lection
aries
Ale,andri
an !e,!)
!0(e
8J
JJ
OK
B
:: 75
KO6
76>
5O:6
Sahid
ic ;in
(ar!@
Boha
ric
Hle%en
!NAle,
Ori*en
;in
(ar!@
<es!ern
!e,!)!0(e
J6
>6
;Ac!s@
;Jn 5L
7@ D <
;-k 5L
K@
:7: J58
5O:6 ;all
in Ac!s@
Old
+a!in
H&re!
onian
S0ria
c
Ter!&lli
an
Irenae&
s
E(hrae
%
B0Aan!ine
!e,!)!0(e
None
A G
Gos(els'
E .
%os!
%in&sc&
les
$elon*
here
Deshi
!!a
Go!hi
c
Hhr0sos
!o%
%os!
lec!ionari
es $elon*
here
!igure (#4# Sa)*le te8tual 9itnesses an3 te8t-ty*es
QSo&rces' -e!A*er, @ext2a 3o&&entary, ((. 58RL5JRG Black, 0ew
@esta&ent @ext2a 3riti%is&, ((. J:LJKG see $i$lio*ra(h0S
These are so%e o# !he %ain iss&es cri!ics !ake in!o
considera!ion wi!h re*ard !o !he %an&scri(! evidence.
Cowever, !his externa evidence re*ardin* !he wi!nesses !o !he
!e,! is onl0 hal# !he (ic!&re. Alon*side evidence #ro% e,!ernal
%an&scri(! !radi!ion #or a *iven !e,!&al (ro$le% is evidence o#
a di##eren! !0(e. Cere we ask which varian! readin* does a
$e!!er 4o$ !han an0 o# !he o!hers do o# e,(lainin* how !hose
o!hers arose. This kind o# considera!ion deals wi!h interna
evidence. A s!ron* con#l&ence o# e,!ernal an! in!ernal
4&s!i#ica!ion #or a (ar!ic&lar varian! readin* (rovides a
reasona$le *ro&nd #or (re#errin* !ha! readin* in (lace o#
o!hers.
Interna evi!en%e# @+e s%ri"es. Hri!ics sor! !he !es!i%onial
val&e o# in!ernal evidence in!o !wo kinds' ;5@ !ranscri(!ional
(ro$a$ili!0 and ;>@ in!rinsic (ro$a$ili!0. @rans%ri$tiona
(ro$a$ili!0 has !o do wi!h !he wa0 scri$al co(0is!s did !heir
work and !he sor!s o# errors !he0 were (rone !o %ake. So%e o#
!heir errors were 2nintentiona, s&ch as ski((in* a sec!ion o#
!e,! $eca&se !wo lines in !he e,e%(lar were si%ilar in so%e
wa0, o#!en in !heir endin*s or $e*innin*s. +ikewise, a scri$e
%a0 have a$sen!)%indedl0 added a word or (hrase #a%iliar !o
hi% #ro% !he Se(!&a*in! ;or +TT, !he Greek !ransla!ion o# !he
Old Tes!a%en!@ or #ro% a (arallel (assa*e in a Gos(el o!her
!han !he one he was co(0in*. O!her errors were intentiona, as
when a scri$e #el! so%e!hin* was %issin*, orBworseB#el! !he
!heolo*0 o# a (ar!ic&lar !e,! needed i%(rove%en! ;as (ossi$l0
in !he e,a%(le #ro% Ro% 7'5, %en!ioned a$ove@. O#!en,
a((aren!l0, a scri$e who enco&n!ered a %ar*inal no!e in !he
e,e%(lar #aced a dile%%a. Did an earlier co(0is! acciden!all0
o%i! !his $i! o# !e,!, or was i! %erel0 a hel(#&l in!er(re!ive
re%arkI To (la0 i! sa#e, !he (&AAled scri$e %i*h! incor(ora!e
!he %ar*inal no!e in!o !he $od0 o# his new co(0. This is wha!
%a0 lie $ehind !he no!e in John K'8 ;=J"@ a$o&! !he an*el who
!ro&$led !he wa!er o# !he (ool o# Be!hesda. To co(e wi!h !hese
and si%ilar (ossi$ili!ies, !e,!&al cri!ics !end !o (re#er !he &ore
!i11i%2t rea!in/s ;reasonin* !ha! scri$es wo&ld wish !o %ake
!hin*s easier, no! harder, !o read@ and t+e s+orter rea!in/s
;reasonin* !ha! scri$es wo&ld $e %ore likel0 !o add !e,! !han !o
o%i! i!@. These are e,a%(les o# wei*hin* !ranscri(!ional
(ro$a$ili!0.
Intrinsi% (ro$a$ili!0 has !o do wi!h how well a *iven varian!
readin* #i!s !he con!e,! and !he a&!hors ;or *enres@ overall
voca$&lar0, s!0le and li!erar0 !endencies. A varian! #or a !e,!&al
(ro$le% in Ro%ans, #or e,a%(le, %a0 rese%$le !he sor! o#
!hin* Da&l #re1&en!l0 sa0s elsewhere, while ano!her varian!
%a0 $e #orei*n !o Da&ls &sa*e elsewhere. This wo&ld a((ear !o
s&((or! !he (ro$a$ili!0 !ha! !he #irs! varian! is ori*inal.
O$vio&sl0 !ho&*h, a scri$e #indin* so%e!hin* 2odd3 in his
e,e%(lar o# Ro%ans %i*h! wish !o s%oo!h i! over so !ha! i!
reads %ore like !he res! o# Da&ls le!!ers. Th&s in!rinsic
(ro$a$ili!0 as a cri!erion #or ori*inali!0 %an so&eti&es
a%t2ay en! 2$ in %on1i%t wi!h !he 2!ranscri(!ional3 r&le !ha!
!he %ore di##ic&l! readin* is (re#era$le !o !he easier one/
2.2.3 Te$tual "ro.le&s and #$e%etical Si%nificance
-os! disc&ssions o# !he science o# New Tes!a%en! !e,!&al
cri!icis% #oc&s on !he $roader 1&es!ion o# recons!r&c!in* !he
en!ire !e,! o# !he New Tes!a%en!, re*ardless o# !he i%(or!ance
o# !he varian!s in o!her res(ec!s. This is indeed a cr&cial service
!o !he ch&rch. Cowever, no! ever0 !e,!&al (ro$le% has
exe/eti%a si*ni#icance, and #or (as!oral e,e*esisBas o((osed
!o !he work done $0 a (ro#essional !e,!&al cri!icB!his is an
i%(or!an! (oin!. I! hel(s kee( !he (as!oral)e,e*e!ical !ask
reasona$l0 %ana*ea$le.
<e have alread0 seen !ha! UBS
8
ci!es onl0 !he !e,!&al
(ro$le%s havin* si*ni#icance #or Bi$le !ransla!ion. This $0
i!sel# !i(s &s o## !o !he #ac! !ha! in (as!oral e,e*esis i! will no!
$e necessar0 !o !ackle and solve !he (ro$le%s raised $0 ever0
sin*le varian! we #ind a! !he $o!!o% o# a (a*e in a Greek New
Tes!a%en!. Ony t+ose $ro"e&s t+at +ave a "earin/ on t+e
&eanin/ an! inter$retation o1 t+e text nee! o2r attention. B&!
how do we decide which o# !he %an0 !e,!&al (ro$le%s are
i%(or!an! eno&*h !o deal wi!hI <e #ace !his 1&es!ion even i#
we &se !he %ore selec!ive UBS
8
G no! ever0 varian! %akin* a
di##erence in transation ;!he #oc&s o# !he UBS a((ara!&s@ will
also %ake an exe/eti%a di##erence. ;Cowever, !he reverse will
likel0 $e !r&e' an e,e*e!icall0 si*ni#ican! varian! will also have
!ransla!ional si*ni#icance.@ <e will see so%e e,a%(les in a
%o%en!.
.or !he (&r(oses o# (as!oral e,e*esis, !here are t+ree &ain
%ate/ories o# !e,!&al (ro$le%s. <e can vis&aliAe !his
*ra(hicall0 wi!h !he dia*ra% in #i*&re >.K. The dia*ra% sor!s
varian! readin*s $o!h #or e,e*e!ical si*ni#icance ;or no!@ and
#or s&##icien! ;or ins&##icien!@ !e,!&al s&((or!.
U E,e*e!ical si*ni#icance U E,e*e!ical si*ni#icance
) Te,!&al s&((or! U Te,!&al s&((or!
) E,e*e!ical si*ni#icance
) Te,!&al s&((or!
) E,e*e!ical si*ni#icance
U Te,!&al s&((or!
!igure (#:# E8egetical significance of te8tual *roble)s
@ext2a $ro"e&s 1or w+i%+ t+e variant rea!in/s &a-e no
exe/eti%a !i11eren%e in t+e textCs &eanin/. In %os! cases, #or
e,e*e!ical (&r(oses, i! does no! %a!!er whe!her we, !he
e,e*e!es, solve !he !e,!&al (ro$le%, since !he vario&s
al!erna!ive readin*s #or !hose cases wo&ld %ake li!!le or no
e,e*e!icall0 si*ni#ican! di##erence i# s&$s!i!&!ed #or !he
(re#erred readin* ;see !he lower !ier o# !he dia*ra%@. Re#errin*
!o NA
>O
, no!e !he ins!ances o# inver!ed wordin* re(resen!ed $0
!he varian! readin*s #or 5 John 5'Ka ; q vs. q ,
$o!h o# which %ean 2!his is3@, Kc, 7$ and 5?$. Te,!&al
(ro$le%s like !hese are %os! likel0 ne*li*i$le #or 2(as!oral3
(&r(oses. So is !he (ro$le% a! 5 John 5'6a, where so%e
wi!nesses &nnecessaril0 inser! !he (ossessive (rono&n d
2o&r,3 a((aren!l0 !o clari#0 !ha! !he sins o# which we are
#or*iven are o&r own. Si%ilar, (erha(s, are !he (ro$le%s a!
John 6':K and :O, where %an&scri(!s so%e!i%es inser! and
so%e!i%es o%i! !he de#ini!e ar!icle 2!he3 $e#ore !he na%e
Jes&s. O!her ne*li*i$le (ro$le%s wi!h varian!s involve s(ellin*
discre(ancies.
Honceiva$l0, s(ellin* varia!ions %a0 have +istori%a
si*ni#icance, and i# lin*&is!s develo( a so&nd !heor0 o# !he &se
o# !he ar!icle and !he role o# word order in Greek disco&rse,
so%e o# !hese e,e*e!icall0 2ne*li*i$le3 varian!s %a0 $eco%e
%ore i%(or!an!. .or now, however, we %a0 (ass !he% $0
wi!ho&! co%%en!, even in an e,e*esis (a(er, and even i# !he0
have s!ron* !e,!&al s&((or!.
So%e varian! readin*s %akin* li!!le or no exe/eti%a
di##erence in a *iven !e,!&al (ro$le% co&ld never!heless
re1&ire a di##eren! transation. .or e,a%(le, !he NA
>O
!e,! o# 5
John 5'Oc can $e !ransla!ed as 2o# Jes&s his son3G !he !hree
al!erna!ive varian!s re1&ire di##eren! transations# 2o# his son,3
2o# Jes&s Hhris! his son,3 and 2o# Jes&s Hhris!.3 Tho&*h !he
!ransla!ions di##er, !here is (ro$a$l0 li!!le e,e*e!ical di##erence
a%on* !he o(!ionsG we can sa#el0 i*nore !he (ro$le% #or o&r
(&r(oses, &nless we sense !here is so%e s(ecial con!e,!&al
si*ni#icance in o%i!!in* re#erence !o sonshi( or !o Hhris!. The
iss&e %i*h! re#lec! con#lic! wi!h #led*lin* *nos!ic o(inions !ha!
Jes&s !he ear!hl0 %an and Hhris! !he heavenl0 %an are no! !he
sa%e (erson, and !ha! God !he .a!her rela!es !o Jes&s and !o
Hhris!Bse(ara!el0/
@ext2a $ro"e&s w+ose aternate rea!in/s !o i&$y an
exe/eti%a !i11eren%e in t+e textCs &eanin/ "2t w+i%+ +ave
wea- s2$$ort. Te,!&al varian!s which do %ake a si/ni1i%ant
exe/eti%a !i11eren%e ;!o( !ier o# dia*ra%@ can $e divided
$e!ween !hose which have li!!le !o hardl0 an0 eviden!ial
s&((or! ;!o( le#!@, and !hose which have s!ron*er clai%s !o
$ein* !he ori*inal readin* ;!o( ri*h!@. A likel0 e,a%(le o# a
weakl0 s&((or!ed $&! e,e*e!icall0 si*ni#ican! al!erna!e readin*
is !he #a%o&s one a! 5 John K'OL7. -e!A*er !ells !he s!or0
8
!ha!
aro&nd !he 0ear 5K>?, a Aealo&s de#ender o# !he +a!in "&l*a!e
8
-e!A*er and Ehr%an, @ext o1 t+e 0ew @esta&ent, ((. 58JL8O.
a((aren!l0 %an&#ac!&red !o s(eci#ica!ions a Greek %an&scri(!
s&((or!in* !he "&l*a!es re#erence a! 5 John K'OL7 !o .a!her,
<ord and Col0 S(iri! ;see !he readin* in !he =J"@. Hon#ron!ed
wi!h !his %an&scri(!, and a*ains! his $e!!er 4&d*%en! ;$&! !r&e
!o his (ro%ise@, Eras%&s o# Ro!!erda% incl&ded !he $o*&s
Greek !e,! in !he !hird edi!ion o# his Greek New Tes!a%en!
;5K>>@. 9e! !here is no clear evidence #or !he e,is!ence o# !his
!e,! in Gree- da!in* #ro% earlier !han a$o&! 5K>?. Th&s, even
!ho&*h !he e,(lici!l0 Trini!arian charac!er o# !his readin* has
!re%endo&s e,e*e!ical si*ni#icance, !he a$sence o# s&((or! #or
!he !e,! in !he ancien! !radi!ion %akes i! ne*li*i$le here. As an
&nlikel0 2s&s(ec!,3 however #ascina!in*, i! needs no a!!en!ion
in an e,e*esis (a(er. I! $oas!s a vir!&all0 ironclad ali$i/
@ext2a $ro"e&s wit+ &ore t+an one we-s2$$orte! an!
exe/eti%ay si/ni1i%ant variant rea!in/. <i!nesses #or !he
Greek !e,! o# 5 John 5'8c read ei!her 2!ha! o2r ;d@ 4o0 %a0
$e #&ll3 or 2!ha! yo2r ;d@ 4o0 %a0 $e #&ll.3 The e,e*e!ical
di##erence $e!ween !hese !wo al!erna!ives %a0 no! $low
shin*les o## !he roo#, $&! !here is indeed a di##erence. I!
involves !he a&!hors a!!i!&de' is he ;or sheI@ ado(!in* a
sli*h!l0 (a!roniAin* !one ;20o&r 4o03@, an e%$racin* !one ;2o&r
4o03 Q0o&rs and o&rsS@, or (erha(s even a sli*h!l0 e,cl&sive !one
;2o&r 4o03 Q$&! no! 0o&rsS@I <e co&ld sa#el0 i*nore !he iss&e i#
one o# !hese varian! readin*s were (oorl0 a!!es!ed in !he
!radi!ion, $&! !he wi!nesses !o !he% are #airl0 evenl0 $alanced.
I# i! !r&l0 %a!!ers !o &s wha! !he a&!hor ac!&all0 %ean! !o sa0 !o
his readers, we will have !o %ake a decision, however !en!a!ive,
$e!ween !he !wo o(!ions, and !ake !he conse1&ences. This, !oo,
is (ar! o# !he e,e*e!ical !ask.
T;< IT =2T
Hons&l!in* 0o&r Greek !es!a%en!, classi#0 each o# !he #ollowin*
#o&r !e,!&al (ro$le%s, ci!ed #ro% NA
>O
#or Dhil :'5>L5:, in!o
one o# !he !hree %ain ca!e*ories lis!ed a$ove. In !he (&rs&i! o#
(as!oral e,e*esis, which o# !he% wo&ld deserve 0o&r #&r!her
a!!en!ionI
5>a Inser! or a& area!y L2sti1ie! ;( qq i@ in #ron!
o# or +ave area!y rea%+e! t+e /oa ;( qq @.
5>$ O%i! an!5even ;i@ $e#ore to &a-e it &y own.
QNo!e' NRS" alread0 does no! re#lec! !he (resence o# i.S
5>c Read 3+rist ins!ead o# 3+rist ,es2s.
5: Read not yet ;@ ins!ead o# not ;@.
Hheck o&! 0o&r res&l!s $elow.
Co))ents.
NA
>O
*ives onl0 a 2ne*a!ive a((ara!&s3 #or !he al!erna!ive readin* in
5>a, i%(l0in* !ha! !he evidence in s&((or! o# i! is weak ;see !he NA
>O
in!rod&c!ion, (. K?R@. The e,e*e!ical i%(lica!ion wo&ld $e
considera$le, however. <e can classi#0 !his varian! in !he &((er le#!
1&adran! o# !he dia*ra%' in!eres!in* $&! no! well s&((or!ed. All
!hree o# !he o!her al!erna!ive readin*s in vv. 5>L5: $oas! 2(osi!ive
a((ara!&ses3G !e,!&al s&((or! #or !he% is s!ron*er !han !ha! #or 5>a.
In #ac!, !he s%all s&(erscri(! cross in !he a((ara!&s #or v. 5: %eans
!ha! #or%er edi!ions o# NA (re#erred !his readin*. The 1&es!ion !hen
is whe!her an0 o# !hese !hree %akes eno&*h e,e*e!ical di##erence !o
%eri! o&r a!!en!ion. Her!ainl0 5: %i*h!, $&! 5>$ and 5>c %a0 no!.
Individ&al 4&d*%en! is called #or. This (&!s 5: in !he &((er ri*h!
1&adran! ;in!eres!in* and well s&((or!ed@ and !he o!her !woB
(ossi$l0Bin !he lower ri*h! ;well s&((or!ed $&! no! ver0
in!eres!in*@. In o!her words, onl0 5: wo&ld need !o co%e &( in an
e,e*e!ical (a(er.
@ext2a $ro"e&s w+i%+ are ot+erwise ne/i/i"e, "2t
i&$ortant 1or ot+er reasons. <e can discern on ano!her level a
#o&r!h *ro&( o# !e,!&al (ro$le%s. So%e weakl0 s&((or!ed
readin*s %a0 $e i%(or!an! si%(l0 $eca&se o# !heir re%arka$le
+istory ;!he !rini!arian !e,! in 5 Jn K'OL7 is an e,a%(le@ or
$eca&se !he0 %ast i/+t on e,e*e!icall0 i%(or!an! iss&es. As an
ins!ance o# !he la!!er !0(e, consider 5 John >'>?. The =J" #or
!his (assa*e reads, 2B&! 0e have an &nc!ion #ro% !he Col0 One,
an! ye -now a t+in/s ;@.3 -odern !ransla!ions render
!he (assa*e di##eren!l0G here is !he NRS"' 2B&! 0o& have $een
anoin!ed $0 !he Col0 One, an! a o1 yo2 ;@ +ave
-nowe!/e.3 The i!aliciAed (or!ions o# !hese !wo !ransla!ions
re#lec! o(!ional Greek readin*s. There is li!!le do&$! !ha! !he
!e,! &nderl0in* !he NRS" is %ore likel0 !o $e !he ori*inal one
;!here is so&e do&$!, none!heless@. 9e!, !he con!ras! $e!ween
!hese !wo varian!s e%(hasiAes !he /nosti%iQin/ na!&re o# !he
(ro$le% !he a&!hor was dealin* wi!h. B0 sa0in*, 20o& a have
knowled*e,3 he ass&res his readers !ha! !he0 need no! #eel
in#erior !o !hose who clai% !o have s(ecial s(iri!&al knowled*e
&navaila$le !o less (rivile*ed $elievers. The (oorl0 a!!es!ed
al!erna!ive readin* %isses !his n&ance. No!icin* t+at hel(s 2s
!o ca!ch !he n&ance/
2.2.! "uttin% It +ll To%ether
The (oin! !o !ake ho%e #ro% all o# !his is !ha! none o# !he %an0
and co%(le, considera!ions o&!lined here s!ands on i!s own.
Solvin* a !e,!&al (ro$le% is a li!!le like &n!0in* a co%(lica!ed
kno!' care#&ll0 we !race !his s!rand and !ha! one, (&llin* #irs!
one #ree, !hen ano!her. In !his wa0, !e,!&al scholars *rad&all0
work $ackward !hro&*h !he s!a*es o# a !e,!&al (ro$le%s
develo(%en!, &sin* as a((ro(ria!e !he vario&s cri!eria
s&%%ariAed here. Each !e,!&al (ro$le% %&s! $e eval&a!ed
inde(enden!l0. .or one (ro$le%, !he iss&es %a0 re1&ire !ha!
%ore wei*h! $e *iven !o !he evidence o# in!rinsic (ro$a$ili!0G
#or ano!her (ro$le%, %ore wei*h! will have !o $e *iven !o, sa0,
!he !es!i%on0 o# !he (a(0ri. Occasionall0 several !e,!&al
(ro$le%s will $e rela!ed !o each o!her. S!ill, in !he end, !here is
never a si%(le, #or%&laic sol&!ion #or an0 o# !hese 2%0s!eries.3
The role o# a (ro#essional !e,!&al cri!ic is !o devo!e her
career !o solvin* New Tes!a%en! !e,!&al (ro$le%s and !o
re#inin* !he (rocess #or doin* so. The !e,!)cri!ical role o# a
(rac!i!ioner o# 2(as!oral e,e*esis3 is !o have a workin*
&nders!andin* o# how (ro#essional cri!ics *o a$o&! !he work o#
edi!in* !he New Tes!a%en! Greek !e,!. These are no! !he sa%e
roles/ So I sa0 a*ain, !o not "e a1rai!K Do no! $e in!i%ida!ed.
The !e,!&al a((ara!&s in o&r Greek Bi$les is !here #or o&r &se,
$&! even so, %an0 o# &s will re%ain %os!l0 de(enden! on !he
wisdo% o# e,(er!s, as we are in all !hin*s. <e %&s! do o&r ver0
$es! wi!h wha! we have and o!herwise $e a! (eace.
2.3 THE TOOLS FOR THE !O
Now !ha! we have had a look a! !he s!a!e o# !he New Tes!a%en!
lawn, we can la0 o&! a #ew o# !he %ore &se#&l !ools #or %owin*
i!, !ha! is, #or doin* New Tes!a%en! e,e*esis. -an0 o# !he%
will rea((ear in !he #ollowin* cha(!ers, since !heir &se is
es(eciall0 a((ro(ria!e !o vario&s o!her !asks down !he line.
Besides NA
>O
and UBS
8
and !heir !e,!&al a((ara!&ses, o!her
!ools &se#&l in es!a$lishin* !he !e,! o# !he New Tes!a%en!
incl&de Br&ce -. -e!A*ers . @ext2a 3o&&entary on t+e
Gree- 0ew @esta&ent.
K
;This is a di##eren! $ook #ro% his #&ll)
len*!h in!rod&c!ion, @+e @ext o1 t+e 0ew @esta&ent, alread0
%en!ioned.@ The in!rod&c!ion !o . @ext2a 3o&&entary
;ins!r&c!ions #or i!s &se/@ (rovides a concise and hel(#&l
orien!a!ion !o !he (rocess o# !e,!&al cri!icis% ;incl&din* a shor!
classi#ica!ion o# wi!nesses $0 !e,!)!0(e@,
J
and !he $od0 o# !he
co%%en!ar0 e,(lains !he decisions %ade $0 !he UBS
8
edi!orial
co%%i!!ee. .or *e!!in* an over)!he)sho&lder look a! !he
(rac!ice o# !his scienceNar!, !here is hardl0 a $e!!er e,(erience
!han s!&d0in* a n&%$er o# !he co%%en!ar0s en!ries. So%e o#
!he%, in #ac!, are ra!her en!er!ainin*.
K

Br&ce -. -e!A*er, . @ext2a 3o&&entary on t+e Gree- 0ew
@esta&ent, >nd ed. ;S!&!!*ar!' De&!sche Bi$el*esellscha#!, 5668@.
J

A so%ewha! #&ller lis! o# wi!nesses $0 !e,! !0(e a((ears in David Alan
Blacks &se#&l $ookle!, 0ew @esta&ent @ext2a 3riti%is&# . 3on%ise G2i!e
;Grand Ra(ids' Baker, 5668@G see ((. J:LJK.
(oncordances. Beca&se !he Bi$le o# !he New Tes!a%en!
a&!hors ;and o# !he earl0 ch&rch@ was wha! we !oda0 call !he
Old Tes!a%en!Bin #ac! ver0 o#!en !he Greek version o# i!,
known as !he Se(!&a*in! ;+TT@Baccess !o a co(0 o# !he +TT is
e,!re%el0 i%(or!an! #or &nders!andin* %an0 New Tes!a%en!
!e,!s.
O
;+ess o#!en, !he He"rew Old Tes!a%en! s!ands direc!l0
$ehind a New Tes!a%en! (assa*e.@ .re1&en!l0 a New
Tes!a%en! wri!er all&des !o an Old Tes!a%en! !e,! wi!ho&!
$o!herin* !o (rovide an e,(lici! re#erence ;as e,(lici! as a New
Tes!a%en! re#erence !o !he Old Tes!a%en! can $e, an0wa0@.
<ell see so%e e,a%(les in la!er cha(!ers. In cases s&ch as
!hese, a %on%or!an%e to t+e LRR
7
can $e indis(ensa$le #or
loca!in* !he so&rce o# an all&sion, which in !&rn can ill&%ina!e
an en!ire New Tes!a%en! ar*&%en!. <e will see e,a%(les o#
!his in la!er cha(!ers.
3on%or!an%es to t+e 0ew @esta&ent
6
(rovide !he %eans o#
loca!in* re(ea!ed (a!!erns o# s(eech, word &sa*e, *ra%%a!ical
(heno%ena, correla!ed ideas and so on. The0 are availa$le #or
O

The s!andard edi!ion is A. Rahl#s, ed., 7e$t2a/inta# I! est Vet2s
@esta&ent2& /rae%e i2xta LRR inter$retes, > vols. ;S!&!!*ar!'
<Vr!!e%$er*ische Bi$elans!al!, 56:K@.
7
The lon*!i%e s!andard (rin!ed version is E. Ca!ch and C. A. Red(a!h,
. 3on%or!an%e to t+e 7e$t2a/int an! t+e Ot+er Gree- Versions o1 t+e O!
@esta&ent DIn%2!in/ t+e .$o%ry$+a Boo-sE, : vols. in > ;Grand Ra(ids'
Baker, 567:G ori*inal' O,#ord, 576O@.
6
C. Bach%ann and C. Sla$0, eds., 3o&$2ter-Aon-or!anQ Q2& 0ov2&
@esta&ent2& Grae%e von 0este-.an!, 26. .21a/e, 2n! Q2& Gree- 0ew
@esta&ent, :rd ed. ;Berlin' <al!er de Gr&0!er, 567?@. The old s!and$0 was
<. .. -o&l!on and A. S. Geden, . 3on%or!an%e to t+e Gree- 0ew
@esta&ent .%%or!in/ to t+e @exts o1 West%ott an! Hort, @is%+en!or1 an!
t+e 'n/is+ *evisers, K!h rev. ed. ;Edin$&r*h' T W T Hlark, >??>@.
!he Greek New Tes!a%en! as well as #or vario&s !ransla!ions.
So%e o# !he la!!er !0(e have links !o !he Greek ;and Ce$rew@
Bi$les. Since !he adven! o# !he (ersonal co%(&!er, several
so#!ware (ro*ra%s have a((eared which #&nc!ion as $i$lical
concordancesG *ood ones are ca(a$le o# hi*hl0 co%(le,
searches o# !he en!ire Greek New Tes!a%en! and +TT, as well as
o# !he Ce$rew Old Tes!a%en!, n&%ero&s Bi$le versions,
Jose(h&s, X&%ran li!era!&re, a(os!olic #a!hers and vario&s
o!her relevan! %a!erial. I# 0o& can a##ord one o# !hese, !he0 are
well wor!h !he inves!%en!. The one o##ered $0 !he Gra%cord
Ins!i!&!e ;www.*ra%cord.co%@ is e,cellen! in i!s -acin!osh
version, $&! !here are o!hers e1&all0 (ower#&l, es(eciall0 in !he
DH environ%en!. Two in (ar!ic&lar are Bi$le<orks and +o*os
;www.$i$leworks.co% and www.lo*os.co%@.
In #ac!, !he evolvin* !r&!h o# !he %a!!er is !ha! di*i!all0
$ased reso&rces like !hese are #as! $eco%in* !he !ools o# choice
in !his #ield. No! onl0 $i$lical, and $i$licall0 rela!ed, !e,!s ;even
wi!h !e,!&al a((ara!&s@, $&! also en!ire dic!ionaries,
enc0clo(edias, le,ica, co%%en!aries, lan*&a*e !&!orials and
%&ch %ore are availa$le in !his li*h!nin*)#as! #or%a!. In!erne!
we$si!es o##er an as!o&ndin* arra0 o# access !o !e,!s and
in#or%a!ion relevan! !o !he s&$4ec!, o#!en #ree o# char*e !o !he
&ser. I do no! wish !o $elieve !ha! !he a*e o# !he (rin!ed (a*e,
!he %&l!i)%illennial era o# !he 2$ook,3 is windin* downG $&!
cer!ainl0 i! is no lon*er necessar0 !o 4&**le, sh&##le and ri##le
!hro&*h heav0 !o%es in order !o o$!ain !he in#or%a!ion we
wan! #ro% !he%. -&ch o# i! is a %ere se! o# ke0s!rokes awa0,
li!erall0 a! o&r #in*er!i(s. The challen*e in !his is kee(in* &(
wi!h wha! is con!in&all0 co%in* o&! #or o&r cons&%(!ion. A
*ood wa0 !o %oni!or i! all, i# !ha!s wha! we wan! !o do, is !o
visi! re*&larl0 we$si!es like !he ones I lis!ed a$ove. The0 are
no! !he onl0 ones, ei!her.
-eanwhile, $ack on !he (rin!ed (a*e, one e,ce(!ionall0
&se#&l #ea!&re o# NA
>O
and ;!o a lesser de*ree@ o# UBS
8
is !he
%ar*inal re#erence s0s!e%. ;In UBS
8
i! a((ears a! !he $o!!o%
o# !he (a*e, !he !hird o# !hree se!s o# #oo!no!e %a!erial.@
Dro(erl0 &sed ;read !he in!rod&c!ion/@, !his se! o# cross)
re#erences (rovides e,!raordinaril0 hel(#&l s&**es!ions #or
%akin* co%(arisons $o!h in!er!e,!&all0 ;across !e,!s@ and
in!ra!e,!&all0 ;wi!hin !e,!s@. So%e o# !hese re#erences #oc&s on
1&o!a!ions and all&sions, o!hers on (arallels in !he &se o#
voca$&lar0 or even en!ire s!ories ;es(eciall0 in !he Gos(els@.
S!ill o!hers !race conce(!s !rea!ed elsewhere in !he New
Tes!a%en! and $e0ond. I# 0o& alread0 own UBS
8
, 0o& %i*h!
consider #indin* a co(0 o# a recen! edi!ion o# NA 4&s! #or !he
%ar*inal re#erencesG !he0 are wor!h !he (rice o# !he $ook.
/ictionaries0 encyclopedias and atlases. An
a$sol&!e necessi!0 #or e,e*esis in !he Greek New Tes!a%en! is a
relia$le Gree--'n/is+ exi%on. Two in (ar!ic&lar are
reco%%ended' ;a@ !he so)called Ba&er ;or
B
DAG
5?
@ and ;$@ !he
+o&w)Nida do%ain dic!ionar0.
55
BDAG ;(&$lished in >??? and
a si*ni#ican! i%(rove%en! on i!s earlier edi!ions, BAG Q56KOS
and BAGD Q56O6S@ covers !he voca$&lar0 o# !he Greek New
Tes!a%en! and o# !he second)cen!&r0 a(os!olic #a!hers. I! is !he
a$sol&!e s!andard in New Tes!a%en! le,icons and a sine ?2a
non #or res(onsi$le e,e*esis. The +o&w)Nida do%ain
dic!ionar0 is (ri%aril0 in!ended #or &se $0 !ransla!ors,
alon*side !he UBS
8
!e,!. I!s chie# dis!inc!ion and a((eal is !ha!
i! or*aniAes !he New Tes!a%en! Greek voca$&lar0 in!o
se%an!ic 2do%ains,3 or #ields, !here$0 lis!in* in one (lace all
!he words (er!inen! !o, sa0, !he do%ain o# 2knowled*e3 or o#
2work.3 <e will disc&ss !hese !ools in %ore de!ail la!er on.
.or 1&ick orien!a!ion !o $o!h hi*hl0 s(eci#ic and ver0
*eneral s&$4ec!s in New Tes!a%en! s!&d0, a *ood Bi"e
!i%tionary or enc0clo(edia is !he wa0 !o *o. The New
Tes!a%en! ;no! !o %en!ion !he Old Tes!a%en!/@ arose in a
con!e,! wholl0 &n#a%iliar !o &s. I! was #a%iliar !o !he a&!hors
and !heir #irs! a&diences, however, and conse1&en!l0 !he0 did
BDAG S!andin* #or edi!ors Ba&er, Danker, Arnd! and Gin*rich
5?
<. Ba&er, . Gree--'n/is+ Lexi%on o1 t+e 0ew @esta&ent an! Ot+er
'ary 3+ristian Literat2re, ed. .. <. Danker, :rd ed. ;Hhica*o' Universi!0
o# Hhica*o Dress, >???@. The ini!ials 2A3 and 2G3 in !he a$$revia!ion re#er
!o earlier edi!ors <. .. Arnd! and .. <. Gin*rich.
5
5
J. +o&w and E. A. Nida, eds., Gree--'n/is+ Lexi%on o1 t+e 0ew
@esta&ent Base! on 7e&anti% Do&ains, > vols., >nd ed. ;New 9ork'
A%erican Bi$le Socie!0, 5676@.
no! need e,(lana!ions a! ever0 !&rn. Readin* -a!!hew >>'5J,
we %i*h! wonder who !he Cerodians were. I! did no! occ&r !o
-a!!hew !o e,(lain, since his #irs! a&dience likel0 knew. A
check o# an0 *ood dic!ionar0 o# !he Bi$le will reveal wha! we
have learned a$o&! !hese (eo(le #ro% so&rces o!her !han
-a!!hew ;or -ark, where !he0 are also %en!ioned@. Book)siAed
in!rod&c!ions !o !he New Tes!a%en! or !o i!s !heolo*0 ;or
!heolo*ies@ (rovide si%ilar in#or%a!ion, o#!en arran*ed in a
doc&%en!)$0)doc&%en! #or%a!. The e,!en! !oda0 o# easil0
accessi$le in#or%a!ion o# !his kind availa$le !hro&*h !hese
!ools ;a! leas! in Nor!h A%erica and E&ro(e@ is !r&l0
as!o&ndin*. Dic!ionaries and enc0clo(edias ran*e widel0 in
sco(e and de(!h. <i!h access !o ever0!hin* #ro% s%all
hand$ooks on !he en!ire Bi$le, !o he#!0 vol&%es devo!ed !o
selec!ed Scri(!&re (or!ions or s&$4ec! areas ;Gos(els, Da&l,
Den!a!e&ch, New Tes!a%en! $ack*ro&nds@, and !o %assive
%&l!i)vol&%e works, %odern e,e*e!es have never had i! so
*ood. Do 0o&rsel# and 0o&r (eo(le an e,e*e!ical #avor' inves! in
a *ood Bi$le dic!ionar0. Two s&(er$ o(!ions are !he
In!er"arsi!0 Dress series
5>
and !he .n%+or Bi"e Di%tionary.
5:
+ikewise &se#&l #or e,e*esis is a Bi"e atas. -os! edi!ions
o# !he Bi$le, incl&din* NA
>O
and UBS
8
, (rovide a selec!ion o#
%a(s relevan! !o $i$lical li!era!&re. A #&ll)$lown Bi$le a!las,
however, (rovides a weal!h o# *eo*ra(hical, and so%e!i%es
archeolo*ical, da!a !ha! can vas!l0 ill&%ina!e !he $ack*ro&nd
circ&%s!ances o# a New Tes!a%en! doc&%en!.
58
<h0, #or
ins!ance, does Jes&s end &( in Sa%aria in his 4o&rne0 $ack !o
Galilee in John 8I Cow does !he *eo*ra(h0 o# !he .eedin* o#
!he .o&r Tho&sand ;-k 7'5L5?@ ill&%ina!e !he %eanin* o# !he
even! in rela!ion !o !he .eedin* o# !he .ive Tho&sand ;-k
J':>L88@I In !his wa0, Bi$le a!lases !oo (rovide access !o (ar!
5>
There are #o&r in !he series #or !he New Tes!a%en!' Joel B. Green e!
al., eds., Di%tionary o1 ,es2s an! t+e Gos$es ;Downers Grove, Ill.'
In!er"arsi!0 Dress, 566>@G Gerald .. Caw!horne e! al., eds., Di%tionary o1
Pa2 an! His Letters ;Downers Grove, Ill.' In!er"arsi!0 Dress, 566:@G Ral(h
D. -ar!in and De!er C. Davids, eds., Di%tionary o1 t+e Later 0ew
@esta&ent an! Its Deveo$&ents ;Downers Grove, Ill.' In!er"arsi!0 Dress,
566O@G Hrai* A. Evans and S!anle0 E. Dor!er, eds., Di%tionary o1 0ew
@esta&ent Ba%-/ro2n! ;Downers Grove, Ill.' In!er"arsi!0 Dress, >???@. A
#i#!h vol&%e, selec!in* salien! ar!icles #ro% !he #irs! !hree, is edi!ed $0
Daniel G. Reid and !i!led @+e IVP Di%tionary o1 t+e 0ew @esta&ent# .
One-Vo2&e 3o&$en!i2& o1 3onte&$orary Bi"i%a 7%+oars+i$
;Downers Grove, Ill.' In!er"arsi!0 Dress, >??8@. A si%ilar series #or !he Old
Tes!a%en! is in !he (rocess o# co%in* o&!.
5
:
D. N. .reed%an, ed., .n%+or Bi"e Di%tionary, J vols. ;New 9ork'
Do&$leda0, 566>@. This !ool covers !he en!ire Bi$le.
5
8
E.*., C. G. -a0, ed., wi!h assis!ance o# G. N. S. C&n! and in
cons&l!a!ion wi!h R. <. Ca%il!on, Ox1or! Bi"e .tas, :rd ed. ;New 9ork'
O,#ord Universi!0 Dress, 5678@.
o# !he c&l!&ral &nders!andin* shared $0 $i$lical a&!hors and
!heir #irs! readers.
Gospel synopses. As earl0 as !he second cen!&r0,
Hhris!ian readers were in!eres!ed in !he wa0 !he #o&r Gos(els
in!errela!e wi!h one o!her. Aro&nd A.D. 5O?, S0rian a(olo*is!
Ta!ian co%(iled his #a%o&s Diatessaron, in which he
har%oniAed all #o&r Gos(els in!o one. Toda0 we %ake &se o# a
Gos(el s0no(sis as a !ool #or a((recia!in* $o!h !he
in!errela!ionshi(s a%on* !he #o&r Gos(els an! t+e se$arate,
2n+ar&oniQe! inte/rity o# each one. A s0no(sis la0s !he !e,! o#
each o# !he Gos(els side $0 side in order !o aid !he reader in
co%(arin* !he% wi!h each o!her. -akin* !hese co%(arisons is
essen!ial !o &nders!andin* !he (ar!ic&lar %essa*e o# each
Gos(el, as well as !he wa0 !heir a&!hors %a0 have co%(iled
!he%.
"ri&ary literature1 Writin%s of the ancients.
Pri&ary li!era!&re is !he %a!erial (rod&ced in closes!
associa!ion wi!h wha!ever his!orical (eriod or $od0 o#
li!era!&re we %a0 $e s!&d0in*. The corres(ondin* se%on!ary
li!era!&re is !he %a!erial wri!!enB&s&all0 %&ch la!erBa"o2t
!ha! earlier (eriod or %a!erial. I# we are s!&d0in* a (assa*e o#
!he New Tes!a%en!, #or e,a%(le, !he (ri%ar0 li!era!&re (ar
e,cellence is !he New Tes!a%en! i!sel#. Secondar0 li!era!&re on
!he s&$4ec! is an0!hin* %ore or less con!e%(orar0 !o &s,
wri!!en a"o2t !he New Tes!a%en! and i!s world, as #or
e,a%(le, !he %an0 co%%en!aries and %ono*ra(hs wri!!en $0
R&dol# B&l!%ann. I# we were !o wri!e a $ook a$o&! B&l!%anns
own li#e and career, however, ra!her !han a$o&! !he New
Tes!a%en!, his co%%en!aries and %ono*ra(hs wo&ld now
$eco%e o&r (ri%ar0 li!era!&re. +ikewise, o!her scholars #ro%
B&l!%anns da0, es(eciall0 !hose who in!erac!ed wi!h hi%
d&rin* his li#e!i%e, wo&ld (rovide &s in !he #or% o# !heir own
wri!in*s #&r!her (ri%ar0 li!era!&re #or !he s&$4ec! o# his li#e.
The sa%e is !r&e #or !he s!&d0 o# !he New Tes!a%en!' !he
ancien! world has handed down !o &s a vas! !reas&r0 o#
li!era!&re and o!her wri!!en %a!erial direc!l0 or indirec!l0
relevan! !o !he li#e and !i%es o# Jes&s and his #irs! #ollowers.
These %an0 doc&%en!s, like !he New Tes!a%en!, (rovide &s
addi!ional (ri%ar0 so&rces #or New Tes!a%en! e,e*esis.
There is so %&ch (ri%ar0 %a!erial availa$le #or !he
ill&%ina!ion o# !he New Tes!a%en! doc&%en!s !ha! no one
e,ce(! !he %os! dedica!ed scholars can %as!er i! all. Dic!ionar0
ar!icles can hel( &s here, o# co&rse, as can e,!ensive secondar0
!rea!%en!s $0 (eo(le like Hrai* Evans
5K
or N. T. <ri*h!.
5J
Cowever, #or *e!!in* a hands)on #eel #or !he #irs!)cen!&r0
-edi!erranean world !here is scarcel0 an0!hin* %ore e##ec!ive
or, once we are 2in!o3 i!, %ore #&n !han i%%ersin* o&rselves in
selec!ed ancien! non)$i$lical li!era!&re.
This %a!erial divides i!sel# ro&*hl0 in!o Jewish and non)
Jewish ca!e*ories, which is no! !o sa0 !here is no overla( or
in!errela!ionshi( $e!ween !he%. ,ewis+ iterat2re o# !he
(eriod
5O
ran*es #ro% well $e#ore !he $ir!h o# Jes&s !o well in!o
!he cen!&ries #ollowin*. The +TT, o# co&rse, incl&din* wha! we
so%e!i%es call !he Old Tes!a%en! A(ocr0(ha ;also called !he
de&!erocanonical $ooks@, is e,!re%el0 i%(or!an! in !his
ca!e*or0. The sa%e is !r&e o# !he Dead Sea Scrolls, !he so)
called Old Tes!a%en! (se&de(i*ra(ha, !he works o# Jose(h&s
and Dhilo ;$o!h o# who% are e,a%(les o# !he overla( o# !he
ca!e*ories@, and la!er ra$$inic li!era!&re ;-ishnah and
Tal%&d@. 0on-,ewis+ so2r%es incl&de Greek and Ro%an
his!orians ;Taci!&s, S&e!oni&s, !he !wo Dlin0s, as e,a%(les@,
(hiloso(hers ;es(eciall0 !hose #ro% !he Cellenis!ic (eriod,
5K
Hrai* A. Evans, 0on%anoni%a Writin/s an! 0ew @esta&ent
Inter$retation ;Dea$od0, -ass.' Cendrickson, 566>@.
5
J
E.*., !he #irs! ins!all%en! o# <ri*h!s %assive, %&l!ivol&%e (ro4ec!
on Hhris!ian ori*ins and !he 1&es!ion o# God' @+e 0ew @esta&ent an! t+e
Peo$e o1 Go! ;-innea(olis' .or!ress, 566>@. Two o!her vol&%es have since
a((eared' ,es2s an! t+e Vi%tory o1 Go! ;-innea(olis' .or!ress, 566J@ and
@+e *es2rre%tion o1 t+e 7on o1 Go! ;-innea(olis' .or!ress, >??:@. All !hree
o# !hese $ooks %ake crea!ive &se o# !he (ri%ar0 li!era!&re o# !he second)
!e%(le (eriod.
5O
A hel(#&l %a( !hro&*h !his %a!erial is +arr0 R. Cel0ers 'x$orin/
,ewis+ Literat2re o1 t+e 7e%on! @e&$e Perio!# . G2i!e 1or 0ew
@esta&ent 7t2!ents ;Downers Grove, Ill.' In!er"arsi!0 Dress, >??>@.
s&ch as E(ic!e!&s@, c&l!ic li!era!&re ;Gnos!ic and Cer%e!ic
wri!in*s, and ancien! disc&ssions o# %0s!er0 reli*ions@, as well
as inscri(!ions and (a(0r&s re%ains ;incl&din* ho%e0 le!!ers
and doc&%en!s #ro% ever0da0 li#e in Cellenis!ic E*0(!@. H. =.
Barre!!s @+e 0ew @esta&ent Ba%-/ro2n! (rovides an
e,cellen! in!rod&c!ion !o !his weal!h o# %a!erial.
57
Hrai*
Evanss 0on%anoni%a Writin/s an! 0ew @esta&ent
Inter$retation is a ver0 &se#&l $ook #or $eco%in* orien!ed !o
!he whole ran*e o# !he li!era!&re. An e,cellen! (lace !o $e*in
readin* in !his %a!erial is !he Old Tes!a%en! A(ocr0(ha,
(erha(s wi!h !he color#&l s!ories o# J&di!h, S&sannah and
To$i!, or wi!h !he e,ci!in* acco&n!s o# 5 and > -acca$ees.
A*ain, !he (oin! is no! !ha! we %as!er !his li!era!&re ;as i#
we co&ld in !he %ids! o# ordinar0 li#e@. Ra!her, !he (oin! is !o
$e aware o# i!s &se#&lness and i!s availa$ili!0, and, as #ar as is
(rac!ical, !o $e alwa0s readin* in i!. <ha! we wan! is an ever)
e,(andin* sense o# li#e a%on* !he ancien!s. <e wan! an
increased a$ili!0 !o hear !he New Tes!a%en! as i!s #irs! readers
heard i!, !o enlar*e o&r &nders!andin* o# !heir shared
(res&((osi!ions a$o&! li#e. Readin* in !his li!era!&re is a $i!
like lis!enin* !o !a(e recordin*s o# !heir ver0 voices, like
wa!chin* an earl0 newsreel o# =aiser <ilhel% s!r&!!in* aro&nd
in his (l&%ed hel%e! and enor%o&s %o&s!ache.
5
7
H. =. Barre!!, ed., @+e 0ew @esta&ent Ba%-/ro2n!# Writin/s 1ro&
.n%ient Gree%e an! t+e *o&an '&$ire @+at I2&ine 3+ristian Ori/ins,
rev. ed. ;New 9ork' Car(erSan.rancisco, 567O@. The $ook is #&ll o# color#&l
e,cer(!s.
Secondary literature1 (o&&entaries0 2ournals
and &ono%raphs. The $&lk o# se%on!ary iterat2re #or New
Tes!a%en! s!&d0 incl&des %o&&entaries, a%a!e&i% Lo2rnas
and &ono/ra$+s ;dic!ionar0 ar!icles #all in!o !his ca!e*or0,
!oo@. 3o&&entaries co%e in vario&s len*!hs and wi!h var0in*
ran*es and (&r(oses. So%e are one)vol&%e (o(&lar
!rea!%en!s o# !he en!ire Bi$le. O!hers cover individ&al $ooks o#
Scri(!&re, or even (or!ions o# !he%. So%e serve a s(ecialiAed
(&r(ose, s&ch as hel(in* (reachers !o (re(are ser%ons, or
e,(lainin* how !he %ale)do%inan! li!era!&re o# !he New
Tes!a%en! so&nds #ro% a #e%inis! (ers(ec!ive. S!ill o!hers
a!!e%(! !o acco&n! #or all c&rren! scholarl0 o(inion on ever0
as(ec! o# !he !e,!, while o!hers !ake a devo!ional line. In all
cases, co%%en!aries seek !o ill&%ina!e !he $i$lical !e,! #or !he
con!e%(orar0 reader. ,o2rnas, !oo, ran*e in (&r(ose and
sco(e, !ho&*h %os! serve as a #or&% #or scholarl0 disc&ssion.
Ar!icles a((earin* in 4o&rnals !end !o re(resen! 2!he la!es!
!hinkin*3 on a (ar!ic&lar (ro$le% o# $i$lical researchG as s&ch,
!he0 var0 widel0 in (la&si$ili!0 and &se#&lness. O# co&rse, !he
less recen! a (ar!ic&lar iss&e o# a 4o&rnal, !he less likel0 an
ar!icle in i! will s!ill re(resen! !he atest !hinkin*/ Jo&rnal
ar!icles $0 a (ar!ic&lar scholar o#!en re(resen! s!a*es in !he
develo(%en! o# a $ook, or %ono*ra(h, $0 !ha! scholar.
;ono/ra$+s re(resen! e,!ensive !rea!%en!s o# a (ar!ic&lar
s&$4ec!, widel0 or narrowl0 de#ined. In !he (re(ara!ion o# a
ser%on, 0o& %a0 no! have !i%e #or readin* an en!ire
%ono*ra(h on !he s&$4ec! o# 0o&r !e,!. Never!heless, 0o&
%i*h! have !i%e #or a cha(!er. On !he o!her hand, i# 0o& are
(&rs&in* a series on Gala!ians over a (eriod o# several %on!hs,
0o& %i*h! consider readin* a recen! $ook on Da&l and !he law
as (ar! o# 0o&r lon*)ran*e (re(ara!ion.
In !he co%in* cha(!ers we will re!&rn !o !hese vario&s !ools
in order !o ela$ora!e !heir &se#&lness in s(eci#ic s!a*es o# !he
overall (rocess o# e,e*esis. .or now, however, we will !&rn !o
!he rela!ion o# !he whole !o i!s (ar!s and !he e##ec! !ha!
d0na%ic has on a !e,!s %eanin*.
3
TEXTS AND THEIR STRUCTURE
<alls o# S!ones
4or L2st as t+e "o!y is one an! +as &any
&e&"ers, an! a t+e &e&"ers o1 t+e "o!y,
t+o2/+ &any, are one "o!y, so it is wit+ 3+rist.
1 3O*I0@HI.07 12#12
<e saw in cha(!er one !ha!, in a sense, !he text is a we +ave.
.or !his reason, &nders!andin* lan*&a*e s!r&c!&re and
se%an!ic s!r&c!&re, which *ive !e,!s !heir co%%&nica!ive
(ower, is an essen!ial (ar! o# in!er(re!ive %e!hod. .or o&r
(&r(oses, !his iss&e !akes !wo %ain #or%s. ;5@ I! involves
&nders!andin* how a&!hors synt+esiQe, "2i! 2$ or %onstr2%t
!e,!s, !ha! is, how !he0 link s%aller ele%en!s !o one ano!her !o
#or% lar*er &ni!s, and how !he0 4oin !hose lar*er &ni!s !o*e!her
!o #or% even lar*er &ni!s. ;>@ I! also involves &nders!andin*
how !o ta-e a text a$art, how !o anayQe i! in!o i!s cons!i!&en!
(ieces, %ovin* #ro% !he lar*er &ni!s !o !he s%aller ones o#
which !he0 are %ade. Even a %odes! *ras( o# !his d0na%ic will
enhance o&r skill in in!er(re!in* anyt+in/ $ased in lan*&a*e.
This cha(!er looks a! $i$lical !e,!s #ro% !hese !wo (ers(ec!ives
o# synt+esis and anaysis.
3.1 SYNTHESIS: STRUCTURE AND THE WHOLE
3.1.1 (oherence1 Holdin% It To%ether
Be#ore (l&n*in* in!o !he s&$4ec! o# !e,!s and !heir s0n!hesis,
we need !o $e clear a$o&! !he no!ion o# 2coherence,3 since i!
(la0s an i%(or!an! (ar! in !he #ollowin* disc&ssion. I# 3o!
3ase de!ec!ive +il0 R&sh sa0s !ha! !he s&s(ec!s s!or0 lacks
coherence, she %eans !ha! so%e (ar!s o# i! do no! #i! well wi!h
!he o!her (ar!s. In co&r!, non)coherence *ives s&##icien! reason
#or discredi!in* a wi!ness. I# (ieces o# a $roken vase do no!
cohere well, ei!her we &sed !he wron* *l&e or we were no!
care#&l eno&*h a$o&! linin* &( !he ed*es. Si%ilarl0, a !e,!
coheres i# all i!s (ar!s #i! !o*e!her, in!erlockin* in one wa0 or
ano!her !o #or% a solid whole. <ell)#or%ed !e,!s coordina!e all
!heir (ar!s in order !o conve0 a sin*le, &ni#ied %essa*e.
Hoherence holds !he (ar!s !o*e!her, and !he res&l! is a
2coheren!3 %essa*e.
Te,!s e%(lo0 an en!ire arra0 o# lin*&is!ic a((ara!&s #or
#or*in* coherence. -an0 o# !hese devices co%e &( #or %en!ion
in !his cha(!er, !ools s&ch as re(e!i!ions and o!her (a!!erns,
co%%on voca$&lar0 or s&$4ec! %a!!er, (rono&ns, ver$ !enses,
lo*ical connec!ions, i%(lied ass&%(!ions #ro% ;and links !o@
s&rro&ndin* con!e,! and so on. The (oin! !o !ake wi!h &s in!o
!he #ollowin* disc&ssion is !ha! coherence in !e,!s is
re%o/niQa"eP we co&ld anal0Ae i!, i# we wished. <e %a0
seldo% !hink a$o&! i!, however, &nless we enco&n!er an
incoheren! !e,!, and even !hen we %a0 no! !ake !he e##or! !o
iden!i#0 !he so&rce o# !he incoherence. I!s easier !o roll o&r
e0es and walk awa0. .or now, however, kee( i! in %ind and
!hink a$o&! s!ones.
!igure 5#"# Village c$urc$> Sloten T$e Net$erlan3s
3.1.2 Structured Te$ts and Stone Walls
In 1a%t, vis2aiQe a stone wa. .ro% a dis!ance, !he wall looks
#or%ida$le, a solid $arrier, a %onoli!hic %ass. U( close, we see
!ha! i! is no! 4&s! a s!one wallG i! is also a wall o# s!ones, s!ones
o# vario&s siAes, sha(es and co%(osi!ion. The individ&al s!ones
adhere !o*e!her, (erha(s wi!h %or!ar, !o #or% a sin*le wall,
$&! we can s!ill see where one s!one ends and i!s nei*h$or
$e*ins. The %or!ar no! onl0 holds !he s!ones !o*e!her $&! also
%arks !he $o&ndaries $e!ween !he%. .i*&re :.5 ill&s!ra!es a
"ri%- s!r&c!&re ;!he villa*e ch&rch in Slo!en, !he Ne!herlands@G
$ricks are no! as irre*&lar as s!ones can $e, $&! !he0 o(era!e in
!he sa%e wa0.
I# we %ove in close and chi( awa0 a! one o# !he s!ones, we
see !ha! i! is %ade &( o# s%aller (ar!icles or %a0$e la0ers o#
sedi%en!, which !he%selves have $een ce%en!ed !o*e!her in a
(ar!ic&lar (a!!ern !o #or% !ha! sin*le s!one. <e can even (ick
o&! vario&s $i!s o# %ica or #elds(ar, all held !o*e!her $0 so%e
o!her s&$s!ance 4&s! like !he %or!ar !ha!, on anot+er eve,
holds !he wall !o*e!her, %akin* i! %o+ere. I# we s!e( $ack, we
can see !ha! !he wall consis!s o# lar*e sec!ions, each sec!ion
%ade &( o# a %2ster o# s!ones in a (ar!ic&lar (a!!ern. These
sec!ions ;nor!h e,!ension, *a!ewa0, so&!h e,!ension@ adhere
!o*e!her wi!h !he hel( o# s!eel !ie rods and o!her in!ernal
s!ren*!henin* and connec!in* devices. These devices kee( !he
walls vario&s sec!ions #&nc!ionin* !o*e!her as one %o+erent
&ni! and (reven! !he wall #ro% !o((lin* in!o discre!e (ar!s. The
vario&s (a!!erns !ha! or*aniAe !he s!ones or $ricksB
herrin*$one, #or e,a%(leB*ive !he wall i!s individ&al
charac!er. So does !he walls loca!ion, so%e!hin* we will re!&rn
!o a li!!le la!er when we !ake &( !he !o(ic o# con!e,!.
@exts are no !i11erent 1ro& was in t+is re/ar!. Te,!s are
2$&il! &(3 #ro% discre!e (ar!s (&! !o*e!her in (ar!ic&lar
(a!!erns !o conve0 a (ar!ic&lar %essa*e. These (ar!s are
s0n!hesiAed in!o a sin*le !e,! !hro&*h vario&s *ra%%a!ical and
disc&rsive %eans, s&ch as con4&nc!ions, (rono&ns, re(e!i!ions,
!he%es, chan*es in cas! or scene, and so on. Dar! o# !he !ask o#
e,e*esisBa ver0 #&nda%en!al and i%(or!an! (ar!Bis !o
discern !hese discre!e (ieces and !he (a!!erns !ha! arran*e
!he% in!o !he #or% o# a !e,!. .or t+ese %o+erent $atterns reveal
a si*ni#ican! (or!ion o# !he !e,!s %essa*e. +ikewise, !he
(a!!erned !e,!s !he%selves #&nc!ion wi!hin lar*er arra0s,
co%$inin* wi!h o!her !e,!s !o $&ild &( an even lar*er s!re!ch o#
(a!!erned !e,!, (recisel0 as s!ones in a wall.
3.1.3 +sse&.lin% the 3uildin% 3locs of Te$ts
The %os! ele%en!ar0 level o# co%(le,i!0 #or !he &ni!s
cons!i!&!in* a (rin!ed $i$lical !e,! is ;#or o&r (&r(oses@ !ha! o#
individ&al al(ha$e!ic etters. In !he s!one wall analo*0, !he
le!!ers o# a !e,! %i*h! corres(ond !o !he *rains o# con*lo%era!e
%a!erial !ha! #or% individ&al s!ones. In (rin!ed !e,!s, le!!ers
adhere !o*e!her !o #or% a 2s!one in !he wall3 $0 s!andin*
i%%edia!el0 ne,! !o each o!her, wi!ho&! s(aces $e!ween !he%
;4&s! like !he ones 0o& are lookin* a! ri*h! now@. These
cl&s!ered *ro&(s o# le!!ers #or% !he next eve o# co%(le,i!0 in
&ni!s cons!i!&!in* a !e,!. Uni!s o# !his ne,! level we call wor!s.
This is !r&e #or all !e,!s we deal wi!h in $i$lical
in!er(re!a!ion. +ike s!ones in a wall, words ;#or%ed $0
cl&s!ered le!!ers@ cl&s!er !o*e!her !he%selves on 0e! a hi*her
level !o #or% $+rases and %a2ses. Dhrases ;andNor cla&ses@,
!hen, !ho&*h dis!inc! #ro% one ano!her, co%$ine a! an even
hi*her level !o #or% senten%es. .ro% !here, sen!ences cl&s!er !o
#or% $ara/ra$+s, and (ara*ra(hs cl&s!er !o #or% se%tions,
and so on &( !o an entire !is%o2rse. This a$ili!0 o# lan*&a*e !o
rea((l0 !he sa%e cl&s!erin* r&les on an0 levelB#ro% le!!ers
&(ward !o (ara*ra(hs and $e0ondBis i!s re%2rsive $ower. I!
allows %eanin*#&l, s0n!he!ic cl&s!erin* !o 2rec&r,3 a*ain and
a*ain, all !he wa0 &( !he ladder.
Besides i!s rec&rsive (owers, lan*&a*e also e%(lo0s a kind
o# re%i$ro%ity in cons!r&c!in* !e,!s. +ike %or!ar in a s!one wall,
!he !echni1&es !ha! lan*&a*es &se !o %ark !he !ivisions
$e!ween &ni!s o# !e,!, on an0 level, also serve !o %onne%t t+ose
2nits to ea%+ ot+er, in order !o hold !he !e,! !o*e!her. These
!echni1&es ;incl&din* %odern (&nc!&a!ion@ indica!e $o!h !he
loca!ion and !he na!&re o# !hese divisions and connec!ions.
The0 de#ine !he rela!ionshi( $e!ween !he &ni!s !he0 divide,
showin* how !he0 cohere !o #or% a lar*er !e,!. A co%%a can
se(ara!e one cla&se #ro% ano!her, $&! in cer!ain con!e,!s !ha!
sa%e co%%a indica!es !ha! !he second cla&se ac!&all0 res!a!es
!he #irs! one in di##eren! words. In a !e,!, !hen, !he ver0
(resence o# one &ni!B!he word /ray, #or e,a%(leBde!er%ines
in (ar! !he li%i!s o# ano!her &ni! s!andin* ne,! !o i!Bs-ies,
(erha(s. A! !he sa%e !i%e, however, i! coo(era!es wi!h !ha!
o!her &ni! in (er#or%in* a lar*er !ask. The sa%e is !r&e a$o&!
!he word s-ies as has 4&s! $een said a$o&! /ray. The !wo words
/ray and s-ies serve !o de#ine each o!her reci(rocall0 and !hen
4oin coo(era!ivel0 !o sa0 so%e!hin* lar*er !han ei!her o# !he%
co&ld do alone. Each %akes &( a (ar! o# !he %ontext o# !he
o!herBa! leas! in !his e,a%(le ;no! ever0where, o# co&rse@. <e
will co%e $ack !o !his idea in a %o%en!.
3.1.! Te$ts Function as (oherent Wholes0 Lie
(o&&unities
In !he wa0 i! is $&il! &(, a !e,! is like a s!one wall. In !he wa0 i!
12n%tions, !he wa0 i!s (ar!s work !o*e!her !o e,(ress a coheren!
%essa*e, a text is i-e a %o&&2nity. A co%%&ni!0 is a *ro&( o#
(eo(le ;or an!s, $ees, orcs, e!c.@ #&nc!ionin* as a sin*le &ni!, as
in 2o&r ch&rch co%%&ni!0 worshi(s !o*e!her ever0 S&nda0
evenin*.3 Cowever, &nless we can reco*niAe !he individ&als
%akin* &( a co%%&ni!0, we canno! reco*niAe !he co%%&ni!0
i!sel# as a %o&&2nity. Onl0 $0 dis!in*&ishin* a%on* !he
individ&als and *ro&(s wi!hin a co%%&ni!0 can we $e*in !o
de#ine !heir %&!&al rela!ionshi(s, and !hese in!errela!ionshi(s
are wha! *ive !he co%%&ni!0 i!s sha(e and charac!er as a
co%%&ni!0. <e can a((l0 !his sa%e (rinci(le &( and down !he
scale o# co%(le,i!0 wi!hin !he idea o# co%%&ni!0. <e can !alk
a$o&! !he s&$co%%&ni!ies in a ch&rch, #or ins!ance' S&nda0
school classes, #a%ilies, s%all *ro&(s or co%%i!!ees. <e can
%ove #&r!her down !he scale and anal0Ae !he (h0sical $od0 o#
an individ&al %e%$er' hear!, l&n*s, skin and $ones. <e can
%ove &( !he scale, !oo, anal0Ain* whole deno%ina!ions in
!er%s o# !heir cons!i!&en! local ch&rches and so on.
The sa%e (rinci(le holds #or co%%&nica!ive disco&rse. .
text is i-e a %o&&2nity. <e *ras( !he overall %eanin* o# a
disco&rse, i!s %essa*e, onl0 i# we can dis!in*&ishBconscio&sl0
or &nconscio&sl0Bi!s cons!i!&en! (ar!s and !heir
in!errela!ionshi(s, !ha! is, !heir 12n%tions. <e %i*h! !hink !ha!
lines o# deli%i!a!ion des!ro0 wholeness and &ni!0, $&! wi!ho&!
deli%i!a!ion, we canno! de#ine or *ras( !he na!&re o# !he
wholeness. This &ni!0, !his interna %o+eren%e o# a disco&rse, is
wha! ordinaril0 carries i!s %essa*e. Hoheren!, in!erconnec!ed
wholeness also cons!i!&!es (ar! o# !he %ontext wi!hin which !he
individ&al cons!i!&en! (ieces o# !he whole have !heir vario&s
#&nc!ions wi!h res(ec! !o each o!her in (rod&cin* !he %essa*e.
I! can %ake a si*ni#ican! di##erence in !he %essa*e o# a
disco&rse i# we %isin!er(re! or al!er !he #&nc!ion o# a *iven
(ar! o# !he disco&rse. Tr0 !his e,a%(le'
4a$$in/ an! 12tterin/ "ir!s &a!e a &ess o1 t+e -it%+en.
Is !his a descri(!ion o# how or o# wha! sor!I <ho, in #ac!,
#la(s and #l&!!ersI -iscons!r&in* !he #&nc!ion o# 1a$$in/ an!
12tterin/ can %ake a si*ni#ican! di##erence. Does !he sen!ence
Bas a wholeBdescri$e an invasion o# s(arrows, and were all o#
!he% res(onsi$le #or !he %essI Or does !he sen!ence re#er !o
!he $ehavior o# a deran*ed cookI <e canno! $e*in !o anal0Ae
!his %essa*e and solve !he (&AAle &n!il we iden!i#0 !he
$o&ndaries and #&nc!ions o# &ni!s wi!hin !his s!a!e%en!.
Addi!ional (&nc!&a!ion wo&ld hel( a *rea! deal in !his, $&! so
wo&ld a con4&nc!ion or !wo.
In !er%s o# !his co%%&ni!0 %e!a(hor, !he 2co%%&ni!03 a!
!he !o( o# !he co%(le,i!0 scale #or $i$lical e,e*esis, o# co&rse,
is !he en!ire Bi$le ;however de#ined, and o# co&rse wi!hin i!s
own lar*er li!erar0 and his!orical con!e,!@. The Bi$le i!sel#,
wi!h i!s (ar!s and s&$(ar!s, #&nc!ions like a co%%&ni!0. In
(re(arin* a ser%on or a Bi$le disc&ssion, or in (ersonal s!&d0
o# !he <ord o# God, we need !o view an0 coheren! scri(!&ral
(assa*e as %&ch as (ossi$le in !er%s o# i!s #&nc!ion wi!hin !he
lar*er con!e,! o# !he $i$lical %essa*e as a whole. Na!&rall0, $0
!ha! lar*er con!e,! I %ean o&r %2rrent 2n!erstan!in/ o# !he
%essa*e o# !he whole Bi$le, so%e!hin* !ha! &nder*oes
cons!an! re#ine%en! as we con!in&all0 read and reread
individ&al (or!ions o# !he Scri(!&re wi!h new insi*h!. Cow we
area!y &nders!and !he Bi$le will de!er%ine in (ar! how we
&nders!and Ro%ans, #or ins!ance, or Ecclesias!es.
Reci(rocall0, o&r s!&d0 o# Ro%ans or Ecclesias!es %a0 well
ater o&r (revio&s &nders!andin* o# !he Bi$le. B&! how do we
s!&d0 Ro%ansI <e s!&d0 i! (iece $0 (iece. <e $reak &( !he
le!!er in!o sec!ions and s&$sec!ions and anayQe !he% one $0
one, *rad&all0 hearin* !he% all wi!hin !he lar*er con!e,! o# !he
$ook and o# !he Bi$le as a whole. This is !r&e whe!her we
anal0Ae each (iece in care#&l e,e*e!ical s!0le or we are si%(l0
readin* !hro&*h !he $ook ;or Bi$le@ s!ar! !o #inish. I! is a linear
e,(erience, $&! one !ha! $&ildsBand &nceasin*l0 re$&ildsBa
*lo$al (ers(ec!ive.
3.2 ANALYSIS: STRUCTURE AND THE PARTS
A coheren! se*%en! o# !he *rea!er whole o# a $ook like Ro%ans
is a $eri%o$e. ;The word is (rono&nced $er-I3A-o-$eeP i! does
no! rh0%e wi!h $eris%o$e, !ho&*h 0o&r co%(&!ers s(ell)
checker %a0 re(lace i! wi!h $eris%o$e i# 0o& le! i!.@ <hile !he
!er% $eri%o$e a((lies !o an0 coheren! (or!ion o# a $ook,
whe!her lar*e or s%all, !he word nor%all0 re#ers !o a
(ara*ra(h or a s%all *ro&( o# (ara*ra(hs, s&ch as a (assa*e
#or (reachin*. .or res(onsi$le e,e*esis, !he cr&cial !hin* a$o&!
(erico(es is !he (ro(er, #air and !e,!)sensi!ive i!enti1i%ation o1
t+eir "o2n!aries, !heir deli%i!a!ions, $o!h !he e,!ernal and !he
in!ernal delinea!ions. <here does a (ar!ic&lar (erico(e
le*i!i%a!el0 $e*in and endI Cow is i! in!ernall0 s!r&c!&red,
and how does i! han* !o*e!her as a coheren! &ni!I
Sa0in* !here is a 2(ro(er, #air and !e,!)sensi!ive3 wa0 !o
iden!i#0 !he o&!er $o&ndaries and inner s!r&c!&re o# a *iven
(erico(e does no! %ean !ha! !here is onl0 one (ro(er, #air and
!e,!)sensi!ive wa0 !o do i!. So%e!i%es !hese deli%i!a!ions will
$e o$vio&s' wha! co&ld $e %ore o$vio&s !han -a!!hew 5'5 as
!he $e*innin* o# a (erico(eI -&ch o# !he !i%e, however, !he0
will $e o(en #or disc&ssion. <e are dealin* wi!h an ar!, no! a
(redic!a$le che%ical reac!ion. Drac!icin* !his ar! involves !he
iss&e o# %ontext.
3.2.1 (onte$t and 4eanin%
A !e,!s 2con!e,!3 (ar!iall0 de!er%ines i!s sha(e and #&nc!ion,
an! i!s %eanin*. 3ontext $ro1o2n!y in12en%es t+e &eanin/
o1 anyt+in/. The sa%e 2#or%3 will chan*e i!s %eanin* wi!h
ever0 chan*e in !he con!e,! in which i! occ&rsBa! leas! in
!heor0. <alkin* aro&nd !he livin* roo% a! ni*h! in 0o&r
(a4a%as %eans one !hin*G walkin* aro&nd in 0o&r (a4a%as a!
noon, down!own, a! !he o##ice, %eans so%e!hin* else. ;This
has less !ro&$lin* i%(lica!ions #or (eo(le who work a! ho%e.@
The di##erence is %ontext. The di##erence is o%ation.
An0 word or (or!ion o# a word, an0 (hrase, cla&se,
sen!ence, (ara*ra(h, sec!ion, cha(!er or %ain (ar! o# a li!erar0
work will have i!s %eanin*Ban! i!s sha(eB(ar!iall0
de!er%ined $0 i!s (lace wi!hin !he &a%rostr2%t2re o# !he
whole work. <ha! lar*er &ni! does i! $elon* !oI <ha! &ni!s o#
i!s own level #ollow and (recede i!, and how does i! coo(era!e
wi!h !he% in develo(in* !he lar*er &ni!I Cow does !he overall,
&ni#ied %essa*e o# !he whole 2$ook3 de!er%ine 4&s! wha! role,
and !h&s wha! %eanin*, !his s%aller &ni! hasI In #ac!, t+e
&eanin/ o1 t+e w+oe wi +e$ 2s in !e%i!in/ w+at &eanin/
t+e $arts wi +ave. B&! wha! is !he %eanin* o# !he wholeI
Cow do we learn !he %essa*e o# a New Tes!a%en! le!!er i# no!
$0 &nders!andin* !he %eanin* o# !he s%aller (ar!s !ha! %ake i!
&(I <e canno!/ <e need !o know wha! !he $arts %ean $e#ore
we can know wha! !he w+oe %eans.
In !heor0, !hen, we are s!&ck. <e have nei!her !he chicken
nor !he e**, $&! !he #a%il0 is sea!ed a! !he !a$le, wai!in*. This
e,a**era!es !he dile%%a, o# co&rse. In reali!0, !he !ask is %ore
one o# re#inin* wha! we alread0 know !han one o# #i*&rin* o&!
#ro% scra!ch wha! we have never known. I! is a (rocess o#
a!!ackin* !e,! and con!e,! si%&l!aneo&sl0, alwa0s le!!in* !he
one lead !o an i%(roved *ras( o# !he o!her, $ack and #or!h,
$ack and #or!h. I! works like a s(iral' !e,! ill&%ina!in* con!e,!,
con!e,! #&r!her ill&%ina!in* !e,!, and so on in an ever
increasin* &nders!andin* o# each in !er%s o# !he o!her. <here
do we $e*in, !hen, since we have !o $e*in so%ewhereI
Ordinaril0, we will know !he e,!ernal $o&ndaries o# a 2$ook3'
Dhile%on 5 and >K, #or ins!ance. B&! we need !o de!er%ine !he
$o&ndaries o# !he s%aller ;and s!ill s%aller@ (ieces o# !he $ook,
$e#ore we can sa0 wha! role !hose (ieces (la0 in !he $ooks
develo(%en!. The 1&es!ion is how !o iden!i#0 !he 2(ro(er3
$o&ndaries #or !hose s%aller &ni!s.
3.2.2 4arin% Structure
An0 *ood *&ide #or wri!in* a !er% (a(er (rovides ins!r&c!ions
a$o&! or*aniAin* !he (a(er and a$o&! wha! si*nals !o &se #or
(oin!in* o&! !he or*aniAa!ion !o readers ;Ro%an n&%erals,
Ara$ic n&%erals, inden!a!ion, headin*s and s&$headin*s,
$old)#ace and i!alic !0(e, e!c.@. Ordinar0 lan*&a*e also (rovides
%eans #or &ar-in/ vario&s #ea!&res in !he or*aniAa!ion o# a
!e,! ;wri!!en or no!@. The (hrase 2%eans #or %arkin*3 re#ers !o
a s0s!e% o# !e,!&al si*nals !ha! indica!e wha!ever needs
indica!in* ;!ense, %ood, case, *ender, #&nc!ion, rela!ionshi(,
e!c.@. Reco*niAin* !he %arkers co%%onl0 &sed #or indica!in*
!he str2%t2re and i&its o# !e,!s is essen!ial #or !e,!&al anal0sis.
Honsider a #ew o# !he %ore i%(or!an! %arkers.
The purpose of a .oo. =nowled*e o# a $ooks (&r(ose
and !he%e hel(s a *ood deal in de!er%inin* !he con!e,!&al
$o&ndaries #or !he $ooks s%aller &ni!s. I! (rovides &s a
direc!ion in which !o look. So%e!i%es a&!hors are kind eno&*h
!o s!a!e !he (&r(ose o# !he $ook in so %an0 words. E,a%(les o#
!his a((ear a! +&ke 5'5L8 and John >?':?L:5. I# we are no! so
#or!&na!e ;which is nor%all0 !he case@, !hen we %a0 !r0 !o
de!er%ine !he $ooks !he%e and (&r(ose in a n&%$er o# o!her
wa0s. Cere are !hree. ;5@ <e can no!e wha! %o&&an!s !he
a&!hor *ives !he readers ;es(eciall0 in !he case o# e(is!les@,
since !he a&!hor will (ro$a$l0 direc! his readers alon* !he lines
o# his overall in!en!ions. ;>@ <e can no!e !he wa0 in which an
a&!hor see%ts and arran/es narra!ed even!s. I! is
&n%is!aka$le !ha! !he Gos(els in!end !o i%(ress &s wi!h !he
res&rrec!ion o# Jes&s as !he cli%a, o# his s!or0, since ever0 one
o# !he% ;even -ark@ (laces !he res&rrec!ion and i!s a#!er%a!h
a! !he cli%a, o# t+eir s!ories. ;:@ <e can also anal0Ae !he to$i%
or t+e&e senten%es o# !he (ara*ra(hs and sec!ions !ha!
cons!i!&!e !he $ook, since !he0 will do&$!lessl0 add &( !o i!s
overall (&r(ose. A! leas! i! is #air !o !hink so.
4arers0 or si%nals0 for reco%ni5in% .oundaries
and sea&s. In !0(icall0 reci(rocal #ashion, !hese !hree
%e!hods #or discernin* a $ooks !he%e i%(l0 alread0
reco*niAin* !he $o&ndaries and sea%s $e!ween !he co%(onen!
(ar!s o# !he whole doc&%en!. B&! how do we reco*niAe !hese
sea%s and divisionsI Cere is a lis! o# si*nals ;2%arkers3@ o#
!e,!&al $o&ndaries s&**es!ed $0 John Beek%an and John
Hallow.
5
I! is $0 no %eans a co%(le!e lis! and (rovides onl0
so%e o# !he %ore reco*niAa$le e,a%(les.
Y re(ea!ed &ni!s ;!er%s, (hrases, cla&ses, sen!ences,
s0n!ac!ical s!r&c!&res@
Y *ra%%a!ical cl&es ;con4&nc!ions, chan*es in %ood, !ense,
as(ec!@
Y rhe!orical 1&es!ions ;es(eciall0 a series o# !he%@
Y chan*es in !i%e, se!!in* ;scene@, (ar!ici(an!s ;cas!@
Y voca!ive #or%s ;es(eciall0 shi#!s #ro% one (erson or *ro&(
!o ano!her@
Y chan*es in s&$4ec!, o$4ec!, !o(ic
Y anno&nce%en! o# a ;new@ !he%e a! !he head ;or !he end@ o#
a (ara*ra(h or sec!ion
In co%$ina!ion wi!h a! leas! an ini!ial sense o# a $ooks
overall (&r(ose, reco*ni!ion o# $o&ndar0 %arkers like !hese
(rovides solid *ro&nd on which !o $e*in workin* o&! !he
$ooks %essa*e and !he con!ri$&!ion !o !ha! %essa*e %ade $0
i!s individ&al (ar!s.
5

John Beek%an and John Hallow, @ransatin/ t+e Wor! o1 Go!
;Grand Ra(ids' Zondervan, 56O8@, ((. >O6L7?.
Hons&l!in* 0o&r Greek New Tes!a%en! or a !ransla!ion,
o$serve !he #ollowin* e,a%(les o# $o&ndar0 %arkers in !heir
con!e,!s. Avoid *e!!in* $o**ed down in !hisG I onl0 wan! 0o& !o
see !hese si*nals in !he !e,!, no! !o anal0Ae !he% 4&s! now.
A*ain, !hese e,a%(les are in no wa0 e,ha&s!ive.
*e$eate! 2nits.
Y i c c o 1q0 P 2And i! ha((ened, when
Jes&s had #inished P3 -a!!hew O'>7G 55'5G 5:'K:G 56'5G >J'5
Y qiu cOq P 29o& have heard !ha! i! was said P3
-a!!hew K'>5, >O, :5, ::, :7, 8:
Y 2I saw P !here a$$eare! P he s+owe! %e P3 Revela!ion
5>'5G 5:'5, 55G 58'5, J, 58G 5K'5, e!c.
I! is wor!h no!in*, $0 !he wa0, !ha! !he re*&lari!0 in so%e o#
!hese (a!!erns can $e los! in !ransla!ion, i# !he !ransla!ors are
no! #&ll0 aware o# !he% or care#&l a$o&! (reservin* !he%. O#
co&rse, i# !he0 are 2los! in !ransla!ion,3 !heir (&r(ose is
de#ea!ed in !he !ransla!ion. This is ano!her *ood reason !o
learn !o read Greek.
Gra&&ati%a %2es.
Y Hon4&nc!ions' Ro%ans 5'5J ; 2#or3@G >'>5 and K'5 ;
2!here#ore3@G :'>5 ;u 2$&! now3@G 7'5 ;d 0
2!here#ore now3@.
Y Hhan*es in ver$ %ood' no!e !he shi#! #ro% indica!ives in
Dhile%on 7L5J !o i%(era!ives in Dhile%on 5OL>>.
*+etori%a ?2estions. See Ro%ans :':5 ;end or $e*innin*
o# a sec!ionI@G J'5, 5KG O'O ;1 P 2<ha! !henI3@.
3+an/es in settin/, %ast, ti&e, et%. See -a!!hew K'5G 7'5, K,
58, 5JG 5O'5.
3+an/es in s2"Le%t, o"Le%t, to$i%. No!e !he shi#! #ro% ice)
$reaker ;Dhile% 8LO@ !o $&siness a! hand ;Dhile% 7L>>@.
Vo%ative 1or&s D!ire%t a!!ress, i-e MHey, Bo"KOE. See
E(hesians K'>>, >KG J'5, 8, K, 6 ;c#. Hol :'57L8'5@.
'x$i%ity anno2n%e! new t+e&e. See 5 Horin!hians O'5, >KG
7'5G 5>'5G 5J'5.
3oundary &arers as &ars of coherence. I! is
i%(or!an! !o reco*niAe !he wa0 in which s%aller &ni!s
reci(rocall0 in!errela!e wi!h lar*er &ni!s !o #or% coheren!
wholes. Bo&ndar0 %arkers o# !he sor! 4&s! lis!ed, like %or!ar
$e!ween s!ones in a wall, can hel( !o hold !he lar*er &ni!
!o*e!her even while dividin* i! &( in!o i!s cons!i!&en! s%aller
&ni!s. Take -a!!hew K as an e,a%(le. Be*innin* wi!h K'>5,
Jes&s re(ea!edl0 (oin!s o&! !he di##erence $e!ween !he
!radi!ion o# !he elders and his own !eachin*. "erses >5, >O, :5,
::, :7 and 8: o(en !heir res(ec!ive 2&ni!s3 wi!h !he words
29o& have heard,3 or so%e!hin* si%ilar, #ollowed $0 !he words
2B&! I sa0.3 O$servin* !his, we can dis!in*&ish each o# !hese si,
&ni!s #ro% i!s nei*h$or. Cowever, t+at very $attern, !he
re(e!i!ion o# which divides one &ni! #ro% ano!her on one level,
also #&nc!ions a! !he ne,! level !o !ie !his en!ire s!rin* o# &ni!s
in!o one lar*er coheren! whole. In #ac!, i!s coherence consis!s
(ar!l0 in !ha! ver0 (a!!ern !ha! in!ernall0 divides !he
cons!i!&en! &ni!s #ro% one ano!her. This lar*er &ni! is a$o&!
Jes&s new a((roach !o !he law and consis!s o# si, e,a%(les.
The in!errela!ed rhe!orical 1&es!ions a! Ro%ans J'5, 5K and O'5,
as well as !he s&ccessive s&$4ec! anno&nce%en!s !hro&*ho&! 5
Horin!hians OL5J, work in e,ac!l0 !he sa%e wa0.
Da!!erns o# re(ea!ed i!e%s like !hese hel( !o crea!e
s0n!hesis, or &ni!0, in !e,!s. So do in!errela!ed arra0s o# lo*ical
connec!ors, like con4&nc!ions, #or e,a%(le. I# a (ara*ra(h,
coheren! in i!sel#, $e*ins wi!h !he con4&nc!ion 2#or,3 i!
likel0 e,(resses a reason #or !he (oin! %ade in !he (recedin*
!e,!. I# i! $e*ins wi!h 2!here#ore,3 i! likel0 s!a!es !he
%on%2sion !o $e drawn #ro% !he (recedin* !e,!. All lan*&a*es
a((ear !o (rovide arsenals o# s&ch lo*ical connec!ors, !ho&*h
!he0 %a0 no! alwa0s look or work e,ac!l0 as !he0 do in Greek
or En*lish. .or now, !he i%(or!an! (oin! is !ha! no! onl0 do
!hese connec!ors indica!e where, sa0, a concl&sion or a
s!a!e%en! o# ra!ionale co%%ences ;and hence, where we
sho&ld draw an 2anal0!ical3 dividin* line $e!ween &ni!s o#
!e,!@, $&! !he0 also in #ac! %onne%t !hose &ni!s o# !e,!. The0
(rovide !he lar*er !e,! so%e o# i!s coherence, i!s &ni!0, i!s
s0n!hesis. <e will !ake !his &( #&r!her in cha(!er #o&r. O!her
si*ns o# coherence incl&de concen!ra!ions o# si%ilar
voca$&lar0, s(ans o# ver$al %ood, charac!ers in !he cas! o# a
narra!ive or coordina!ed se!s o# (rono&ns or 2(ro)ver$s.3 ;The
En*lish word !o is a 2(ro)ver$3' W+o wants %+eeseN I !oK@
SAMPLE &=2NA;< MA;?E;S AT W=;? IN " -=@N
<i!h 0o&r Greek New Tes!a%en! and a !ransla!ion o(en !o !he
$ook o# 5 John, work !hro&*h !he #ollowin* (ar!ial lis! o#
$o&ndar0 %arkers and o!her s!r&c!&ral indica!ors c&lled #ro%
!he $ook. A*ain, re%e%$er !ha! !here is seldo% an0 wa0 !o
avoid %akin* 0o&r own val&e 4&d*%en!s in !his (rocess. -&ch
o# !he skill in discernin* li!erar0 s!r&c!&re co%es wi!h (rac!iceG
0o& will have %an0 o((or!&ni!ies !o chan*e 0o&r %ind. God
*ives *race and s(ace #or !his, !oo/
Y 7tate! $2r$oseN No!e !he &se o# !he e,(ressions 0
J J 2I wri!e N we wri!e N I have
wri!!en !hese !hin*s3' 5 John 5'8G >'5, QO, 7, 5>, 5:, 58, >5S,
>JG K'5:, s&**es!in* !he (&r(ose;s@ o# !he doc&%en!.
Y *e$eate! Mi1 S "2t i1O cons!r&c!ions' 5 John 5'JLO, 7L6G
5'5?L>'>, >'8LK, 6L55. Besides dividin* 5'JLO #ro% 5'7L6,
#or ins!ance, !his se1&ence also s&**es!s !ha! 5'KL>'> a!
leas!, and (ossi$l0 5'KL>'55, cons!i!&!e a &ni!.
Y *e$eate! MtestsO ;2B0 !his we know P3@' 5 John >':, K, 57I,
>6IG :'5?, 5J, 56, >8G 8'>, J, 6I, 5?I, 5:, 5OIG K'>. These
2!es!s3 can $e anal0Aed in !heir i%%edia!e con!e,!s !o see i#
!he0 *ive an0 cl&es !o !he s!r&c!&re o# !he $ook as a whole,
as well as !o i!s (&r(ose.
Y @+e 2se o1 vo%atives
Y i J 2li!!le children3' 5 John >'5!, ;5>!, 58(@, 57(,
>7!G :'O!, 57!G 8'8!G K'>5!
Y eq 2$eloved3' 5 John >'OG :'>, >5G 8'5, O, 55
Y e 2$ro!hers and sis!ers3' 5 John :'5:
Y J i 2#a!hersN0o&n* %en3' 5 John >'5:, 58
Ro$er! +on*acre $ases his en!ire anal0sis o# !he s!r&c!&re o#
5 John on !he dis!ri$&!ion o# voca!ives ;2Towards an E,e*esis
o# 5 John Based on !he Disco&rse Anal0sis o# !he Greek Te,!,3
in Lin/2isti%s an! 0ew @esta&ent Inter$retation# 'ssays on
Dis%o2rse .naysis, ed. D. A. Black e! al. QNashville'
Broad%an, 566>S, ((. >O5L7J@.
3.3 TOP"DOWN AND OTTOM"UP: INDUCTIVE AND
DEDUCTIVE DECISIONS
In !he anal0sis o# an0 $ook, even one wi!h clear divisions and
s!a!e%en!s o# (&r(ose, i! is so%e!i%es necessar0 !o decide #or
o&rselves in!2%tiveyB#ro% !he 2$o!!o% &(3B!he lar*er
(&r(ose o# !he $ook. Then #ro% !ha! we can !e!2%eB#ro% !he
2!o( down3Bwha! !he role ;and !here#ore !he %eanin*@ o#
so%e s%aller &ni! %a0 $e in carr0in* o&! !ha! (&r(ose. .or
e,a%(le, #ro% !he %an0 !i%es in !he $ook o# Ro%ans when
Da&l e,(resses his concern #or "ot+ Jews an! Gen!iles ;e.*.,
Ro% 5'5J@, we %i*h! in!2%e !ha! !he one o# !he %ain (&r(oses
o# Ro%ans is !o ar*&e !he &nion o# all h&%ani!0 in Hhris!, $o!h
Jew and Gen!ile. I# !his is !he ri*h! wa0 !o &nders!and Ro%ans,
!hen we %i*h! !e!2%e #ro% i! !ha! !he !ro&$leso%e sec!ion
covered $0 Ro%ans 6L55, so o#!en !aken as a di*ression,
ac!&all0 #&nc!ions as a s!a*e in !he case Da&l is $&ildin* #or
Hhris!)$ased 2in!erracial3 &ni!0. The sec!ion serves as Da&ls
ar*&%en! !ha! even !ho&*h !he Gen!iles, con!rar0 !o all
e,(ec!a!ion, now share e1&al (rivile*es wi!h !he Jews in !he
econo%0 o# God, !his does no! %ean !ha! God has re4ec!ed !he
Jews. The0 re%ain Gods (eo(le #orever des(i!e !he addi!ion o#
!he Gen!iles. On !he o!her hand, i# we ass&%e !ha! !he &ain
(&r(ose o# Ro%ans is !o ar*&e 4&s!i#ica!ion $0 #ai!h, !hen
Ro%ans 6L55 re%ains a (&AAle and %&s! $e re*arded as a
di*ression. As a r&le, i# o&r !o()down (re%ise #orces &s !o
concl&de !ha! a si*ni#ican! se*%en! o# a doc&%en! is a %ere
di*ression, !hen we sho&ld (ro$a$l0 re!hink o&r (re%ise.
I! is essen!ial in e,e*esis !o $e a$le !o s2&&ariQe in a
senten%e or two !he %ain !hr&s!, !he cen!ral $&rden and
%essa*e o# an en!ire $ook ;ass&%in* !here is one/@. .or onl0
!hen can we in!elli*en!l0 *&ess a! how !he (ar!s #i! in!o !he
whole. Onl0 !hen can we $e*in !o *ras( wha! !he a&!hor reall0
wan!ed !o sa0. O# co&rse, #ro% !i%e !o !i%e we will need !o
ad4&s! o&r s&%%ar0 s!a!e%en! and %a0 do so an0 !i%e we like.
<e sho&ld cer!ainl0 do so i# we co%e, $o!!o%)&(, !o a (osi!ion
we !hink is $e!!er !han o&r (revio&s one.
3.4 COMING UP FOR AIR
Be#ore we %ove on !o consider !he (rocess o# anal0Ain* a !e,!s
s!r&c!&re ;!o anal0Ae anal0sis, so !o s(eak@, we can !ake a
%o%en! !o s&% &( !his cha(!er. I! (rovides a *eneral
orien!a!ion !o !he s0n!he!ic and anal0!ic sides o# &nders!andin*
li!erar0 s!r&c!&re. I! ar*&es !ha! 4&s! as an0 in!elli*i$le !e,! is
$&il! &(, s0n!hesiAed, $0 a s(eaker)wri!er in order !o conve0 a
%essa*e, conversel0, a reader)lis!ener !akes !ha! !e,! a(ar!,
anal0Aes i!, in order !o &nders!and i!s %essa*e. The wa0 a !e,!
is (&! !o*e!her cons!i!&!es an essen!ial cl&e !o i!s %essa*e, i!s
%eanin*. <i!h so%e *ras( o# !his (ers(ec!ive, we can !&rn
ne,! !o a((l0in* i! !o !he s!r&c!&re o# ac!&al sen!ences and
disco&rses in !he New Tes!a%en!.
>
>

.or #&r!her hel( on !his e,!re%el0 i%(or!an! and o#!en ne*lec!ed
!o(ic, I reco%%end !he #ollowin* a%on* %an0 o!hers' De!er Ho!!erell and
-a, T&rner, Lin/2isti%s an! Bi"i%a Inter$retation ;Downers Grove, Ill.'
In!er"arsi!0 Dress, 5676@G Beek%an and Hallow, @ransatin/ t+e Wor! o1
Go!, cha(s. 5OL>?G J. Beek%an, J. Hallow and -. =o(esec, @+e 7e&anti%
7tr2%t2re o1 Written 3o&&2ni%ation ;Dallas' SI+, 5675@G and J. +o&w,
7e&anti%s o1 0ew @esta&ent Gree- ;Dhiladel(hia' .or!ress, 567>@, cha(s.
6L5?. -&ch o# !he (ro*ress in !his s&$4ec! has co%e #ro% !he la$ors o#
Bi$le !ransla!ors. In!eres!in* and hel(#&l essa0s on !he !heor0 o# disco&rse
anal0sis and on i!s a((lica!ion !o s(eci#ic !e,!s are collec!ed in J. T. Reed
and S. E. Dor!er, eds., Dis%o2rse .naysis an! t+e 0ew @esta&ent#
.$$roa%+es an! *es2ts ;She##ield' She##ield Acade%ic, 5666@, and in D. A.
Black e! al., eds., Lin/2isti%s an! 0ew @esta&ent Inter$retation# 'ssays
on Dis%o2rse .naysis ;Nashville' Broad%an, 566>@.
4
SYNTACTICAL AND DISCOURSE
ANALYSIS
So%e Dis)asse%$l0 Re1&ired
7o t+ey sat !own in /ro2$s o1 +2n!re!s an! o1
1i1ties.
@a-in/ t+e 1ive oaves an! t+e two 1is+, +e
oo-e! 2$ to +eaven, an! "esse! an! "ro-e t+e
oaves, an! /ave t+e& to +is !is%i$es to set
"e1ore t+e $eo$eP an! +e !ivi!e! t+e two 1is+
a&on/ t+e& a.
.n! a ate an! were 1ie!.
;.*A 6#40I42
I# we can acce(! !he #ac! !ha! a %eanin*#&l !e,! is %eanin*#&l
in (ar! $eca&se i!s a&!hor or*aniAes i! %eanin*#&ll0, as cha(!er
!hree a!!e%(!s !o de%ons!ra!e, !hen we sho&ld $e a$le !o
e,(ose so%e o# a !e,!s %essa*e $0 anayQin/ i!s or*aniAa!ion,
i!s s!r&c!&re. The lin*&is!ic si*nals a wri!er &sesBeven
s&$conscio&sl0B!o crea!e $o!h coherence and or*aniAa!ion in
a !e,! will (rovide &s wi!h so%e o# !he #irs! ke0s we need #or
&nlockin* !he wri!ers %essa*e. Two wa0s o# !alkin* a$o&! !his
anal0!ical (rocess are s&**es!ed in !he !i!le !o !his cha(!er'
s0n!ac!ical anal0sis and disco&rse anal0sis.
.ri*h!enin* words, (erha(sG $&! don! (anic. -os! o# 0o&, i#
no! all o# 0o&, learned !o drive and !o !ie 0o&r shoes. So%e o#
0o& have learned !o read Greek, re(air a car$&re!or, and (la0
$rid*e or !he (iano. Han 0o& %ake 1&icheI .ind 0o&r wa0
aro&nd Bos!onI I# 0o&r (al%s are swea!in* #ro% !he an,ie!0
0o& #eel over words like !is%o2rse and anayti%a, I wan! !o
reass&re 0o& now' all !his 0o& are a$o&! !o read is no!hin*
%ore !han ano!her wa0 o# lookin* a! !hin*s. 9o& learned !o
!alk, ri*h!I 9o& will $e a$le !o do !his, !oo. I! is #ar si%(ler !han
learnin* !o !alk. <e can scarcel0 ho(e !o (l&%$ !he de(!hs o#
Col0 Scri(!&re wi!ho&! !he sor! o# anal0sis disc&ssed in !his
cha(!er, $&! God *ives &s a li#e!i%e !o %as!er i!, wi!h a%(le
roo% #or !rial and error. In #ac!, !he %ore errors we %ake, !he
%ore o((or!&ni!0 we have !o *e! i! ri*h! !he ne,! !i%e. No!hin*
kee(s &s #ro% !r&l0 learnin* like *e!!in* i! ri*h! acciden!all0,
wi!ho&! knowin* wh0. So $e enco&ra*ed, (l&n*e in, learn a
new !hin*, and sin $oldl0.
4.1 DEFINING TERMS
I! will hel( &s la!er on in !his cha(!er i# we nail down a #ew
!hin*s &( #ron!. .or %an0 readers, 2En*lish *ra%%ar3 !o !his
da0 re%ains a %0s!erio&s s&$4ec!, even a#!er a 0ear o#
Be*innin* Greek. Al!ho&*h !eachers over !he las! #ew decades
have do&$!less s!r&**led valian!l0, %illions o# s!&den!s have
e%er*ed #ro% secondar0 schools ;and &niversi!ies@ woe#&ll0
con#&sed a$o&! !he *ra%%ar o# !heir own lan*&a*e and how i!
works. There is no wa0 we can re%ed0 !ha! si!&a!ion ri*h! now,
$&! i! will hel( !o s!eer &s in !he ri*h! direc!ion i# we s(ell o&!
so%e $asics $e#ore we *o on. So%e o# !he #ollowin* de#ini!ions
o# !er%s will $e like 2ho&se r&les3 #or a *a%e o# (inochle. O!her
2ho&ses3 %a0 (la0 $0 a sli*h!l0 di##eren! se! o# r&les. O!her
e,e*e!es %a0 (re#er sli*h!l0 di##eren! de#ini!ions o# !he
#ollowin* !er%s, $&! I &se !hese de#ini!ions in %0 ho&se. So,
co%e in, close !he door and !ake a sea!.
!.1.1 Synta$
The !er% syntax is (ro$a$l0 #a%iliar !o all s!&den!s o# a #orei*n
lan*&a*e, incl&din* s!&den!s o# New Tes!a%en! Greek. I! has
no!hin* !o do wi!h ei!her sin or !a,es. In !he crea!ion o# a
sen!ence, s0n!a, has !o do wi!h !he wa0 a (ar!ic&lar lan*&a*e
cl&s!ers &ni!s !o*e!her in %eanin*#&l wa0s ;le!!ers and words,
#or e,a%(le@, in order !o #or% new &ni!s o# a hi*her level. Cow
do ver$ #or%s chan*e !o acco%%oda!e one *ra%%a!ical
s&$4ec! ra!her !han ano!her or one !i%e #ra%e or 2%ood3
ra!her !han ano!herI Cow do no&ns al!er !heir sha(e or
(osi!ion !o show !he #&nc!ion !he0 (er#or% in a sen!enceI Cow
does an ad4ec!ive indica!e i!s rela!ionshi( !o one (ar!ic&lar
no&n ra!her !han !o so%e o!her oneI Cow do chan*es in !he
#or% o# ver$s ena$le a s(eaker !o rela!e one cla&se o# a
sen!ence !o ano!herI The !er% syntax re#ers !o !he s&% !o!al o#
all !he r&les ;and e,ce(!ions !o !he r&les@ *overnin* !hese
chan*es and acco%%oda!ions. 7ynta%ti%a anaysis, !hen, is
!he (rocess o# &n(ackin* !he %eanin* o# a sen!ence $0 no!icin*
!he s0n!ac!ical si*nals an a&!hor has e%(lo0ed na!&rall0, and
o#!en 1&i!e &nconscio&sl0, in crea!in* i!.
Be s&re o# !his' wit+o2t a wor-in/ -nowe!/e o1 0ew
@esta&ent Gree- syntax we %annot +o$e to 2n!erstan! t+e
Gree- 0ew @esta&ent. .or !he sa%e reason, wi!ho&! a
workin* knowled*e o# En*lish s0n!a,, we will have !ro&$le
wi!h !he #iner (oin!s o# anal0Ain* even an En*lish !ransla!ion
o# !he New Tes!a%en!. This is no! !o sa0, however, !ha! we
%&s! $e a$sol&!e %as!ers o# all !he (aradi*%s in o&r $e*innin*
Greek ;or En*lish@ *ra%%ars $e#ore we can "e/in !o s!&d0 real
!e,!s #ro% !he New Tes!a%en!. The a$ili!0 !o reco*niAe
s0n!ac!ical #or%s and !o in!er(re! !he% correc!l0 *rows wi!h
(rac!ice. Onl0, %ake s&re now !ha! 0o& know where !o *o #or
hel(, and *o !here when 0o& need i!. I# 0o& have alread0
s!&died Greek, review 0o&r (aradi*%s/
!.1.2 /iscourse
<e &se !he !er% !is%o2rse in a wide varie!0 o# wa0s, even
wi!hin !he disci(line o# $i$lical s!&dies. In *eneral, i! a((lies !o
an0 co%(le!e, sel#)con!ained ac! o# co%%&nica!ion.
Inar!ic&la!e *roans or si*hs ;like !he ones re#erred !o in Ro%
7'>J@ are disco&rses in !his sense. So is a hi*hl0 co%(le, and
len*!h0 $ook like Isaiah, or even collec!ions o# rela!ed works,
s&ch as !he Da&line cor(&s. The disci(line o# !is%o2rse
anaysis has $een develo(ed #airl0 recen!l0 in order !o acco&n!
#or !he wa0s !e,!s *row "eyon! t+e "o2n!aries o1 senten%es.
Cow do sen!ences cl&s!er !o*e!her !o #or% (ara*ra(hs,
(ara*ra(hs !o #or% lar*er sec!ions, and so onI <hile !he idea
o# s0n!a, a((lies %os!l0 wi!hin sen!ence $o&ndaries, disco&rse
anal0sis ;so%e!i%es also called 2!e,!)*ra%%ar3@ s!e(s $ack !o
see !he s!r&c!&re o# lar*er and lar*er se*%en!s o# !e,!, all !he
wa0 &( !o an en!ire $ook. ;So%e disco&rse anal0s!s conceive o#
i! as involvin* no! onl0 !he !e,! $&! also !he his!orical)c&l!&ral
con!e,! in which i! arose, a co%(le!el0 le*i!i%a!e (ers(ec!ive.
5
5

An e,cellen! e,a%(le o# !he $roader a((lica!ion is Joel B. Green,
2Disco&rse Anal0sis and New Tes!a%en! In!er(re!a!ion,3 in Hearin/ t+e
.or (resen! (&r(oses, we will kee( !o !he narrower de#ini!ion.@
As we saw in cha(!er !hree, !he %eanin* o# a lar*er (or!ion o#
!e,! is in (ar! de(enden! on !he %eanin*s o# i!s s%aller
cons!i!&en! ele%en!s, and vice versa. Disco&rse anal0sis hel(s
&s !o see how !hese reci(rocal rela!ionshi(s are desi*ned and
%arked #or o&r a!!en!ion, es(eciall0 a! levels a$ove !he
sen!ence. Disco&rse anal0sis reveals !e,!&al coherence.
I can scarcel0 e,a**era!e !he i%(or!ance o# *ras(in* !his
e,e*e!ical (rinci(le' @+e &eanin/ o1 a text is in ar/e &eas2re
!eter&ine! "y its interna str2%t2re an! "y its $a%e wit+in
t+e str2%t2re o1 its "roa!er %ontext. Anal0sis o# !he !e,!s
s0n!ac!ical and disco&rse s!r&c!&re, $o!h &( !he ladder and
down, is indis(ensa$le !o res(onsi$le and e##ec!ive e,e*esis.
!.1.3 "hrase
The !er% $+rase re#ers !o a %eanin*#&l word)cl&s!er !ha! lacks
a ver$ #or%. A no2n (hrase, #or e,a%(le, has a! i!s core a no&n
;like tra%tor (erha(s@, !o*e!her wi!h an0 acco%(an0in*
1&ali#iers' t+e o! r2sty tra%tor. A $re$ositiona (hrase
co%$ines a (re(osi!ion ;in, wit+, 2n!er, "esi!e, a1ter, o1, "y,
e!c.@ wi!h a no&n or no&n (hrase' 2n!er t+e tra%tor or "esi!e
t+e o! r2sty tra%tor. So%e (re(osi!ions can also #&nc!ion as
s&$ordina!in* con4&nc!ions. .1ter t+e ra%e is a (re(osi!ional
$+rase, since i! lacks a ver$)#or%G a1ter t+e ra%e was r2n is a
;s&$ordina!e, adver$ial@ %a2seBin!rod&ced $0 !he
2con4&nc!ion3 a1terB$eca&se !he addi!ion o# !he ver$ #or%
was r2n !rans#or%s !he no&n (hrase t+e ra%e in!o !he cla&se
0ew @esta&ent# 7trate/ies 1or Inter$retation, ed. Joel B. Green ;Grand
Ra(ids' Eerd%ans, 566K@, ((. 5OKL>>5.
t+e ra%e was r2n. This %eans !ha! ;in En*lish an0wa0@ words
like a1ter can serve ei!her as (re(osi!ions ;in!rod&cin*
(hrases@ or as s&$ordina!in* con4&nc!ions ;in!rod&cin*
cla&ses@. I! de(ends on wha! i! 2*overns3 ;wha! co%es a#!er i!@.
So !hen, in !he (aren!he!ical co%%en! endin* %0 las!
sen!ence, is !he word a1ter a (re(osi!ion or a con4&nc!ionI ;I#
0o& sa0, 2I!s a (re(osi!ion,3 0o& are ri*h!, since !he word it has
no a!!ached ver$ #or% and is !here#ore no! a cla&se, 4&s! a one)
word (hrase.@
!.1.! (lause
A %a2se, !hen, is an0 %eanin*#&l cl&s!er o# words !ha! incl&des
a ver$ #or% a! i!s hear!. These ver$ #or%s do no! need !o $e
2#ini!e3 #or%s, !he sor! !ha! %akes #or 2*ra%%a!icall0 co%(le!e
!ho&*h!s.3 .or e,a%(le, !he cla&se Gene is sin/in/ in t+e rain
is a *ra%%a!icall0 co%(le!e !ho&*h!. <e are no! le#! han*in*
in !he air i# so%eone sa0s !his !o &s o&! o# !he $l&e, even
!ho&*h we %a0 no! know who Gene is, or care whe!her he
sin*s, or where. <e wo&ld indeed $e le#! han*in* i# so%eone
si%(l0 said, 2Sin*in* in !he rain3 or 2<hile Gene is sin*in* in
!he rain.3 Cearin* ei!her o# !hese las! !wo &!!erances, we wo&ld
$e !e%(!ed !o re(l0 !o !he one, 2<ha! a"o2t sin*in* in !he
rainI3 and !o !he o!her, 2Oka0 P and !hen wha! ha((ensI3
Gra%%a!icall0 inco%(le!e !ho&*h!s leave &s *a(in* like $a$0
$irds, wai!in* #or !he res! o# !he wor%. The0 are !e$en!entP
!he0 need !o $e 2co%(le!ed.3
<e can also classi#0 de(enden! cla&ses accordin* !o !heir
#&nc!ion. A cla&se in!rod&ced $0 !he con4&nc!ion t+at ; in
Greek@ is &s&all0 a 2no&n3 cla&se, $eca&se i! #&nc!ions in !he
(lace o# a no&n ;i! ac!s like a no&n@. In !he sen!ence I -now
so&et+in/, we can s(eci#0 !he so%e!hin* known ;!he direc!
o$4ec! o# -now@ $0 &sin* a no&n cla&se' t+at Gene is sin/in/ in
t+e rain. An adver$ cla&se is one !ha! #&nc!ions as an adver$'
2W+ie Gene is sin/in/ in t+e rain, Ill 4&s! %ake a r&n !o !he
s!ore.3 The ;i!aliciAed@ adver$ cla&se here !ells when I will r&n
!o !he s!ore.
Gra%%arians &s&all0 re#er !o *ra%%a!icall0 co%(le!e
cla&ses as in!e$en!ent or &ain cla&ses. A 2co%(le!e3 sen!ence
is an inde(enden! cla&se ;or a! leas! con!ains one@.
Gra%%a!icall0 inco%(le!e, or !e$en!ent, cla&ses are also
called s2"or!inate cla&ses. <hile !he0 !he%selves do no!
1&ali#0 as sen!ences ;as !he las! ei*h! words I 4&s! !0(ed do
no!@, when !he0 co%$ine wi!h inde(enden! cla&ses ;like !he
ne,! si, words I% a$o&! !o !0(e@, !he0 hel( !o #or% co%(le,
sen!ences. <e can !&rn now !o !he sen!ence i!sel#.
!.1.) Sentence
A senten%e is an0 %ini%all0 co%(le!e !ho&*h!, consis!in* o# a!
leas! one inde(enden! cla&se. I! can $e si&$e, %o&$o2n! or
%o&$ex. A si%(le sen!ence co%(rises a! leas! a !o(ic and a
co%%en!, also called s&$4ec! and (redica!e. A sen!ence
2(redica!es3 so%e!hin* a$o&! i!s 2s&$4ec!3G i! 2co%%en!s3 on
i!s 2!o(ic.3 Even i# one ele%en! or !he o!her does no! show &(
in !he sen!ence as we hear i! or read i!, !ha! %issin* ele%en!
%a0 $e i%(lied in !he $ack*ro&nd none!heless. ;Honsider
2Gone/3 as an answer !o !he 1&es!ion, 2<heres Bo$I3 The
!o(ic Qor s&$4ec!S, 2Bo$,3 is &nders!ood' 2QBo$ isS *one/3@.
To(ics can $e si&$e ;a sin*le no&n or no&n (hrase, #or
e,a%(le@ or %o&$o2n! ;%&l!i(le no&ns or no&n (hrases,
connec!ed $0 2coordina!in*3 con4&nc!ions like an! or or@.
To(ics can also $e %o&$ex, involvin* #&r!her re#ine%en! $0
ad4ec!ives, rela!ive cla&ses, (ar!ici(les and so on. The sa%e is
!r&e o# !he co%%en! ;or (redica!e@ (or!ion o# a sen!ence' i! can
$e si%(le, co%(o&nd or co%(le,. Cere are so%e e,a%(les'
5. Bo" sin/s. Si%(le !o(ic DBo"EP si%(le co%%en! Dsin/sE.
>. Bo" an! Vera sin/. The !o(ic is %o&$o2n!e! $0 !he
coordina!in* con4&nc!ion an! DBo" an! VeraEP !he co%%en!
re%ains si%(le Dsin/E. No!e, $0 !he wa0, how En*lish
s0n!ac!ical r&les chan*e sin/s !o sin/ in !he (resence o# a
co%(o&nd ;and !here#ore (l&ral@ s&$4ec!.
:. Bo" an! Vera sin/ "2t !o not !an%e. Ho%(o&nd !o(icG
co%(o&nd co%%en! ;!wo 2co%%en!s3 connec!ed $0 !he
coordina!in* con4&nc!ion "2t@. No!e !ha! %odern En*lish
resis!s sa0in* !an%e not in !his con!e,!, as En*lish co&ld do a!
earlier s!a*es o# i!s develo(%en!G !oda0, we have !o sa0 !o not
!an%e. Tha!s 4&s! !he wa0 i! is.
8. @+e wo&an w+o is stan!in/ next to Bo" sin/s "a!y.
Ho%(le, !o(icG si%(le co%%en!. No!e !ha! !he 2co%(le,i!03 o#
!his !o(ic is !he res&l! o# an en!ire sen!ence havin* $een
resha(ed as a 2rela!ive cla&se3 Dw+o is stan!in/ next to Bo"E
and (l&**ed in!o !he ad4ec!ive (osi!ion, in order !o %odi#0 t+e
wo&an. Tha! is, i! is no! !he 2$l&e3 wo%an or !he 2oval3
wo%an, $&! !ha! o!her wo%an, !he one 2who is s!andin* ne,!
!o Bo$.3
K. Bo" sin/s L2st 1ine w+en Vera !oes not Loin in. Si%(le
!o(ic DBo"EP co%(le, co%%en!. The co%%en!s 2co%(le,i!03
res&l!s #ro% an en!ire sen!ence havin* $een resha(ed in!o a
de(enden! cla&se Dw+en Vera !oes not Loin inE and
s&$ordina!ed ;(l&**ed@ in!o !he adver$ slo! ;ins!ead o#, sa0,
2s2ay@, in order !o %odi#0 !he ver$ (hrase sin/s L2st 1ine. I!
!ells &s &nder wha! condi!ions Bo$ sin*s 4&s! #ine.
Ever0 lan*&a*e has i!s own se! o# !ools #or #or%in* and
connec!in* wha! we are callin* (hrases, cla&ses and sen!ences.
Ce$rew, #or e,a%(le, can condense an En*lish (re(osi!ional
(hrase in!o one word, si%(l0 $0 (re#i,in* !he 2(re(osi!ion3 !o
!he #ron! o# !he no&n' 2in !he $e*innin*,3 where !he
(re#i, does in Ce$rew %ore or less wha! !he (re(osi!ion in
does in En*lish. So)called a**l&!ina!ive lan*&a*es can (&! an
en!ire sen!ence in!o one lon* and co%(le, a**l&!ina!ed
2word.3 <e have $een (rovidin* e,a%(les #ro% En*lish #or !he
%os! (ar!, and in %an0 res(ec!s New Tes!a%en! Greek and
En*lish #&nc!ion si%ilarl0. Bo!h, #or ins!ance, have se(ara!e
words #or (re(osi!ions, ra!her !han (re#i,esG 0e! $o!h can &se
(re(osi!ions as (re#i,es. Never!heless, !here will no! alwa0s $e
a one)!o)one corres(ondence $e!ween En*lish and Greek in
o!her res(ec!s. The wa0 Greek &ses (ar!ici(les and in#ini!ives,
#or ins!ance, di##ers no!icea$l0 #ro% !he wa0 En*lish does. I
s!ress a*ain, !here#ore, !ha! i! is essen!ial #or New Tes!a%en!
e,e*esis !o %as!er event2ay !he wa0s in which Greek
e,(resses !he %essa*e o# !he New Tes!a%en!. <ork a! i! over
0o&r li#e!i%e as an e,e*e!e. Take 0o&r !i%e, o# co&rse, $&! do
work a! i!.
4.2 ANALY#ING SENTENCES
<i!h !his %&ch $ack*ro&nd, we can now !&rn !o !he s0n!ac!ical
anal0sis o# sen!ences. S!&d0 !he #ollowin* sa%(le New
Tes!a%en! sen!ences care#&ll0. See i# 0o& can %ake sense o#
!he wa0 in which I have anal0Aed !he%, $e#ore 0o& read !he
e,(lana!ion $elow each one.
!.2.1 +naly5in% 6ohn 3117
.i*&re 8.5 ;((. OJLOO@ wi!h i!s acco%(an0in* no!es &n(acks
;anal0Aes@ !he s0n!ac!ical s!r&c!&re o# John :'5J in !he NRS". I!
*e!s a li!!le co%(lica!ed, I know. Take each e,(lana!or0
s!a!e%en!, one a! a !i%e, and $e s&re 0o& &nders!and i! $e#ore
0o& !ake !he ne,! one. I# 0o& (low !hro&*h !his %a!erial as i#
0o& were readin* a novel, i! will soon $eco%e sl&sh in 0o&r
head. <hen 0o& are so%ewha! co%#or!a$le wi!h !he NRS"
anal0sis, !r0 !he Greek ;#i*. 8.>@.
5 qq o Oo o i,
> u o uio o i,
: o u o
8 eq
K e` _p u
!igure 4#(# Syntactical Analysis of -o$n 5."0 in GreeA
Once a*ain, as in !he NRS" !e,!, we have #o&r con4&nc!ions.
One o# !he%, e 2$&!3 ;line K, shor!ened !o e` $e#ore !he
ini!ial vowel in !he ne,! word@, is a coordina!in* con4&nc!ion,
and !he o!her !wo are s&$ordina!in*. The Greek con4&nc!ion
like i!s En*lish co&n!er(ar! 2#or3 ;line 5@, o(era!es on !he
disco&rse level, ra!her !han on !he sen!ence level. Overall, !he
chie# di##erence $e!ween !hese !wo anal0ses is !ha! !he Greek
con4&nc!ion 2in order !ha!3 ;line :@ &s&all0 s&**es!s
$2r$ose ra!her !han res2t, con!rar0 !o En*lish so t+at in line 8
o# !he NRS" anal0sis $elow. ;B&! see 5 Jn 5'6 #or an ins!ance
where is &sed !o si*nal res&l!. <e can! win/@ Th&s !he
Greek !e,! a((ears !o sa0 !ha! "e%a2se God loved !he world so
%&ch, he intentionay *ave his onl0 Son 1or t+e $2r$ose o#
(rovidin* e!ernal li#e #or %or!al h&%an $ein*s, all o# which
ass&res &s !ha! !he s!a!e%en!s in John :'58L5K are relia$le.
+e!s !r0 ano!her e,a%(le.
!.2.2 +naly5in% 8o&ans 3121922
Do !he sa%e #or Ro%ans :'>5L>> NRS" in #i*&re 8.: ;((. O7L
O6@ as 0o& have done #or John :'5J in #i*&re 8.5. Read i!
!hro&*h care#&ll0. The $e!!er 0o& &nders!and i!, !he $e!!er 0o&
will $e a$le !o deal wi!h o!her !e,!s o# 0o&r own choosin*.
Then, when 0o& are read0, !r0 !he Greek o# Ro%ans :'>5L>>
;#i*. 8.8@.
The Greek (re(osi!ional (hrases work in !he sa%e wa0 as
!heir En*lish co&n!er(ar!s do. B&! !he *eni!ive no&n O0 ;lines
> and K@ a((ears ins!ead o# !he En*lish (re(osi!ional (hrase o1
Go!. Ano!her s0n!ac!ical di##erence $e!ween En*lish and
Greek a((ears in line :' !he Greek (ar!ici(le uuq
2$ein* a!!es!ed3 a((ears ins!ead o# !he En*lish #ini!e ver$
(hrase an! is atteste!. This %eans !ha! in Greek we have a
co%(le, sen!ence ra!her !han !he En*lish co%(o&nd sen!ence.
I! also raises !he 1&es!ion o# how !his s&$ordina!ed (ar!ici(ial
cla&se in line : rela!es !o !he %ain cla&se in line 5. In #ac!, as
0o& will recall #ro% 0o&r in!rod&c!or0 co&rse in New
Tes!a%en! Greek ;i# 0o& had one@, Greek (ar!ici(les cons!i!&!e
one o# !he %os! con#&sin* ca!e*ories o# Greek *ra%%ar.
5 Nu c J . J iuq O0
> J _ u J
: uuq
8 o 0 u i d qd,
K iuq c O0
J
O 1q0 X0
7 u.
!igure 4#4# Syntactical Analysis of ;o)ans 5.("/(( in
GreeA
5 !or
> God so loved !he world
: t$at he *ave his onl0 Son,
8 so t$at ever0one who $elieves in +i&
K %a0 no! (erish
J but %a0 have e!ernal li#e
A. The #o&r i!e%s in $old#ace !0(e ;one o# !he% in !wo
(ar!s' so t+at@ are con4&nc!ions, !he !0(ical %arkers !ha!
connec! cla&ses !o one ano!her. The &nderlined i!e% is a
(re(osi!ional (hrase.
B. The onl0 2%ain3 ;or inde(enden!@ cla&se o# !his
sen!ence ;line >@ is 2God QsoS loved !he world3 ;we will !ake
&( !he 1or Qline 5S and !he so in co%%en!s + and C, $elow@.
The o!her !wo cla&ses ;lines : and !he cl&s!er o# lines 8LJ@
are each in!rod&ced wi!h a s&$ordina!in* con4&nc!ion, t+at
and so t+at, and are !here#ore 2de(enden!3 ;which is wh0, in
!he dia*ra%, each one is inden!ed &nder wha! i! 2de(ends
on3@.
H. The second o# !hese de(enden! cla&ses ;cl&s!ered as
lines 8LJ@ is ac!&all0 a co%(o&nd cla&se' !he !o(ic ;line 8'
everyone w+o "eieves in +i&@ is #ollowed $0 !wo
coordina!ed co%%en!s' line K &ay not $eris+ and line J &ay
+ave eterna i1e, which are connec!ed $0 !he coordina!in*
con4&nc!ion "2t.
D. <e !h&s have !hree cla&ses in !his sen!ence' ;i@ Go!
ove! t+e wor!, ;ii@ TGo!U /ave +is ony 7on, and ;iii@
everyone w+o "eieves in +i& !oes not $eris+ "2t +as
eterna i1e. Hla&se ;ii@ is s&$ordina!e !o !he inde(enden!
cla&se ;i@, and !he co%(o&nd)co%(le, cla&se ;iii@ is
s&$ordina!e !o cla&se ;ii@.
E. The coordina!in* ;as o((osed !o s&$ordina!in*@
con4&nc!ion "2t in line J indica!es !ha! $o!h line K and line J,
which i! connec!s in con!ras! !o each o!her, are e1&all0
;2coordina!edl03@ !r&e as co%%en!s on !he co%(le, !o(ic
Deveryone ,ho .elie*es in hi&E e,(ressed in line 8. This
is wh0 lines K and J are dis(la0ed ver!icall0 $arae !o each
o!her in !he dia*ra%. The con4&nc!ion "2t !h&s crea!es a
co%(o&nd cla&se, consis!in* o# a co%(le, !o(ic ;line 8@ and a
co%(o&nd co%%en! ;lines KLJ@.
.. The o!her !wo con4&nc!ions ;$old !0(e, lines :, 8@
indica!e +ow !he !hree cla&ses in!erconnec! or 2con4oin.3 As
con4&nc!ions, !he0 2%ark3 !he lo*ical rela!ionshi(s $e!ween
cla&ses. No! onl0 do !he0 %ark !he (oin! o# se(ara!ion
$e!ween one cla&se and ano!her, $&! !he0 also serve !o hold
all !hree cla&ses !o*e!her as a coheren!, lo*icall0
in!erconnec!ed &ni!.
G. <ha! do !hese %arkers !ell &sI The con4&nc!ion so
t+at ;line 8@ !ells &s !ha! lines 8LJ descri$e !he res2t o# line
:' !he res&l! o# Gods *ivin* his onl0 Son is !ha! ever0one who
$elieves in !ha! Son has e!ernal li#e.
C. +ikewise, !he con4&nc!ion t+at in line : !ells &s !ha!
lines :LJ ;!ha! is, line : and ever0!hin* de(enden! on i!@ are
!he res2t o# !he de*ree !o which God Dso T&2%+UE loved !he
world. D&!!in* !his o!her wa0 aro&nd, we can sa0 !ha! God
*ave his onl0 son "e%a2se he loved !he world so %&ch. .or i#
lines :LJ are !he res2t o# line >, !hen line > is !he reason #or
lines :LJ.
I. The !wo ;$old !0(e@ con4&nc!ions in lines : and 8 are
$o!h s2"or!inatin/ con4&nc!ions. +ine :, !o*e!her wi!h i!s
de(enden! %a!erial ;lines 8LJ@, is !h&s s&$ordina!ed !o line
>, (rovidin* a s!a!e%en! o# i!s res&l!. +ines 8LJ ;as a
cl&s!ered &ni!@ are si%ilarl0 s&$ordina!ed !o line :, (rovidin*
in !&rn a s!a!e%en! o# its res&l!. <e show !his *ra(hicall0 $0
$rin*in* !he inde(enden! %ain cla&se ;line > in !his case@ o&!
!o !he le#! %ar*in and $0 inden!in* s&$ordina!e ;or
de(enden!@ %a!erial &nder wha!ever !e,! i! is s&$ordina!e !o.
Re(hrasin* !he en!ire sen!ence a#!er !his anal0sis %i*h!
(rod&ce !he #ollowin*' 2God loved !he world ver0 %&ch. As a
res&l! o# !ha! *rea! love, he *ave his onl0 Son. The res&l! o#
*ivin* his Son, in !&rn, is !ha! ever0one who $elieves in !he
Son has e!ernal li#e.3 Ha&se)e##ec!, ca&se)e##ec!. 9e!, is !his
ri*h!I
J. The (ro$le% wi!h !his anal0sis is !ha! even !ho&*h
2(ro(er3 En*lish &ses !he con4&nc!ion so t+at (ri%aril0 !o
indica!e a res&l!, !his sa%e con4&nc!ion can also #&nc!ion in
En*lish !o indica!e $2r$ose. The di##erence $e!ween (&r(ose
and res&l! is i%(or!an!. The no!ion o# (&r(ose carries wi!hin
i! !he ele%en!s o# in!en!ion and &ncer!ain!0. On !he one
hand, (&r(ose i%(lies in!en!ion wi!ho&! *&aran!eein* !he
res&l! ;!his is wh0 Greek &ses !he s&$4&nc!ive %ood a#!er
in s&ch cases@. E,a%(le' Gene san/ in t+e rain, in order to
&a-e &oney. <e co&ld also sa0, Gene san/ in t+e rain, so
that +e %o2! &a-e &oney. Did he %ake %one0I Card !o
sa0, $&! he in!ended !o. On !he o!her hand, res2t i%(lies
cer!ain!0 wi!ho&! necessaril0 i%(l0in* (&r(ose. E,a%(le'
Gene san/ in t+e rain a !ay, so that +e %a2/+t
$ne2&onia. Ce ac!&all0 ca&*h! (ne&%onia, $&! no!
in!en!ionall0.
=. B&! !he wordin* o# lines K and J ;in !his anal0sis o# Jn
:'5J@, wi!h !he En*lish hel(in* ;2%odal3@ ver$ &ay in $o!h
lines, in!rod&ces !he ele%en! o# &ncer!ain!0, which is
inheren! in 2(&r(ose3 $&! #orei*n !o 2res&l!.3 I# lines 8LJ
!r&l0 were %ean! !o i%(l0 res&l!, !he0 wo&ld, like line :, $e
#ra%ed in !he indica!ive (as! !ense' 2so !ha! ever0one
$elievin* in hi% lived #orever.3 As i! !&rns o&!, !hen, lines 8L
J indica!e (&r(ose and in!en!ionali!0, no! necessaril0 an
ass&red res&l!. <ill an0one $elieve in !he Son and !h&s have
e!ernal li#eI God knows.
+. This leaves &s 4&s! !he o(enin* con4&nc!ion, 1or ;line
5@. I! is o$vio&s #ro% !he con!e,! !ha! 1or is no! #&nc!ionin*
here as a (re(osi!ion, as in so&et+in/ for God. Ra!her, i!
in!rod&ces !his en!ire sen!ence in all i!s !hree)(ar!
co%(le,i!0. As a con4&nc!ion, !hen, 1or #&nc!ions !o 2con4oin3
!his en!ire co%(le, sen!ence !o wha! (recedes i! ;Jn :'5K, a!
leas!@. A! !his (oin!, we %ove $e0ond sen!ence $o&ndaries,
(assin* o&!ward #ro% !he in!ernal s0n!ac!ical anal0sis o# a
sen!ence !o !he anal0sis o# !he *rea!er !is%o2rse s&rro&ndin*
i!. Na!&rall0, !here is %&ch %ore !o !he disco&rse s!r&c!&re o#
Johns Gos(el !han !he rela!ion o# :'5J !o wha! co%es $e#ore
i!. 9e!, !he word 1or in!rod&cin* :'5J (rovides one (iece o#
!ha! lar*er s!r&c!&re. This (ar!ic&lar con4&nc!ion !0(icall0
indica!es !ha! wha! i! in!rod&ces descri$es !he reason #or
wha! (recedes i!. Th&s, !he #ac! !ha! God loved !he world
eno&*h !o *ive his onl0 Son, in order !o (rovide e!ernal li#e
#or !hose who $elieve in hi%, e,(lains wh0 !he s!a!e%en! in
John :'58L5K ;a! leas!@ is relia$le.
!igure 4#"# Syntactical Analysis of -o$n 5."0 in N;SV
5 &ut now N P N !he ri*h!eo&sness o1 Go!
> has $een disclosed,
: N a$art 1ro& aw N
8 an3 is a!!es!ed
K "y t+e aw and t+e $ro$+ets
J !he ri*h!eo&sness o1 Go!
O t+ro2/+ 1ait+
7 in ,es2s 3+rist
6 1or a w+o "eieve.
A. There are onl0 !hree con4&nc!ions ;(rin!ed in $old@ in
!his !e,!, all o# !he% !he coordina!in* kind' "2t ;line 5@ as
well as an! !wice ;lines 8 and K@. There are also seven
(re(osi!ional (hrases ;&nderlined@.
B. The #irs! occ&rrence o# an! con4oins !he (assive ver$s
in lines > and 8, whose shared !o(ic ;s&$4ec!@ is 2!he
ri*h!eo&sness o# God3 ;line 5@. The o!her an! ;line K@
con4oins !he !wo (ar!s o# a co%%on e,(ression #or !he
Jewish Bi$le' t+e aw an! t+e $ro$+ets. Th&s, lines 5, >L:
and 8LK #or% a sin*le sen!ence wi!h a co%(o&nd co%%en!,
or (redica!e.
H. In !he dia*ra%, I dis(laced line : #ro% i!s ori*inal
(lace in line 5 in order !o arran*e i! in a %ore hel(#&l wa0.
Dlaced where i! is, we can easil0 see i! as s!andin* in con!ras!
!o line K, a ver0 i%(or!an! con!ras! #or !his !e,!. The #orward
slash %arks NN indica!e $o!h !he dis(laced !e,! i!sel# and !he
(lace where i! $elon*s in line 5. This is onl0 a !rick o# !he
!rade, however, desi*ned !o kee( &s hones!. A! !he end o#
ever0!hin*, we %&s! alwa0s re!&rn !o !he !e,! as we #ind i!.
Re%e%$er, !he !e,! is all we have.
D. <ha! a$o&! !he (re(osi!ional (hrasesI Their sha(e is
eas0 eno&*h !o iden!i#0' a (re(osi!ion *overnin* a no&n or
no&n (hrase, s&ch as o1 Go!, a$art 1ro& t+e aw or t+ro2/+
1ait+. <ha! !akes a $i! %ore !ho&*h! is decidin* !heir
#&nc!ion. In *eneral, a (re(osi!ion rela!es a no&n !o ano!her
no&n ;!h&s %akin* i! ac! like an ad4ec!ive@ or !o an even!
;!h&s %akin* i! ac! like an adver$@. In line 5, #or e,a%(le, !he
(re(osi!ion o1 rela!es !he word Go! !o !he word
ri/+teo2sness, !ellin* &s wha! sor! o# ri*h!eo&sness is in view
here. I! is !he 2God)sor!)o#3 ri*h!eo&sness. In !his case, !he
(re(osi!ional (hrase o1 Go! #&nc!ions as an ad4ec!ive
%odi#0in* !he no&n ri/+teo2sness. In line :, however, !he
(re(osi!ional (hrase a$art 1ro& t+e aw does no! !ell &s
an0!hin* a$o&! ri*h!eo&sness i!sel#G i! !ells &s ra!her a$o&!
how !ha! ri*h!eo&sness has $een revealed, or how i! has not
$een revealed. As s&ch, !he (re(osi!ional (hrase in line :
#&nc!ions as an adver$, !ellin* &s so%e!hin* a$o&! !he ver$
!is%ose!. Si%ilarl0, !he (re(osi!ional (hrase in line K
%odi#ies !he ver$ is atteste! in line 8, $&! !his !i%e !he
a!!es!a!ion is in accord wi!h !he Jewish scri(!&res ;2$0 !he
law and !he (ro(he!s3@ ra!her !han 2a(ar! #ro%3 !he%.
E. So !hen, we have a co%(o&nd sen!ence' 2The
ri*h!eo&sness o# God has now $een disclosed a(ar! #ro% !he
law, and Qa! !he sa%e !i%eS i! is a!!es!ed $0 !he law.3 Da&l
e,(lores !he iron0 o# !his s!a!e%en! in !he #ollowin*
(ara*ra(hs, where he e%(lo0s !he s!or0 o# A$raha%, drawn
#ro% !he law ;!he Torah@, in order !o (rove his (oin!.
.. <e are s!ill no! 0e! done wi!h !his (assa*e. <ha! do we
do wi!h lines JL6I The onl0 ver$ in !his se1&ence o# !e,! is
"eieve in line 6. Cowever, i! is isola!ed in a rela!ive cla&se,
w+o "eieve, and does no! #&nc!ion as a co%%en! on
ri*h!eo&sness ;line J@ in !he sa%e wa0 as !he ver$s in lines >
and 8 do. As a rela!ive cla&se, !he words w+o "eieve #&nc!ion
as an ad4ec!ive !o res!ric! !he re#erence o# !he !er% a#
ri*h!eo&sness is 2#or all,3 $&! no! reay #or 2all3B4&s! 2all
w+o "eieve.3 <i!ho&! i!s own acco%(an0in* ver$, !hen, !his
second occ&rrence o# !he !er% 2ri*h!eo&sness3 in lines JL6
does no! #or% (ar! o# a new cla&se.
G. Ins!ead, line J is a rei!era!ionBre(ea!ed #ro% line 5B
a((aren!l0 inser!ed here as a kind o# disconnec!ed hook on
which !o han* #&r!her 1&ali#ica!ions on ri*h!eo&sness $e0ond
!he one (rovided in line 5' o1 Go!. I! is !h&s addi!ionall0 a
ri*h!eo&sness o# God Q%edia!edIS t+ro2/+ 1ait+ ;line O@, $&!
no! !hro&*h 4&s! an0 #ai!h. I! is %edia!ed !hro&*h #ai!h in
,es2s 3+rist (ar!ic&larl0 ;line 7@. And $eca&se ;I@ i! is
%edia!ed !hro&*h #ai!h in Jes&s Hhris!, i! is availa$le 2#or3 all
who $elieve Qin Jes&s Hhris!S. In !his wa0, &sin* a series o#
(re(osi!ional (hrases as ad4ec!ives, Da&l #&r!her de#ines !he
ri*h!eo&sness o# God he has in %ind.
C. <e %a0 now re!&rn !o !he con4&nc!ion "2t in line 5. In
John :'5J we saw !his sa%e lo*ical %arker con4oinin* in a
(aralleled con!ras! !he !wo sides o# !he coin God %in!ed in
*ivin* his onl0 Son' $elievers wo&ld no! die, "2t wo&ld live
#orever. In Ro%ans :'>5, however, !his con4&nc!ion 4oins !wo
ver0 hi*h)level sec!ions o# !he e(is!le. Cere is wha! I %ean.
I. Ro%ans 5L7 ar*&es !he a%aAin* #ac! !ha! Gen!iles and
Jews are on e1&al #oo!in* $e#ore God. Bo!h are co%(le!el0
conde%ned &nder !he law and #&ll0 redee%ed in Jes&s
Hhris!. The "2t in Ro%ans :'>5 connec!s !he !wo s&$sec!ions
%akin* &( !his #irs! %ain ar*&%en! o# !he le!!er. Under !he
law, all h&%ani!0 is co%(le!el0 conde%ned $e#ore God ;Ro%
5'57L:'>?@. B2t now Gods ri*h!eo&sness has $een revealed
a(ar! #ro% !he law ;Ro% :'>5L7':6@. Th&s, like 1or in John
:'5J, !he "2t in Ro%ans :'>5 o(era!es on !he disco&rse levelG
in #ac!, i! o(era!es on a %&ch hi*her disco&rse level !han !he
1or in John :'5J does. The la!!er connec!s %erel0 !wo or
!hree sen!encesG !he #or%er connec!s !wo coordina!ed
ar*&%en!s s(annin* nearl0 ei*h! cha(!ers.
!igure 4#5# Syntactical Analysis of ;o)ans 5.("/(( in N;SV
O#!en i! is necessar0 !o in#er #ro% !he con!e,! wha! !he
connec!ion $e!ween a Greek (ar!ici(le and i!s %ain ver$
ac!&all0 is. I! hel(s in doin* !his !o ask, 2<ha! 1&es!ion is
$ein* answered $0 !he (ar!ici(leI3 In !his !e,!, !he i%(lied
con!ras! $e!ween $ein* 2revealed a(ar! #ro% !he law3 and
$ein* 2a!!es!ed $0 !he law,3 %i*h! s&**es! !ha! !he connec!ion
$e!ween !he cla&ses in lines :L8 and lines 5L> is one o#
2con!ra)e,(ec!a!ion3' even t+o2/+, in s$ite o1. This wo&ld *ive
&s so%e!hin* like 2even !ho&*h i! is a!!es!ed $0 !he law and !he
(ro(he!s, !he ri*h!eo&sness o# God is never!heless revealed
a(ar! #ro% !he law.3 Cowever, when we !ake in!o acco&n! !he
con!in&a!ion o# Da&ls ar*&%en! in Ro%ans 8, where he
a((eals !o A$raha%s s!or0 in s&((or! o# his clai%, we %&s!
ass&%e !ha! he hi%sel# sees no real con!ras! $e!ween !hese !wo
ideas a#!er all. <e co%e $ack !o !he NRS" !ransla!ion' 2an! is
a!!es!ed $0 !he law and !he (ro(he!s,3 !ha! is, in a!!ition !o
$ein* revealed a(ar! #ro% !he law. Based on !his, in !&rn, we
wonder whe!her Da&l ac!&all0 &ses !he !er% 2law3 in
%ore !han one sense here.
As we can see, !he (rocess o# anal0Ain* s0n!a, hel(s &s !o
*ras( !he s!r&c!&re o# a sen!ence and !o so%e de*ree i!s
connec!ion !o !he lar*er con!e,!. I! also hel(s &s ;o#!en #orces
&s@ !o see and !o deal wi!h a%$i*&i!ies inheren! in !he !e,!,
a%$i*&i!ies like !he %eanin* !ha! Da&l a!!aches !o !he word
aw, a%$i*&i!ies we %i*h! o!herwise %iss $eca&se we are so
#a%iliar wi!h !he !e,!.
4.3 ANALY#ING DISCOURSE
Once we have *ras(ed !he 2cl&s!erin*3 na!&re o# li!erar0
s!r&c!&re a! !he level o# sen!ences, i! is a si%(le %a!!er !o
!rans#er !his sa%e #&nda%en!al (ers(ec!ive !o !he levels o#
(ara*ra(hs, sec!ions, (ar!s and en!ire $ooks. J&s! as individ&al
al(ha$e!ic le!!ers cl&s!er !o*e!her !o #or% words, and words
cl&s!er !o #or% (hrases and cla&ses, and 4&s! as (hrases and
cla&ses cl&s!er !o #or% sen!ences, so now sen!ences cl&s!er !o
#or% (ara*ra(hs, (ara*ra(hs cl&s!er !o #or% sec!ions, and so
on &( !he scale. Hl&s!erin* a! all !hese hi*her levels works in
!he sa%e reci(rocal, $i)direc!ional wa0 as i! does wi!h
sen!ences. On !he one hand, cl&s!erin* %akes &ni!s cohere !o
one ano!her in order !o #or% a lar*er &ni!. A! !he sa%e !i%e, on
!he o!her hand, $0 ca&sin* a &ni! !o cohere %ore closel0 wi!h
o!her &ni!s in i!s own cl&s!er, i! a&!o%a!icall0 se(ara!es !ha!
&ni! #ro% nei*h$orin* &ni!s $elon*in* !o a di##eren! cl&s!er. In
o!her words, cl&s!erin* 2sor!s3 &ni!sG i! $o!h *a!hers and
se(ara!es !he%.
.or e,a%(le, I %i*h! 2cl&s!er3 a (ile o# ear!h !o*e!her in
order !o #or% a $ed #or a row o# corn in %0 wi#es *arden. As I
do !ha!, I si%&l!aneo&sl0 se(ara!e !ha! row o# ear!h #ro% a
nei*h$orin* one !ha! will serve as a $ed #or carro!s.
Never!heless, $o!h o# !hese se(ara!el0 cl&s!ered $eds $elon* !o
!he sa%e *arden. I! works in e,ac!l0 !he sa%e wa0 as I !0(e !his
!e,!. Each !i%e I do or do no! &se !he s(ace $ar, I a% %akin*
decisions a$o&! cl&s!erin* le!!ers. <hen I !0(e a (eriod or a
co%%a, I cl&s!er (hrases and cla&ses. Si%ilarl0 now, in order
!o 2crea!e3 a cl&s!er o# sen!ences called a (ara*ra(h, I a%
a$o&! !o hi! !he re!&rn ke0.
A well)wri!!en $ook, whe!her a !e,!$ook or a novel, works
in !he sa%e wa0. Each cha(!er can $e red&ced !o a core
sen!ence s&%%ariAin* !he cen!ral (oin!. These $rie# s&%%ar0
s!a!e%en!s can !hen $e laid o&! side $0 side and connec!ed !o
each o!her wi!h 2con4&nc!ions.3 Doin* so de%ons!ra!es !heir
in!errela!ionshi(s, how one leads !o !he o!her and how !he0 all
co%$ine !o 2ar*&e3 !he %ain (oin! o# !he en!ire $ook. Hha(!er
one %i*h! (rovide !he ra!ionale #or wha! ha((ens or wha! is
e,(lained in cha(!er !wo. To*e!her !he0 %i*h! lead !o a series
o# s(eci#ic a((lica!ions in cha(!ers !hree !o si,. Hha(!ers one !o
si, %i*h! !hen cons!i!&!e (ar! one, which wo&ld $e con!ras!ed
in (ar! !wo ;%ade &( o# cha(!ers seven !o !en@ !o a co%(le!el0
di##eren! wa0 o# lookin* a! !he $ooks #&nda%en!al (oin!. The
disco&rse)anal0s! co&ld !hen s&% &( !he en!ire $ook in a sin*le
sen!ence, hi*hl0 *eneraliAed o# co&rse, or in a (ara*ra(h %ade
&( o# s&%%ar0 sen!ences #or each (ar! or each cha(!er.
A warnin* here, however. The #a%iliar cha(!er and verse
divisions in !he Bi$le, while o#!en s&**es!ive, are &nrelia$le
*&ides !o !he disco&rse s!r&c!&re o# a $i$lical $ook. The sa%e
can $e said a$o&! !he (ara*ra(hin* and !he sec!ion !i!les
(rovided in an0 %odern edi!ion o# !he Bi$le, Greek or
o!herwise. ;Revisi! #i*. >.> !o see sec!ion !i!les edi!oriall0 added
!o !he UBS
8
!e,!.@ In !he end, i! is &( !o &s as e,e*e!es !o !hink
a$o&! !he wa0 a $ook is (&! !o*e!her. The 1&es!ion is alwa0s an
o(en one. .or !his reason, i# we desire !o $e as #ai!h#&l as we
can $e !o !he !e,! as i!s a&!hor #irs! wro!e i!, !hen we sho&ld
never se! o&! !o 2(reach !hro&*h3 a $i$lical $ook cha(!er $0
cha(!er ;or worse, verse $0 verse@. <e have no *&aran!ee !ha!
!he la!er edi!ors o# Scri(!&re who added !he #a%iliar cha(!er
and verse divisions did so in !he wa0 !he ori*inal a&!hors
wo&ld have done i!. In #ac!, we have %an0 reasons !o s&s(ec!
!he0 did no!/ As #ar as 0o& are a$le, le! !he $ook i!sel# !ell 0o&
where !o %ake a((ro(ria!e divisions in !he r&n o# i!s
2ar*&%en!3 or i!s 2(lo!.3 The ne,! 1&es!ion is, how do we do
!ha!I
!.3.1 (oherence Within :nits of Te$t
<e %a0 $e*in $0 wa!chin* #or !he kinds o# $o&ndar0 %arkers
disc&ssed a$ove in :.>.>' con4&nc!ions, chan*es in !ense, %ood
or voice, chan*es in !i%e, cas! and se!!in* ;in narra!ive@,
re(ea!ed &ni!s, rhe!orical 1&es!ions and so on. Hoordina!ed
wi!h !hese, and workin* !o*e!her wi!h !he%, are si*ns o#
li!erar0 %o+eren%e. There are as %an0 si*ns o# coherence as
!here are i%a*ina!ions !o !hink !he% &(, which is no! !o sa0
!ha! !he0 are alwa0s %ons%io2sy a((lied. So%e!i%es coherence
will involve a concen!ra!ion o# voca$&lar0, (erha(s !he sa%e
word, or (erha(s a *ro&( o# se%an!icall0 rela!ed words, over a
*iven s!re!ch o# !e,!. So%e!i%es !he cas! o# charac!ers,
es(eciall0 in a narra!ive, will indica!e coherenceG i# a chan*e in
cas! can %ark !he $o&ndar0 $e!ween !e,!&al &ni!s, !hen !he
(ersis!ence o# a (ar!ic&lar cas! o# (ersons wi!ho&! chan*e will
s&**es! !ha! !here is no $o&ndar0. Drono&ns crea!e coherence
$0 de(endin* on (revio&s re#erences !o !heir an!eceden!s. I# I
sa0 2Da&l3 in sen!ence 5 and re#er !o Da&l a*ain in sen!ence :
$0 &sin* !he (rono&n 2hi%,3 !hen !his can ca&se !hese !wo
sen!ences ;and sen!ence > $e!ween !he%@ !o cohere !o each
o!her. Shor!hand re#erences !o !i%e and s(ace, s&ch as 2!here,3
2here,3 2now,3 2!hen,3 2a*ain3 ;o(era!in* as 2(ro)adver$s3@, do
%ore or less !he sa%e !hin*.
One o# !he in!eres!in* %arkers o# coherence is !he ar!#&l
li!erar0 device called 2chias%3 ;(rono&nced A.I-aQ&@.
Hhias%s are so na%ed $eca&se, when anal0Aed sche%a!icall0,
!he0 rese%$le !he T)sha(e o# !he Greek le!!er %+i, or !he le#!
hal# o# i! an0wa0. A #ive)(ar! chias%, #or ins!ance, 2%a!ches
&(3 i!s #irs! and #i#!h (ar!s wi!h each o!her and likewise i!s
second and #o&r!h (ar!sG !he !hird or %iddle (ar! !hen #or%s
!he cen!ral hin*e o# !he !e,!. Cere is an e,a%(le, %ade &( 4&s!
!o ill&s!ra!e wha! I %ean'
A He too- +is way
B .%ross t+e i%e.
H Card, like iron.
B[ @+e 1roQen a-e
A[ He &a!e a roa!.
+ines A and A[, and B and B[, res(ec!ivel0, %a!ch each
o!her and $ind all #ive lines !o*e!her as a &ni!. The %iddle line
H, Har!, i-e iron, is !he cen!ral idea, !he #oc&s o# !he chias%B
like a (ic!&re in i!s #ra%e. <e are le#! !o wonder whe!her !ha!
cen!er lineB+ar!, i-e ironFis !alkin* a$o&! !he ice or a$o&!
!he %an on !he ice. There is no li%i! on !he siAe or n&%$er o# a
chias%s %e%$ers, nor on wha! sha(e !he0 %a0 !ake in a !e,!.
One res&l! o# a chias%, never!heless, is !ha! i! crea!es a
2coheren!3 !e,! wi!h a $e*innin*, %iddle and end.
<e can sa0 !he sa%e a$o&! ano!her li!erar0 device, !he
in%2sio ;!ha!s ri*h!G no #inal n@. This !ool $inds a !e,! in!o a
coheren! &ni! $0 (lacin* %a!chin* 2$ookends3 aro&nd i!. One
o# !he %ore #a%o&s o# New Tes!a%en! incl&sios (laces
$ookends aro&nd -a!!hews en!ire Gos(el wi!h %a!chin*
re#erences !o Gods $ein* 2wi!h &s3 ;5'>: and >7'>?@. Incl&sios
no! onl0 $racke! o## a dis!inc!, coheren! &ni!, $&! !he0 also *ive
&s a ke0 !o !he na!&re o# !he coherenceG !he Gos(el o# -a!!hew
a((aren!l0 coheres aro&nd !he !he%e o# Gods (resence wi!h
his (eo(le in !he (erson o# Jes&s. In #ac!, chias%s are co%(le,
incl&sios.
Once a*ain, however, i! is i%(or!an! !o kee( in %ind !he
#ac! !ha! wha! is a dis!inc!, coheren! &ni! on one level co%$ines
wi!h si%ilar dis!inc! &ni!s !o #or% a lar*er coheren! &ni! on !he
ne,! hi*her level. +ikewise, an0 &ni! is i!sel# also anal0Aa$le
in!o s%aller dis!inc! &ni!s o# !he ne,! lower level. I %i*h! (lan!
#o&r dis!inc! rows o# corn in %0 wi#es *arden, $&! to/et+er
!hese #o&r rows cons!i!&!e !he corn sec!ion and wo&ld $e se! o##
se$arate 1ro& !he sec!ion %ade &( o# !wo dis!inc! rows o#
carro!s. +e!s look a! so%e New Tes!a%en! e,a%(les o#
coherence a! work.
3on%entrations. In a le!!er !o his #riend Dhile%on, Da&l se!s
&( a ra((or! wi!h hi% $0 (raisin* hi% #or his #ai!h#&lness in
!he service o# Hhris! ;Dhile% 5LO@. Tha! done, he *e!s !o !he
hear! o# !he %a!!er' wha! !o do a$o&! Dhile%ons r&nawa0
slave, Onesi%&s, now !ha! Onesi%&s has $eco%e a $ro!her in
!he +ord. The ne,! nine verses are #ra%ed %os!l0 in !he
indica!ive %ood and !he (as! !ense. A! verse 5O, however, !he
%ood s&ddenl0 shi#!s !o !he i%(era!ive, as Da&l $e*ins !o (ress
his case and call #or ac!ion. Even in verses >5L>>, where he
&ses indica!ive ver$s a*ain, !he !one re%ains i%(era!ive even i#
!he ver$s *ra%%a!ical %ood is less o#!en so. The in!ernal
coherence o# verses 7L5J and o# verses 5OL>>, res(ec!ivel0, is
eviden! ;in (ar!@ !hro&*h concen!ra!ions o# ver$s o# !he sa%e
%ood.
The coherence o# !he (ara$le o# !he widow and !he &n4&s!
4&d*e ;+k 57'5L7@ is in (ar! reco*niAa$le #ro% !he (ersis!en!
cas! and se!!in*. A concen!ra!ion o# voca$&lar0 re*ardin*
vindica!ion in an adversarial si!&a!ion rein#orces !ha!
coherence. The ver$ cii 2aven*e3 occ&rs !wice ;+k 57':, K@,
as does i!s co*na!e no&n ciiq 2ven*eance3 ;+k 57'O, 7@.
The s!or0 is a$o&! vindica!ion. ;This concen!ra!ion o#
voca$&lar0 also se!s &( an in!eres!in* in!ra!e,!&al connec!ion
$e!ween !his (ara$le and +&kes !e,! a$o&! !he co%in*
des!r&c!ion o# Jer&sale%, !he onl0 o!her +&kan (assa*e &sin*
!he !er% ciiq' 2#or !hese are da0s o# ven*eance, as a
#&l#ill%en! o# all !ha! is wri!!en3 Q+k >5'>>S.@
3+ias&s. As (re(ara!ion #or (ro(osin* !ha! Dhile%on do
!he &n!hinka$le, Da&l o##ers hi% so%e (ersonal a##ir%a!ion.
Accordin* !o a li!eral !ransla!ion, !he a(os!le sa0s, 2QI %akeS
cons!an! %en!ion o# 0o& in %0 (ra0ers, hearin* o# 0o&r love
and #ai!h, which 0o& have !oward !he +ord Jes&s and !o all !he
sain!s3 ;Dhile% 8LK@. This so&nds !o o&r ears as i# Da&l !hinks
Dhile%on no! onl0 has love #or !he +ord Jes&s and #ai!h in hi%,
$&! !ha! he has love #or all !he sain!s and 1ait+ in t+e& as well.
This is a! leas! odd. Cowever, $0 co%(arin* a (arallel !e,! ;Hol
5'8' 2#or we have heard o# 0o&r #ai!h in Hhris! Jes&s and o# !he
love !ha! 0o& have #or all !he sain!s3@, we see !ha! Da&l has
ac!&all0 sha(ed his words !o Dhile%on as a chias%'
A love #or
B #ai!h in
B[ +ord Jes&s
A[ all !he sain!s
Da&l is chie#l0 concerned in !his le!!er a$o&! Dhile%ons
!rea!%en! o# Onesi%&s, desirin* !ha! i! con#or% !o Dhile%ons
re(&!ed love #or a !he sain!s. O# co&rse, !ha! love #inds i!s
#o&nda!ion in Dhile%ons #ai!h in !he +ord Jes&s. B0 #ra%in*
!he rela!ionshi( $e!ween love #or !he sain!s and #ai!h in !he
+ord Jes&s in !he #or% o# a chias%, Da&l #or*es an indissol&$le
link $e!ween !he horiAon!al and ver!ical di%ensions o#
Hhris!ian e!hics' ones horiAon!al rela!ionshi(s wi!h o!her
(eo(le de(end on ones ver!ical rela!ionshi( wi!h God. This
chias!ic cla&se ;Dhile% K@ $eco%es !h&s an in!ernall0 coheren!
&ni!, #&nc!ionin* as a (ar! o# Da&ls o(enin* a((eal !o
Dhile%ons *ood 4&d*%en!.
Si%ilarl0, -a!!hews s!or0 o# !he %a*i ;-! >'5L5>@ #alls in!o
#ive (ar!s, divisi$le accordin* !o !he cen!ral (la0ers in each.
The o(enin* !wo verses #oc&s on !he (a*an %a*i who co%e !o
Jer&sale% seekin* !o worshi( !he new$orn kin* o# !he Jews.
"erses :L8 rela!e !he res&l!an! (aranoia o# Cerod and all
Jer&sale%. Cerods &nnerved $ehavior is %irrored in verses OL
7, where he res(onds dece(!ivel0 !o !he %a*is 1&er0G !his
reveals !o &s !he readers !ha! Cerod has no! !he sli*h!es!
in!en!ion o# worshi(in* !he new$orn kin*. The end o# !he s!or0
;-! >'6L5>@ %a!ches !he $e*innin* ;-! >'5L>@, (or!ra0in* !he
%a*i as #indin* !he new$orn kin*, carr0in* o&! !heir worshi(
and re!&rnin* !o !heir own land wi!ho&! con!ac!in* Cerod. A!
!he cen!er o# !he s!or0, verses KLJ !rea! &s !o !he ci!a!ion o# Old
Tes!a%en! !e,!s re*ardin* !he e,(ec!ed kin*s $ir!h(lace, ci!ed
ironicall0 a! Cerods re1&es! and $0 Cerods (ries!s and
scri$es.
A -a*i, co%e !o worshi( !he new$orn kin*, seek Cerods hel(
;-! >'5L>@.
B Cerod and Jer&sale% (anic a! !he $ir!h o# !he kin* ;-!
>':L8@.
H Bi$lical !e,!s s(eak o# !he kin*s $ir!h ;-! >'KLJ@.
B[ Cerod (lo!s and sche%es his own #or% o# 2worshi(3 ;-!
>'OL7@.
A[ The %a*i carr0 o&! !heir worshi( and *o awa0, el&din*
Cerod ;-! >'6L5>@.
Besides #ra%in* !his s!or0 as a discre!e and coheren! (ar! o#
-a!!hews e,!ended $ir!h narra!ive, !he chias!ic s!r&c!&re
hi*hli*h!s a (ro#o&nd iron0. Cerod 2!he kin*3 and 2all
Jer&sale%3 ;B, B[@ are con!ras!ed wi!h $a/an s!ar*aAers ;A, A
[@ in !heir a!!i!&de !oward !he !r&e kin*, one who wo&ld
2she(herd3 !he% ;-! >'J@ as Cerod and !hose who% -a!!hew
re*ards as Cerods reli*io&s s0co(han!s wo&ld never do.
!.3.2 (onnections 3et,een :nits of Te$t on the
/iscourse Le*el;s<
Once we iden!i#0 discre!e &ni!s o# !e,! a! !he level o# sen!ences
or a$ove, $o!h $0 o$servin* $o&ndar0 %arkers and $0
discernin* evidence o# in!ernal coherence, we need !o anal0Ae
how !hose &ni!s are in!errela!ed. The (rinci(les #or !his !ha!
a((l0 on one level will, #or !he %os! (ar!, a((l0 on all levels
#&r!her &( !he scale, all !he wa0 &( !o !he level o# !he en!ire
$ookBDa&ls le!!er !o !he Ro%ans, #or e,a%(le. <e will &se
Ro%ans J'5KL>: #or a sa%(le anal0sis.
.i*&re 8.K (rovides a s0n!ac!ical anal0sis o# Ro%ans J'5KL
>: NRS". I! re(resen!s one wa0 o# *ra(hicall0 rela!in* !he
vario&s ele%en!s o# a series o# sen!ences in a !e,!. <e co&ld
develo( vario&s o!her sche%es #or doin* !he sa%e !hin*. In
one sense i! does no! %a!!er which !echni1&e we &se, since !he
!echni1&e an e,e*e!e ado(!s is (ri%aril0 ado(!ed #or his or her
own &se. The desi*n &sed here $rin*s %ain cla&ses o&! !o !he
le#! %ar*in, and inden!s s&$ordina!e %a!erial ;as, e.*., a! line
5K.>@. Darallel &ni!s #all in!o line wi!h each o!her ;as in 5K.:L8@.
Arrows indica!e which ele%en!s rela!e !o each o!her, !ho&*h
!he0 do no! reveal +ow !he0 rela!e.
Hons&l! #i*&re 8.K care#&ll0 as 0o& work !hro&*h !he
#ollowin* co%%en!s. No!ice !ha! %a!erial s&$ordina!ed !o
ano!her &ni! $eco%es $art o1 !ha! o!her &ni!, even i# !ha! o!her
&ni! is i!sel# s&$ordina!e !o a 0e! 2hi*her3 &ni!. This is (ar!l0
wha! we %ean $0 cl&s!erin*, and !he arrows in !he dia*ra%
show which i!e%s cl&s!er wi!h which o!her i!e%s. .or e,a%(le,
lines 5K.:L8 are s&$ordina!e !o line 5K.>, and all !hree lines
5K.>L8 $elon* !o*e!her, as a cl&s!er, !o 5K.5. Da&l is no! askin*
whe!her we sho&ld sin $eca&se 2we are3 ;which wo&ld $e
a$s&rd@G he is askin* whe!her we sho&ld sin 2$eca&se we are
not 2n!er aw, "2t 2n!er /ra%e.3
Si%ilarl0, lines 5O.>LK, as a sin*le cl&s!er, are s&$ordina!e
!o 5O.5. +ines 57.5L> are also s&$ordina!e !o 5O.5, (arallel !o $&!
se(ara!e #ro% 5O.>LK. +ikewise, wi!hin !he cl&s!er 5O.>LK, lines
5O.:L8 are se(ara!e #ro% 5O.K, even !ho&*h "ot+ are
;se(ara!el0@ s&$ordina!e !o 5O.>. The cl&s!er 5O.:L8 descri$es
in w+at two senses 20o&3 have $eco%e o$edien!, while 5O.K
descri$es w+at 20o&r3 #or%er circ&%s!ances were. To*e!her
!hese !wo cl&s!ers, 5O.:L8 and 5O.K ;one o# !he% wi!h onl0 one
2%e%$er3@, 1&ali#0 !he sense in which Da&ls readers have
$eco%e o$edien!. Their o$edience, !hen, 1&ali#ied in !his wa0,
is one o# !wo ;(arallel@ reasons Da&l *ives #or !hankin* God
;5O.5@. Ce e,(resses !he o!her reason in 57.5L>' !heir (resen!
enslave%en! !o ri*h!eo&sness.
!igure 4#:# Syntactical Analysis of ;o)ans 0.":/(5 in N;SV
<e are now in a (osi!ion !o iden!i#0 !he ne,! level o#
cl&s!ers, in which one or %ore 2sen!ences3 *ro&( !o*e!her in
!he #low o# Ro%ans J'5KL>:. A#!er !hinkin* i! !hro&*h #ro% !he
dis(la0 we have %ade, we %i*h! s&% &( !he s!a*es o# Da&ls
ar*&%en! !here as #ollows.
A ;5K.5LK@
<e sho&ld $0 no %eans sin si%(l0 $eca&se
we are &nder *race.
B ;5J.5L8@
9o& are slaves o# wha!ever 0o& o$e0' whe!her
sin ;leadin* !o dea!h@ or o$edience ;leadin*
!o ri*h!eo&sness@.
H ;5O.5L57.>@
B&! !hank God, 0o& have $eco%e o$edien!,
slaves o# ri*h!eo&sness.
D ;56.5@
I a% s(eakin* in h&%an !er%s ;&sin* slaver0
%e!a(horicall0@.
E ;56.>LJ@
Dresen! 0o&r %e%$ers now as slaves !o
ri*h!eo&sness, in order !o $e sanc!i#ied.
. ;>?.5L>>.K@
As slaves !o sin, 0o&r reward #or o$e0in* i!
was dea!hG as slaves !o God, 0o&r reward #or
sanc!i#ica!ion is e!ernal li#e.
G ;>:.5L>@
<ha! we earn $0 sinnin* is dea!hG wha! God
*ives &s is e!ernal li#e in Hhris!.
So%e e,(lana!or0 co%%en!s %a0 hel( here. ;5@ In cl&s!er
A, !he e%(ha!ic ne*a!ive in 5K.K coordina!es wi!h Da&ls
rhe!orical 1&es!ion in 5K.5L8G !he co%$ina!ion is e1&ivalen! !o
a si%(le s!a!e%en! !ha! Gods *race (rovides no e,c&se #or
sinnin*. ;>@ The 24&s! asNso now3 s!r&c!&re in lines 56.>LJ !ies
!hose lines !o*e!her as cl&s!er E. ;:@ In cl&s!er ., !he s!r&c!&ral
si%ilari!0 $e!ween lines >?.5L>5.> on !he one hand, and lines
>>.5LK on !he o!her hand, !o*e!her wi!h !he coordina!in*
con4&nc!ion 2$&! QnowS3 in line >>.5, 4&s!i#0 !akin* !he en!ire
s!re!ch as one in!ernall0 con!ras!ive cl&s!er.
Cow !hen do !hese seven sen!ence)cl&s!ers work !o*e!her
!o #or% a hi*her)level, coheren! li!erar0 &ni! o&! o# Ro%ans
J'5KL>:I I! wo&ld $e hel(#&l i# each cl&s!er in !he se1&ence
had a clear %arker o# !he rela!ionshi( i! has wi!h !he whole.
So%e o# !he% in #ac! do. 2<ha! !henI3 in 5K.5 rela!es wha!
#ollows i! !o wha! (recedes i!, askin* whe!her wha! (recedes
Ro%ans J'5K 4&s!i#ies !he concl&sion i%(lied in Da&ls
rhe!orical 1&es!ion' 2Sho&ld we sin $eca&se we are no! &nder
law $&! &nder *raceI3 +ikewise, !he con4&nc!ion "2t in 5O.5 se!s
&( a con!ras! $e!ween cl&s!er B and cl&s!er H, and !he word so
in!rod&cin* !he 1&es!ion (osed in >5.5 invi!es readers !o draw a
concl&sion #ro% !he (recedin* ar*&%en!. Un#or!&na!el0 ;so !o
s(eak@, line >5.5 co%es in !he %ids! o# a cl&s!er, and !here#ore
(ro$a$l0 does no! rela!e i!s own cl&s!er ;.@ !o an0 o# !he
o!hers.
As is o#!en !he case, !hen, we e,e*e!es are de(enden! (ar!l0
on e,(lici! si*nals in !he !e,! and (ar!l0 on o&r own (owers o#
in#erence. A#!er considerin* ever0!hin* &( !o now, we %i*h!
(ro(ose !he #ollowin* disco&rse s!r&c!&re #or Ro%ans J'5KL>5.
I!aliciAed !0(e indica!es !he in#erred connec!ions $e!ween
cl&s!ers.
A ;5K.5LK@
<e sho&ld $0 no %eans sin si%(l0 $eca&se
we are &nder *race.
@+e reason 1or t+is is as 1oows D%2sters BI4E#
B ;5J.5L8@
9o& are slaves o# wha!ever 0o& o$e0' whe!her
sin ;leadin* !o dea!h@ or o$edience ;leadin*
!o ri*h!eo&sness@.
Bet, in s$ite o1 t+is $otentia 1or "a! news,
H ;5O.5L57.>@
Thank God, 0o& have $eco%e o$edien! and
slaves o# ri*h!eo&sness.
T3on%essionU
D ;56.5@
I a% s(eakin* in h&%an !er%s ;&sin* slaver0
%e!a(horicall0@.
In a%%or!an%e, t+en, wit+ yo2r new %on!ition,
E ;56.>LJ@
Dresen! 0o&r %e%$ers now as slaves !o
ri*h!eo&sness, in order !o $e sanc!i#ied.
.s 12rt+er rationae 1or t+is !e&an!, %onsi!er t+is#
. ;>?.5L>>.K@
As slaves !o sin, 0o&r reward #or o$e0in* i!
was dea!hG as slaves !o God, 0o&r reward #or
sanc!i#ica!ion is e!ernal li#e.
In ot+er wor!s, s2&&in/ 2$ %2sters .I4#
G ;>:.5L>@
B0 sinnin*, we earn dea!hG $&! God *ives &s
e!ernal li#e in Hhris!.
.inall0, we %i*h! s&% &( !he %essa*e o# Ro%ans J'5KL>:,
as an en!ire !e,!, like !his' 2Gods *race is no e,c&se #or sin,
since sinnin* leads !o dea!h. B&! Gods #ree *race is in!ended !o
(rovide li#e, no! dea!h.3
<e have o(era!ed en!irel0 #ro% !he En*lish !e,! in
(rod&cin* !his anal0sis. Cow does i! look in GreekI In #ac!, i!
looks re%arka$l0 si%ilar. There are so%e di##erences wor!h
no!in*, none!heless. Re#er !o #i*&re 8.J #or &nders!andin* !he
#ollowin* !wo co%%en!s.
5. In !er%s o# Greek s0n!a,, lines 57.5L> rela!e !o 5O.5L:
di##eren!l0 #ro% !he wa0 !he corres(ondin* !e,! $ehaves in !he
En*lish version. The NRS" inser!s a second 2!ha!3 ;57.5@ in
(arallel wi!h !he one in 5O.>, crea!in* a second de(enden! no&n
cla&seG !he Greek, however, e%(lo0s an inde(enden! cla&se in
57.5L>, connec!ed wi!h verse 5O $0 !he con4&nc!ion 2$&!.3
None!heless, !he con!en! o# !he !e,! leads &s na!&rall0 !o
cons!r&e !he Greek !e,! 4&s! as we did !he En*lish' verse 57
(rovides a second reason !o !hank God ;5O.5@, (arallel !o !he
;co%(o&nd@ one (rovided in lines 5O.>L: o# !he Greek anal0sis.
!ig# 4#0 Syntactical Analysis of ;o)ans 0.":/(5 in GreeA
>. The Greek !e,! in lines 56.8LK #alls in!o !wo (ar!s,
con!rar0 !o !he En*lish anal0sis a! 56.8. This is $eca&se !he
NRS" !akes !he do&$le occ&rrence o# !he no&n e 2ini1&i!03
in 56.8 and 56.K as a sin*le in!ensi#ied e,(ression ;2!o *rea!er
and *rea!er ini1&i!03 56.8@. 9e! !he Greek s0n!a, (arallels 56.8
wi!h 56.: ;$o!h no&ns are da!ives@ and (arallels 56.K in !&rn
wi!h 56.7 ;$o!h are (re(osi!ional (hrases wi!h @. The
con!ras!in* (arallel $e!ween 56.K and 56.7, los! in En*lish, is
wor!h no!in* in Greek' (resen!in* ones %e%$ers as slaves !o
i%(&ri!0 and ini1&i!0 ea!s to ini?2ityG (resen!in* !he% as
slaves !o ri*h!eo&sness ea!s to san%ti1i%ation. <hile !his
di##erence has li!!le $earin* on !he !is%o2rse anal0sis o#
Ro%ans J'5KL>:, i! can have si*ni#icance #or how we
&nders!and Da&ls viewBhereBo# sanc!i#ica!ion and ini1&i!0.
<e have now anal0Aed !he disco&rse s!r&c!&re o# Ro%ans
J'5KL>:. Cow does !his coheren! ar*&%en! a*ains! &sin* Gods
*race as an e,c&se #or sinnin* #i! in!o !he lar*er disco&rse o#
!he en!ire e(is!leI I# we co%(are !he s!r&c!&res o# Ro%ans
J'5L: and Ro%ans J'5KL5J, we can iden!i#0 #o&r ele%en!s !he0
have in co%%on' ;a@ <ha! !henI ;$@ Shall we sinI ;c@ Ceavens
no/ ;d@ Do 0o& no! realiAe PI The sa%e s!r&c!&re is (ar!iall0
re(ea!ed a! Ro%ans O'5 ;Do 0o& no! know PI@. This %a0 i%(l0
!ha! Ro%ans O'5LJ $elon*s !o*e!her wi!h J'5L58 and J'5KL>:
as !he !hird o# !hree answers !o !he sa%e iss&e. Tha! iss&e,
a((aren!l0, is !his' does !he a$sol&!e *race (rovided #or
h&%ani!0 in Hhris! ;Ro%ans K@ i%(l0 !he #reedo% !o sin a! will
wi!ho&! #ear o# conde%na!ionI Da&ls !hree reasons #or
den0in* !his (o!en!ial o$4ec!ion !o his *os(el are ;a@ o&r
iden!i#ica!ion wi!h Hhris! in $a(!is% ;Ro% J'5L58@, ;$@ o&r
rela!ionshi( !o God as his slaves ;Ro% J'5KL>:@, and ;c@ !he
end o# o&r rela!ionshi( !o !he law ;Ro% O'5LJ@. Ro%ans O'O,
!hen, *oes on !o in!rod&ce a new 1&es!ion, di##eren! #ro% !he
one !rea!ed in Ro%ans J'5LO'J. In Ro%ans J'5LO'J, !he
1&es!ion is 2Shall we kee( on sinnin*I3 In Ro%ans O'OL>K, !he
1&es!ion is 2Is !he law i!sel# sin#&lI3 .inall0, Ro%ans 7
descri$es !he decisive in#l&ence o# !he S(iri! on li#e in Hhris!.
Th&s, !he ar*&%en!s in Ro%ans JL7 de%olish (io&s
o$4ec!ions !o Da&ls *os(el, o$4ec!ions $ased on #ear o# his
doc!rine o# a$sol&!e conde%na!ion and a$sol&!e *race ;Ro%
5LK@ and on !he desire !o (ro!ec! $elievers #ro% ind&l*in* in
sin $eca&se o# i!.
4.4 SUMMING UP
This cha(!er has !ried !o (&! anal0!ical 2#ee!3 !o !he %e!a(hor
o# !he s!one wall develo(ed in cha(!er !hree. The (rocess o#
anal0Ain* !e,!s in!o s!r&c!&red cl&s!ers de(ends on
&nders!andin* !he rec&rsive na!&re o# cl&s!erin*, where$0
!e,!&al cl&s!ers !he%selves cl&s!er !o*e!her !o #or% lar*er and
lar*er !e,!&al cl&s!ers. Dar! o# !he %eanin* o# !he !wo)word
cl&s!er ;or sen!ence@ #o&nd a! Ro%ans J'5K$ ; 2B0 no
%eans/3@ $eco%es eviden! #ro% i!s rela!ion !o !he i%%edia!e
con!e,! ;Ro% J'5Ka@. And (ar! o# !he %eanin* o# Ro%ans J'5K,
as a !hree)sen!ence cl&s!er, is !o $e #o&nd in i!s rela!ion !o
Ro%ans J'5KL>:, and so on &( !he scale o# s!r&c!&ral
co%(le,i!0 !o !he e(is!le as a whole.
Ideall0, we do o&rselves and o&r (eo(le a *rea! service i# we
anal0Ae !he #&ll disco&rse s!r&c!&re o# an0 $i$lical $ook we
wish !o s!&d0, !each or (reach. This is a lon*)ran*e *oal,
however. Si%(l0 s!ar! wherever 0o& are. Iden!i#0 and anal0Ae
wha!ever (ara*ra(h 0o& are c&rren!l0 workin* wi!h. Use a
co%%en!ar0 or dic!ionar0 ar!icle !o *e! a sense o# 0o&r
(ara*ra(hs (lace in !he lar*er work. A! !he sa%e !i%e, kee(
!rack o# 0o&r own o$serva!ions and concl&sions. Be*in !o $&ild
&( a livin* &nders!andin* o# Holossians, or o# Genesis, or o#
-arks Gos(elBwha!everBas a whole. -ake i! 0o&r li#es work,
and !ake 0o&r !i%e. +e! 0o&rsel# en4o0 i!.
<e !&rn now in cha(!er #ive !o a wider sense o# disco&rse
anal0sis, one !ha! !akes in!o acco&n! !he extra!e,!&al con!e,! o#
his!or0 and c&l!&re.
$
HISTORY AND CULTURE IN EXEGESIS
9o& Han! Ea! a Denari&s
4or t+e P+arisees, an! a t+e ,ews, !o not eat
2ness t+ey t+oro2/+y was+ t+eir +an!s, t+2s
o"servin/ t+e tra!ition o1 t+e e!ersP an! t+ey
!o not eat anyt+in/ 1ro& t+e &ar-et 2ness t+ey
was+ itP an! t+ere are aso &any ot+er
tra!itions t+at t+ey o"serve, t+e was+in/ o1
%2$s, $ots, an! "ronQe -ettes.
;.*A 8#<I4
<e need !o *e! one !hin* s!rai*h! $e#ore we *o an0 #&r!her.
Go!!#ried <ilhel% von +ei$niA ;5J8JL5O5J@ was !he las! %an
who knew everyt+in/. This %eans !ha! no %a!!er how
co%(&lsive we %a0 $e, no %a!!er wha! e,(ec!a!ions we !hink
o&r (ro#essors or o&r con*re*a!ions %a0 have o# &s, no %a!!er
who we !hink we are, we can no lon*er ho(e !o know
ever0!hin*. <e canno! even know ever0!hin* a$o&! so%e
$i$lical $ook or (erico(e we %i*h! wan! !o (reach #ro%. One
i%(or!an! ke0 !o a li#e!i%e o# #ai!h#&l, solid and (rod&c!ive
e,e*esis is !o re%e%$er !ha! i! !r&l0 does !ake a li#e!i%eBand
even !hen, i! will no! $e #inished/ Go wi!h wha! 0o& haveG $&ild
on wha! 0o& *ain. +is!en, assi%ila!e, a$sor$, $&! !ake 0o&r
!i%e.
<e need !o hear !his word o# reass&rance ;and (ro$a$l0
%ore !han once@ #or a! leas! !hree reasons. .irs!, since +ei$niAs
da0, !he world has seen s&ch an e,(losion o# in#or%a!ion, no!
leas! in !he #ield o# ancien! his!or0, lan*&a*e and c&l!&re, !ha!
even #i#!0 !ho&sand +ei$niAes co&ld no! con!ain i! all. The
!e%(!a!ion !o #eel res(onsi$le #or $&0in* a $ook ;le! alone
readin* i!/@ si%(l0 $eca&se i! e,is!s is an invi!a!ion !o dro( in!o
!he a$0ss. Second, a con*re*a!ion does no! needBor wan!B!o
hear ever0!hin* we !o learn a$o&! a !e,!. I re%e%$er #ro% %0
earl0 da0s as a (as!or, #ran!icall0 !r0in* !o incor(ora!e in!o
ser%ons ever0 las! scra( o# wisdo% I had c&lled #ro% readin*
co%%en!aries. Each week I $&ried %0 (eo(le in so %&ch
in#or%a!ion !ha! no one, incl&din* %e, co&ld !ell wha! !he
(oin! o# !he ser%on was. A !hird reason !o e%(hasiAe !his
warnin* is !ha! e,(ec!in* (er#ec!ion and !horo&*hness is !he
$es! wa0 !o $eco%e disco&ra*ed in !he li#elon* !ask o# e,e*esis
and !o *ive i! &( in #avor o# lesser (&rs&i!s. Ins!ead o# !ha!
road, #ollow !he road o# realis!ic e,(ec!a!ions' we need onl0 do
well wha! we have !i%e #orG we do no! need !o !ake on %ore
!han wha! we have !i%e !o do well. I# !he +ord can e##ec!ivel0
&se !he 2$o03 Sa%&el ;5 Sa% :'5L57@, or Naa%ans 2li!!le %aid3
;> =in*s K'5L8@, or a kid wi!h $read s!icks and sardines ;Jn
J'6@, he can &se &s !oo, even i# we are 2i%(er#ec!l03 (re(ared.
On !he o!her hand, !his 2word o# reass&rance3 is no! a license
!o slo!h/ <e have a 4o$ !o do a#!er all.
$.1 MEANING AS A FUNCTION OF PLACE IN
CONTEXT
<i!h !ha! cavea!, le!s !&rn !o !he #ascina!in*, i# (o!en!iall0
in!i%ida!in*, !ask o# e,e*e!icall0 (ro4ec!in* o&rselves
$ackward in !i%e and s(ace. As a %&l!ie!hnic,
%&l!i*enera!ional, %&l!i%illennial co%%&ni!0 o# Bi$le
s!&den!s, we work !o*e!her in recons!r&c!in* #or o&rselves !he
ancien! se!!in* in which and #or which !he New Tes!a%en! was
#irs! wri!!en. No one e,(ec!s an0 one o# &s !o do i! alone.
+ei$niA is s!ill dead. 9e!, in a sense, even !ho&*h none o# &s can
2know ever0!hin*3 a$o&! !his s&$4ec!, !he en!ire co%%&ni!0
workin* !o*e!her canBsor! o#.
The i%(or!ance o# recons!r&c!in* !he ancien! $i$lical world
res!s on !he sa%e (rinci(le &nder*irdin* !he (oin! %ade a$ove
in cha(!er !hree' !he si*ni#icance o# walkin* aro&nd in o&r
(a4a%as de(ends on where we are when we do. The %eanin*
o# a word, a !e,!, a 2!hin*3 or an even!, is (ar!l0 a #&nc!ion o# i!s
(lace in a con!e,!. This is 4&s! as !r&e wi!h re*ard !o !he
his!orical)c&l!&ral con!e,! as i! is wi!h re*ard !o !he li!erar0
con!e,! disc&ssed in cha(!er #o&r.
).1.1 +n #$a&ple
Honsider wha! Jes&s disr&(!ion o# !he !e%(le s!ri( %all wo&ld
have %ean! ;-k 55'5KL5O and (arallels@ i# he had $ehaved !his
wa0 in !he %arke! a! Ha(erna&% ins!ead, or in De!ers ho&se.
<e need !o consider his 2cleansin* o# !he !e%(le3 wi!hin !he
con!e,! o# !he !e%(les c&l!&ral si*ni#icance a! !he !i%e.
Throwin* e**s a! %0 nei*h$ors *ara*e does no! deliver !he
sa%e %essa*e as !hrowin* e**s a! *overn%en! $&ildin*s in
O!!awa, +ondon or <ashin*!on. Si%ilarl0, $e#ore we 4&%( !o
concl&sions a$o&! wha! !he !e%(le)cleansin* e(isode %eans
#or &s !oda0, we need !o &nders!and #irs! wha! i! %ean! !o
Jes&s and his con!e%(oraries. I! (ro$a$l0 does not %ean we
sho&ld vandaliAe o&r local Bi$le $ooks!ores #or sellin* 2h&**0)
Jes&s3 dolls. Un#or!&na!el0, !he Gos(el wri!ers who (reserve
!he s!ories o# Jes&s violen! ac! in !he !e%(le do no! $o!her !o
e,(lain #or &s i!s c&l!&ral si*ni#icanceG !he0 !ake i! #or *ran!ed.
Toda0, we have !o look elsewhere !o #ind o&! a$o&! i!. <here
can we lookI
).1.2 "ri&ary Te$ts and Secondary Te$ts
.or !his kind o# $ack*ro&nd in#or%a!ion, we are dee(l0
inde$!ed !o *enera!ions o# researchers who have co%$ed and
con!in&e !o co%$ !he li$raries, !rash hea(s and *rave0ards o#
$i$lical an!i1&i!0 and who anal0Ae !ho&sands o# relevan!
ar!i#ac!s, doc&%en!s and inscri(!ions s&rvivin* #ro% !he
(eriod. <ha! !he0 are lookin* #or, &s&all0, is e,ac!l0 wha! we
need' raw %a!erial #or recons!r&c!in* !he ancien! his!orical)
c&l!&ral se!!in*. In !er%s o# wri!!en %a!erials, !hese
researchers (rovide !wo !0(es o# da!a !o hel( &s &nders!and
!ha! se!!in*' (ri%ar0 and secondar0 so&rces, $rie#l0 disc&ssed
in cha(!er !wo.
Rarel0 will a (ri%ar0 !e,! cas! a direc! li*h! on so%e New
Tes!a%en! (assa*e, !ho&*h i! can ha((en. .or e,a%(le, a
s!one inscri(!ion re#errin* !o Ro%an (rocons&l Gallio and
da!in* his !er% o# o##ice hel(s &s i%%ensel0 in workin* o&! !he
chronolo*0 o# Da&ls %issionar0 ac!ivi!ies ;c#. Ac!s 57'5>L5O@.
+ikewise, !he #irs!)cen!&r0 oss&ar0 ;$one $o,@ recen!l0
discovered in Jer&sale% and $earin* !he inscri(!ion, 2Ja%es
son o# Jose(h $ro!her o# Jes&s,3 is dra%a!ic !es!i%on0 !o !he
his!orici!0 o# Ja%es, Jose(h and Jes&sB&nless i! is a #or*er0,
o# co&rse. On a so%ewha! $roader scale, o&r &nders!andin* o#
a (ivo!al even! in #irs!)cen!&r0 Dales!inian his!or0, !he
des!r&c!ion o# Jer&sale% and !he !e%(le in A.D. O?, is
enor%o&sl0 enriched $0 !he vol&%ino&s wri!in*s o# #irs!)
cen!&r0 Jewish his!orian .lavi&s Jose(h&s. Al!ho&*h !his
%o%en!o&s even! is nowhere &na%$i*&o&sl0 %en!ioned in !he
New Tes!a%en!, $o!h !he an!ici(a!ion o# i! and !he %e%or0 o#
i! &nderlie %&ch o# !he New Tes!a%en! !e,!, -a!!hew >8'5L>,
#or e,a%(le.
-os! o# !he !i%e, however, (ri%ar0 li!era!&re #ro% !he
$i$lical (eriodBincl&din* wha! Dro!es!an!s have !radi!ionall0
called !he Old Tes!a%en! A(ocr0(ha and Ro%an Ha!holics
know as !he de&!erocanonical $ooksB(rovides &s wi!h indirec!
in#or%a!ion, a $i*)(ic!&re $ackdro( !o !he New Tes!a%en!.
<ha! we *e! #ro% a #irs!hand ac1&ain!ance wi!h !his %a!erial
is a *a!herin* sense o# 2$ein* !here.3 The livel0 narra!ives in 5
and > -acca$ees, #or ins!ance, $rin* &s ri*h! in!o !he %ids! o#
!he (assiona!e s!r&**les #or Jewish inde(endence d&rin* !he
second cen!&r0 B.H. The revol&!ionar0 (assion !hese $ooks
e,hi$i! was 4&s! as ri#e d&rin* Jes&s da0 as i! was nearl0 !wo
cen!&ries earlier. Readin* !hro&*h !he non$i$lical %a!erial
#ro% X&%ran ;!he so)called Dead Sea Scrolls@ *ives &s so%e
idea o# how i%(or!an! !he !e%(le ac!&all0 was !o vario&s
s!rea%s o# J&dais% o# !he (eriod, in s(i!e o# !he #ac! !ha! %an0
X&%ran sec!arians re*arded Cerods !e%(le and i!s
ad%inis!ra!ion wi!h a$horrence. 9e! even !his (re4&diced
(ers(ec!ive on !he !e%(le !hrows indirec! li*h! on Jes&s
(rovoca!ive ac! o# 2cleansin*3 i!. Ano!her e,a%(le' I re%e%$er
as a s!&den! (ickin* &( !he old #a%iliar Gos(el o# John shor!l0
a#!er co%(le!in* a research (a(er on Gnos!icis%. Over several
(recedin* %on!hs, I had read a lar*e n&%$er o# ancien!
Gnos!ic !rea!ises, %os! o# which were 1&i!e $iAarre. <i!h !he
s%ell o# !hese doc&%en!s s!ill on %0 clo!hes, so !o s(eak, !he
words o# Johns (rolo*&e ;Jn 5'5L57@ li!erall0 !ook %0 $rea!h
awa0G I *as(ed when I saw i!. I! was as i# I had never read i!
$e#ore a! all. No! !ha! I s&ddenl0 $eca%e convinced !ha! !he
a&!hor o# John was a Gnos!icG ra!her, I 2heard3 his %essa*e #or
!he #irs! !i%e as he %&s! have %ean! i! !o $e heard in !he
con!e,! o# #irs!)cen!&r0, 2New A*e,3 (se&doreli*ion. Ce s(oke
!o wha! he knew.
Se! 0o&rsel# a *oal o# readin* #ro% !hese 2ori*inal,3 (ri%ar0
doc&%en!s over !he re%ainder o# 0o&r ac!ive li#e. ;The Old
Tes!a%en! A(ocr0(ha, or de&!erocanonical $ooks, (rovides a
*rea! (lace !o $e*in.@ Resis! !he #alse sense o# o$li*a!ion !o
%as!er i! all $e#ore 0o&r ne,! ser%on, $&! s!rive !o read one or
!wo o# !hese !e,!s each 0ear, (erha(s d&rin* +en! or Adven!, or
#or 0o&r $ir!hda0. A! a (ace reasona$le #or 0o& in !he %ids! o#
li#es o!her de%ands, *rad&all0 %ake 0o&rsel# a 2local3 in !he
J&deo)Ro%an world.
7e%on!ary li!era!&re in !his #ieldBin !he sha(e o#
dic!ionar0 and 4o&rnal ar!icles, s!a!is!ical !ools, *ra%%ars,
!rea!ises, %ono*ra(hs and co%%en!ariesB#or%s !he
de(osi!or0 o# res&l!s, and s&%%aries o# res&l!s, #ro% cen!&ries
o# s!&d0 and re#lec!ion on !he Bi$le. This vas! %a!erial is
(ro#o&ndl0 val&a$le #or a n&%$er o# reasons. .or one !hin*, i!
can hel( &s in &nders!andin* !he (ri%ar0 li!era!&re ;incl&din*
!he New Tes!a%en! i!sel#@, %&ch as a !o&r *&ide a! Harls$ad
Haverns hel(s &s !o a((recia!e wha! we see !here. Those who
have *one $e#ore &s (ass on !o &s wha! !he0 have learned,
!here$0 ena$lin* &s !o #ollow !he% and even !o *o $e0ond
where !he0 had !o s!o(. Second, however, we can !es! !heir
le*ac0, (reserved in reada$le #or%a!, a*ains! wha! we
o&rselves now see. The si*ni#icance o# !his is !ha! secondar0
so&rces ena$le &s !o $eco%e involved in a colossal, sli*h!l0
&nor*aniAed, &niversal conversa!ion. No! one o# &s has !he
inside !rack on &nders!andin* all !hese !hin*s. +ei$niA is dead,
re%e%$er/ <e need each o!her and !he vario&s (ers(ec!ives
we re(resen! in order !o e,(and !he sco(e o# o&r view and !o
correc! o&r %isconce(!ions. In !he !hird (lace, %oreover, !here
is li!!le (oin! in (er(e!&all0 reinven!in* !he wheel. <hile we
canno! (ossi$l0 !ake as ass&red !r&!h an0!hin* and ever0!hin*
we #ind in (rin!, we can !r&s! %&ch o# !he consens&s !ha! o&r
collea*&es in !his work, over %an0 cen!&ries and aro&nd !he
*lo$e, have s!r&**led !o es!a$lish. <e wo&ld $e #oolish !o
i*nore i!. I# so%eone has hacked a (a!hwa0 !hro&*h !he #ores!,
wh0 wo&ld we no! !read i! !oo, &nless we !ho&*h! i! wen! in !he
wron* direc!ionI I# a Greek concordance !ells %e !ha! !here are
eleven occ&rrences o# !he !er% oOu 2!o*e!her3 in !he
New Tes!a%en!, I will no! $e likel0 !o co&n! !he% &( %0sel# $0
!edio&sl0 readin* !hro&*h !hose !wen!0)seven $ooks on %0
ownBin Greek/
.or o&r (&r(oses here, !ho&*h, a%on* !he #ore%os!
advan!a*es o# secondar0 li!era!&re is !ha! i! s&%%ariAes and
di*es!s cen!&ries o# collec!ed wisdo% and insi*h! on !he
ancien! $i$lical and relevan! non$i$lical li!era!&re. In %inis!r0,
we seldo%, i# ever, have !he necessar0 !i%e or ;0e!@ !he
acc&%&la!ed e,(erience #or dealin* ade1&a!el0 wi!h !his
%a!erial. In s&ch si!&a!ions we can !&rn !o an ar!icle on !he
!e%(le in a Bi$le dic!ionar0, or !o a $ook on !he #irs!)cen!&r0
!e%(le c&l!, or !o a co%%en!ar0 on -a!!hew >5'5>L5:. No!
onl0 do !hese reso&rces (rovide &s a *eneral orien!a!ion or a
s(eci#ic (ers(ec!ive on !he s&$4ec! a! hand, !he0 also *ive &s
s&**es!ions #or (&rs&in* i! #&r!her i# we sho&ld wan! !o. Once
a*ain, $eca&se !he 1&an!i!0 o# availa$le in#or%a!ion is
overwhel%in*, we need !o kee( o&r wi!s a$o&! &s. <e %&s! no!
le! !he &!!er i%(ossi$ili!0 o# (er#or%in* !he !ask !o (er#ec!ion
disco&ra*e &s #ro% doin* an0!hin* a! all. Do well wha! 0o& can
in !he !i%e 0o& have, however shor! !ha! !i%e %a0 $e, and $e
con!en! a$o&! i!. Over !he co&rse o# 0o&r li#e, en*a*e !he 2$i*
conversa!ion3 a! so%e levelG (ick &( 2*&ide $roch&res3 as 0o&
need !he%G *e! hel( wherever 0o& re1&ire i!. Three e,cellen!
*&ides !o !his %a!erial are wor!h %en!ionin* here. One is H. =.
Barre!!s 0ew @esta&ent Ba%-/ro2n!s, ano!her is H. A.
Evanss 0on%anoni%a Writin/s an! 0ew @esta&ent
Inter$retation, and a !hird is +. R. Cel0er, 'x$orin/ ,ewis+
Literat2re o1 t+e 7e%on! @e&$e.
5
On !he o!her hand, do no! $e
sa!is#ied wi!h a %ere *&ide$ook when 0o& can see Harls$ad #or
0o&rsel#. Cave 0o& ever ac!&all0 read 5 -acca$ees or To$i! or
5

H. =. Barre!!, 0ew @esta&ent Ba%-/ro2n!s# Writin/s 1ro& .n%ient
Gree%e an! t+e *o&an '&$ire @+at I2&ine 3+ristian Ori/ins, rev. ed.
;New 9ork' Car(erSan.rancisco, 567O@G Hrai* A. Evans, 0on%anoni%a
Writin/s an! 0ew @esta&ent Inter$retation ;Dea$od0, -ass.'
Cendrickson, 566>@G +arr0 R. Cel0er, 'x$orin/ ,ewis+ Literat2re o1 t+e
7e%on! @e&$e Perio!# . G2i!e 1or 0ew @esta&ent 7t2!ents ;Downers
Grove, Ill.' In!er"arsi!0 Dress, >??>@.
X&%rans ;an2a o1 Dis%i$ineN Or !r0 !he Boo- o1 4irst
'no%+, which !he Book o# J&de 1&o!es/
$.2 TWO TYPES OF HISTORICAL"CULTURAL
SETTING
<ha! we have $een !alkin* a$o&! &n!il now in !his cha(!er is
one sor! o# his!orical)c&l!&ral se!!in*. Jes&s, De!er, Da&l and all
!he o!her charac!ers %archin* across !he (a*es o# !he New
Tes!a%en! lived !heir lives in Ro%an)occ&(ied Dales!ine or in
so%e o!her corner o# !he Ro%an E%(ire. All !he varied
(oli!ical, reli*io&s, econo%ic, lin*&is!ic, social and c&l!&ral
#ea!&res o# !ha! world, and o# (ar!ic&lar social (ocke!s wi!hin
!ha! world, #or% !he /enera +istori%a-%2t2ra "a%-!ro$ !o
!he ac!ion and !he %essa*es (reserved #or (os!eri!0 in !hese
doc&%en!s. I# we are !o &nders!and !hose doc&%en!s, we need
s(ecial in#or%a!ion a$o&! %&ch o# wha! (eo(le livin* a! !ha!
!i%e si%(l0 !ook #or *ran!ed. Real (eo(le co%(osed, #or o!her
real (eo(le, all !wen!0)seven doc&%en!s !ha! %ake &( o&r New
Tes!a%en!, and all !hese (eo(le were %e%$ers o# real c&l!&ral
and social s0s!e%s. Bi$lical a&!hors and !heir a&diences held a
*rea! deal o# in#or%a!ion in co%%on, in#or%a!ion !ha! #or
!he% needed no e,(lici! %en!ion in !he !e,!. In #ac!, i! wo&ld
have $een o$no,io&s !o an a&dience !o have each de!ail
e,(lainedG i! wo&ld $e a $i! like a s(or!swri!er #or !he 7eatte
@i&es !ellin* his local readers !ha! 2!he -ariners, a 7eatte-
"ase! $ro1essiona "ase"a %2", los! !heir #i#!een!h
consec&!ive ho%e *a%e las! ni*h!.3 Tha! i!aliciAed (iece o#
ins&l!in*l0 *ra!&i!o&s in#or%a!ion, however, wo&ld $e
e,!re%el0 &se#&l ;in !he 0ear :K:K@ !o !he archaeolo*is! who
#inds !he Dead D&*e! So&nd Scrolls in !he r&ins o# !he ancien!
ci!0 o# Sea!!le ill&s!ra!ion ;ins(ired $0 -oises Silva@. The %ore
we &nders!and a$o&! !ha! *eneral #irs!)cen!&r0 c&l!&ral
$ackdro(, !he $e!!er a$le we will $e !o read an0 New
Tes!a%en! !e,! in!elli*en!l0.
The o!her !0(e o# his!orical)c&l!&ral se!!in*, e1&all0
i%(or!an! #or &nders!andin* !hese !e,!s, re(resen!s !he %ore
s$e%i1i% +istori%a Mo%%asionO l0in* $ehind each o# !he%.
Honsider !he Ge!!0s$&r* Address, #or e,a%(le. Dresiden!
A$raha% +incoln wro!e !ha! s(eech #or !he dedica!ion o# a
ce%e!er0 a! !he si!e o# one o# !he $loodies! and %os! decisive
$a!!les o# !he A%erican Hivil <ar. Ce delivered i! in Nove%$er
57J:, wi!hin !he %os!l0 a*rarian world o# !he %id)nine!een!h)
cen!&r0 Uni!ed S!a!es. The A%erican 2&nion3 was no! 0e! a
cen!&r0 oldG so%e o# i!s livin* ci!iAens co&ld s!ill re%e%$er i!s
in#anc0. The *rea! o(en lands !o !he wes! o# !he -ississi((i
River were as 0e! 2&nse!!led,3 a! leas! in !he %inds o# !he
e,(ansionis!s in !he eas!. Railroads were 4&s! co%in* in!o !heir
s!ride. A(ar! #ro% !he horri#ic war c&rren!l0 &nderwa0, i! was
an a*e o# c&l!&ral o(!i%is% and innova!ive ener*0. Tha! was
!he world +incoln knew. The even!, howeverB!he s(eci#ic
o%%asionF!ha! *ave rise !o !he address was !he dedica!ion o#
!ha! (ar!ic&lar ce%e!er0 on !ha! (ar!ic&lar Denns0lvania
$a!!le#ield. The %essa*e o# !he Ge!!0s$&r* Address s(eaks !o
!he sole%n occasion and !o !he war i!sel#, and i!s %eanin* is
ine,!rica$l0 connec!ed !o $o!h. Never!heless, +incolns
address, !o*e!her wi!h !he even! !ha! ins(ired i!, is onl0
&nders!ood a*ains! !he lar*er, *eneral $ackdro( o# li#e in !he
Uni!ed S!a!es in !he 57J?s.
In !he sa%e wa0, Da&ls le!!er !o Ro%e s!ands o&! a*ains!
!he *eneral $ackdro( o# !he #irs!)cen!&r0 Ro%an E%(ire. The
$ax *o&ana, s!ill in e##ec! since A&*&s!&s da0, ens&red a
de*ree o# (&$lic sec&ri!0 hardl0 known in !he wes!ern world
$e#ore !his era. Hhris!iani!0, #ro% !he (ers(ec!ive o# o##icial
Ro%an (olic0, had no! #&ll0 dis!in*&ished i!sel# #ro% J&dais%,
a (er%i!!ed reli*ion. 9e!, seeds o# chan*e were eviden! even a!
!he hi*hes! levels. Accordin* !o !he Ro%an his!orian S&e!oni&s
;Li1e o1 3a2!i2s >K.8@, !he e%(eror Hla&di&s had e,(elled all
Jews #ro% !he ci!0 o# Ro%e so%ewhere $e!ween !he 0ears 86
and K>, $eca&se o# dis!&r$ances re*ardin* so%eone na%ed
2Hhres!&s3 ;c#. Ac!s 57'>@. Addi!ionall0, Jewish co%%&ni!ies
e,is!ed all over !he Ro%an world, no! leas! in Ro%e i!sel#, and
%an0 o# !hese (rovided $eachheads #or !he (rocla%a!ion o# !he
Gos(el in #ar)#l&n* (laces. These #ea!&res o# J&deo)Greco)
Ro%an socie!0, and %an0 o!hers, cons!i!&!e !he his!orical)
c&l!&ral $ackdro( !o !he $ook o# Ro%ans and, wi!h so%e
ad4&s!%en!s, !o vir!&all0 all New Tes!a%en! doc&%en!s.
The s(eci#ic o%%asion $ehind Da&ls (ennin* !he le!!er !o
Ro%e, on !he o!her hand, is (ec&liar !o Ro%ans alone. Si!!in*
o&! !he win!er in Horin!h, awai!in* #avora$le wea!her #or
!ravelin* !o Jer&sale% wi!h an o##erin* #ro% !he Gen!ile
ch&rches, Da&l cas!s his e0es wes!ward !o S(ain, where he
wan!s !o *o ne,!. Ce vis&aliAes !he ch&rch a! Ro%e, which he
has never visi!ed, as a s&((or! $ase #or his (ro4ec!ed wes!ern
o(era!ions, %&ch as S0rian An!ioch has $een !he $ase o# his
eas!ern %ission. 9e!, he is also aware o# dissension in !he
Ro%an con*re*a!ions, r&nnin* alon* Jewish)Gen!ile lines. I!
has a((aren!l0 res&l!ed #ro% !he recen! re!&rn o# Jewish
Hhris!ians !o Ro%e #ollowin* Neros rescindin* o# Hla&di&ss
edic! ;co%(are Ac!s 57'5L: wi!h Ro% 5J':@. All !his %akes #or
a co%(le, si!&a!ion, a %&l!ila0ered o%%asion #or Da&ls le!!er.
Unders!andin* !ha! si!&a!ion ena$les &s !o *ras( Da&ls
(ri%ar0 concern in wri!in* wha! he wri!es, and &nders!andin*
!ha! (ri%ar0 concern hel(s &s !o &nders!and Da&ls %essa*e.
<e will re!&rn !o !he s(eci#ic occasion #or a doc&%en! in
cha(!er si,. The (resen! cha(!er is (rinci(all0 a$o&! !he lar*er,
%ore *eneral (ic!&re. S!ill, i! is i%(or!an! !o $e aware o# !he
di##erence $e!ween !he !wo !0(es o# his!orical con!e,!.
$.3 ILICAL TEXTS AS CULTURALLY DETERMINED
I! s&r(rised %e !he #irs! !i%e I &nders!ood !ha! we have !o
reckon wi!h !he c&l!&ral di##erences $e!ween !he ori*inal
si!&a!ion (res&((osed $0 a $i$lical !e,! and !he si!&a!ion we
o&rselves occ&(0 !oda0, a si!&a!ion !o which we %i*h! wan! !o
2a((l03 !he Bi$les !eachin*s. 9e! i! s&r(rised %e #ar %ore
(ro#o&ndl0 when I realiAed !ha! !he Bi$le doc&%en!s
!he%selves, !he Bi$les !eachin*s, are also c&l!&rall0
de!er%ined. I had so%ehow inconsis!en!l0 ass&%ed a level o#
a$sol&!e, &niversal relevance !o !he ver0 wordin* o# Col0
Scri(!&re. I a((aren!l0 vis&aliAed !he Bi$le as !wo)
di%ensional, #la!' God #ro% wi!hin his di%ension s(eaks !o &s
h&%an $ein*s in o&r di%ension. I %os! ass&redl0 do s&$scri$e
!o !he &niversal a&!hori!0 o# Gods will #or h&%ani!0, $&! I now
see !ha! !he e,(ression o# !ha! divine will !akes on
%ani#es!a!ions a((ro(ria!e !o wha!ever socie!0 i! addresses.
A $i$lical !e,! in !his sense is t+ree)di%ensional, ro&nded'
i! re(resen!s !he God)di%ension, !he 2ori*inal3 h&%an)
di%ension and ;!hird@ !he la!er, secondar0 h&%an)di%ension
Bo&rs, #or e,a%(le. The %essa*e !ailored !o !he Horin!hian
ch&rch will $e so%ewha! di##eren! #ro% !he %essa*e delivered
!o !he Gala!ian ch&rches, or !o Dres$0!erians in Seo&l or
A!lan!a, or !o Den!ecos!als in Hhel%s#ord. The reason o# co&rse
is !ha! !he c&l!&res in !hese vario&s se!!in*s di##er #ro% one
ano!her. +ike Alice, we e,e*e!es %&s! s!e( !hro&*h !he
see%in*l0 #la! s&r#ace o# !he lookin* *lass and in!o !he !hree)
di%ensional world o# !he Bi$le. The %iracle e%$odied in !his
#ac! is !ha! God willin*l0 s!oo(s !o %ee! $arti%2ar h&%an
$ein*s and (ar!ic&lar *ro&(s o# h&%an $ein*s, wherever he
#inds !he%. I! has alwa0s $een !his wa0. <ha! we hear -oses
!ellin* his new na!ion in !he deser! s(eaks !o !he% on !heir
own #a%iliar *ro&nd. Ce addresses !he% in !er%s a((ro(ria!e
!o !he (oli!ical cli%a!e o# !he Near Eas! in !he %id)second
%illenni&%. B0 !he !i%e Jes&s a((ears in Galilee, h&ndreds o#
0ears la!er, %&ch has !rans(ired. Jes&s now rein!er(re!s
-oses %essa*e #or a new c&l!&ral si!&a!ion, and we have !his
rein!er(re!a!ion in !he Ser%on on !he -o&n! ;-a!!hew KLO@.
As c&l!&res chan*e, so does !he sha(e o# !he %essa*e. God
%ee!s h&%an $ein*s where he #inds !he%, and we can see !his
(rocess in !he ver0 (a*es o# !he Bi$le i!sel#. +e!s consider so%e
wa0s !his d0na%ic (la0s i!sel# o&! in !he e,e*esis o# !he New
Tes!a%en!.
).3.1 The Septua%int as a (ultural (onte$t
The wordin* o# > De!er :'5J s&**es!s !ha! $0 !he !i%e > De!er
was wri!!en, Da&ls le!!ers, or so%e o# !he%, had alread0 $e*&n
!o !ake on !he di*ni!0 o# Scri(!&re. O!herwise, !he Bi$le &sed $0
!he New Tes!a%en! a&!hors is wha! Hhris!ians !oda0 call !he
2Old3 Tes!a%en!. The New Tes!a%en! %essa*e is drenched in
Old Tes!a%en! li!era!&re. -ore s(eci#icall0, !he Bi$le as !he
New Tes!a%en! a&!hors knew i! was &s&all0 !he Old Tes!a%en!
in Greek !ransla!ion, %&ch o# i! co%(le!ed in !he !hird cen!&r0
B.H. and called !he Se(!&a*in! ;a$$revia!ed +TTG se$t2a/inta is
+a!in #or 2seven!03@. The le*end !ha! seven!0 !ransla!ors
(rod&ced i! s&rvives in !he (se&de(i*ra(hical Letter o1
.risteas. The i%(or!ance o# !he +TT #or !he New Tes!a%en!
a&!hors can hardl0 $e e,a**era!ed and cons!i!&!es one o# !he
%os! i%(or!an! ele%en!s in !he con!e,!&aliAa!ion o# New
Tes!a%en! doc&%en!s. .ro% s!ar! !o #inish, !he New
Tes!a%en! si%(l0 ass&%es !he $i$lical s!or0 o# God and his
(eo(le, Israel. All&sions !o !ha! s!or0 a$o&nd in i!s (a*es, and
1&o!a!ions #ro% i! are al%os! alwa0s in !heir +TT #or%.
;S&r(risin*l0 (erha(s, !his i%(lies !ha! #or New Tes!a%en!
e,e*esis !he +TT is even %ore i%(or!an! !han !he Ce$rew Old
Tes!a%en!.@ So%e e,a%(les will ill&s!ra!e !his.
-a!!hews Gos(el, as is well known, %akes #re1&en! a((eal
!o !he #&l#ill%en! o# Old Tes!a%en! (ro(hec0 as a wa0 o#
de%ons!ra!in* Jes&s si*ni#icance ;c#., e.*., -! 5'>>G >'5KG 7'5OG
5>'5O@. This #ac! i%(lies !ha! s&ch a !ac!ic wo&ld i%(ress
-a!!hews in!ended readers, !ha! !he0 wo&ld $e #a%iliar wi!h
and venera!e !he so&rce o# !hese 1&o!a!ions. Cowever,
-a!!hew does no! res!ric! hi%sel# !o 1&o!a!ions alone. In
cha(!er one, #ollowin* his hi*hl0 s!0liAed version o# Jes&s
*enealo*0, -a!!hew narra!es !he s!ran*e circ&%s!ances o#
Jes&s $ir!h ;-! 5'57L>K@. <oven in!o his acco&n! are several
de#! li!erar0 all&sions !o !he Genesis s!or0 o# A$raha% and !he
$ir!h o# Isaac. These all&sions c&l%ina!e a! -a!!hew 5'>5 wi!h
a nearl0 ver$a!i% a((ro(ria!ion o# Genesis 5O'6 +TT !o Jose(h,
-ar0s $e!ro!hedG in !he Genesis (assa*e, !he +ord !ells
A$raha% !ha! Sarah, his wi#e, will $ear hi% a son. I%(lied in
-a!!hews s&$!le all&sions and in his a((lica!ion o# !his Old
Tes!a%en! (assa*e !o Jose(h is !he e,(ec!a!ion !ha! !he
ori*inal readers will 2*e!3 !he all&sion and see Jes&s as, a%on*
o!her !hin*s, !he son o# A$raha% (ar e,cellence ;c#. -! 5'5@.
The0 will &nders!and Jes&s as !he &l!i%a!e 2seed3 o# A$raha%,
!hro&*h who% all !he na!ions o# !he world will $e $lessed $0
A$raha%s God ;as (ro%ised in Gen >>'57G >J'8, e!c.@.
Si%(l0 $eca&se i! co%(rises !hree)1&ar!ers o# !he Hhris!ian
Bi$le, !he Old Tes!a%en! has i!s own le*i!i%a!e clai% on o&r
a!!en!ion, de%andin* !o $e &nders!ood as Gods con!e,!&aliAed
word in i!s own ri*h!. B&! in a !rea!%en! o# New Tes!a%en!
e,e*e!ical %e!hod like !his one, !he Old Tes!a%en! $eco%es
one ;or !hir!0)nine/@ o# !he (ri%ar0 !e,!s #or !he s!&d0 o# New
Tes!a%en! his!orical)c&l!&ral $ack*ro&nd, (erha(s !he %os!
si*ni#ican! o# all (ri%ar0 !e,!s. -an0 o# &s who #eel called !o
!he e,e*e!ical !ask $&! have no! *rown &( in a $i$licall0 li!era!e
social con!e,! will need !ools and hel(s #or !he 4o$. Besides
readin* !he Old Tes!a%en!, one o# !he %os! (rod&c!ive !hin*s
we can do is !o ac1&ire !he ha$i! o# cons&l!in* an Old
Tes!a%en! concordance, one #or !he +TT in #ac!, whenever we
s!&d0 !he New Tes!a%en!. This (rocess $eco%es in#ini!el0
%ore do)a$le wi!h vario&s elec!ronic, co%(&!er)$ased
(ro*ra%s dedica!ed !o $i$lical and rela!ed !e,!s. Ela$ora!e
searches can $e desi*ned !o #ind s(eci#ic (laces in !he Old
Tes!a%en! !ha! (rovide i%%edia!e or *eneral $ack*ro&nd !o
so%e re%ark o# Da&ls or !o an all&sion in +&ke.
>
Honsider -a!!hew :'5, which $e*ins wi!h !he words c c
i ci 2and in !hose da0s.3 Since !hese words
i%%edia!el0 #ollow -a!!hews acco&n! o# Jes&s in#anc0, we
%i*h! na!&rall0 !hink !ha! !he e,(ression 2!hose da0s3 re#ers !o
!ha! earl0 (eriod o# Jes&s li#e, when Jose(h !ook !he $o0 and
his %o!her !o live in NaAare!h ;-! >'56L>:@. The (hrase,
however, in!rod&ces !he a((earance o# John !he Ba(!is! in !he
deser!, so%e !wen!0 0ears or %ore a#!er !he even!s narra!ed in
-a!!hew >. <ha!, !hen, does !he (hrase %ean hereI An
elec!ronic concordance search o# !he +TT #or !his Greek (hrase
;%in&s !he 2and3@ !&rns &( a lon* lis! o# !e,!s. -an0 o# !he%
co%e #ro% !he (ro(he!ic $ooks, and all o# !hese (ro(he!ic
occ&rrences &se !he (hrase !o re#er !o !he dawn o# !he lon*)
e,(ec!ed %essianic a*e. Ceres 4&s! one e,a%(le, Jere%iah
K?'>? ;\ Jer >O'>? in !he +TT@' 2In t+ose !ays and a! !ha! !i%e,
sa0s !he +ORD, !he ini1&i!0 o# Israel shall $e so&*h!, and !here
shall $e noneG and !he sins o# J&dah, and none shall $e #o&ndG
#or I will (ardon !he re%nan! !ha! I have s(ared.3 As an o(ener
!o !he s!or0 o# 4&s! how Jes&s does 2save his (eo(le #ro% !heir
>

Three o# !he %ore (o(&lar (ro*ra%s are availa$le #ro% GRA-HORD,
Bi$le<orks and +o*os. UR+s #or !heir res(ec!ive we$si!es are as #ollows'
Ewww.*ra%cord.co%FG Ewww.$i$leworks.co%FG Ewww.lo*os.co%F.
sins3 ;-! 5'>5@, !hese !hree words ;#ive in Greek@ co&ld hardl0
have $een $e!!er chosen. -a!!hews #irs! readers wo&ld likel0
have reco*niAed !he% and !heir si*ni#icance in %&ch !he sa%e
wa0 as we %i*h! reco*niAe !he all&sion and si*ni#icance o# !he
words, 2A horse/ A horse/ -0 kin*do% #or a horse/3
Never!heless, !he in!rod&c!ion !o -a!!hew : is los! on &s !oda0
&nless we !ake !he e,!ra e##or! !o ac1&ain! o&rselves wi!h !he
+TT con!e,!. <e *e! !he sa%e res&l!s, %ore or less, #ro%
searchin* an NRS" concordance
:
#or Old Tes!a%en!
occ&rrences o# !he (hrase 2in !hose da0s.3
).3.2 "a%anis& as a (ultural (onte$t
-an0 Gen!iles in an!i1&i!0 were #a%iliar wi!h Jewish
Scri(!&re, whe!her !hro&*h e,(os&re !o i! in !he s0na*o*&es o#
!he Dias(ora or !hro&*h $eco%in* %e%$ers o# !he earl0
ch&rch. Never!heless, li!erar0 %ane&vers like !he ones in
-a!!hew 5'>5 and :'5 wo&ld (ro$a$l0 have %ade li!!le sense !o
!he ori*inall0 in!ended readers o# cer!ain o!her New Tes!a%en!
doc&%en!s. As I %en!ioned a$ove, !he (rolo*&e !o !he Gos(el
o# John reads like a correc!ive !o *nos!iciAin* in!er(re!a!ions o#
Jes&s and his work. Toda0 we so%e!i%es #ollow John in
s(eakin* o# Jes&s as !he Lo/os, or !he 2<ord,3 and !ha! e(i!he!
%a0 rin* dee(l0 !heolo*ical in o&r ears, even !ho&*h %os! o#
o&r a&diences will no! reall0 know wha! we are !alkin* a$o&!
when we s(eak !his wa0, an0 %ore (erha(s !han we do
o&rselves. 9e! Johns #irs! readersB%os!l0 Gen!ile Hhris!iansB
:
E.*., John R. =ohlen$er*er III, @+e 0*7V 3on%or!an%e 6na"ri!/e!#
In%2!in/ .$o%ry$+a5De2tero%anoni%a Boo-s ;Grand Ra(ids'
Zondervan, 5665@.
were enor%o&sl0 concerned wi!h wha! !he0 &nders!ood !he
&niverse !o $e like and !heir (lace in i!. In !heir %inds, !he
+o*osBa sor! o# divine e%ana!ion char*ed wi!h r&nnin* !he
&niverseB(la0ed a (ro#o&nd role in !he o&!workin* o# !heir
(ersonal des!inies. ;The ancien! 2her%e!ic3 $ook
*ives so%e li*h! on !his.@ To hear now !ha! !he +o*os had
$eco%e a h&%an $ein* and lived a%on* !he% wo&ld have had
#ar)reachin* i%(lica!ions #or !he%.
8
The (oin!, a*ain, is !ha! !he %ore we &nders!and a$o&! !he
vario&s wa0s ancien! Jewish and Greco)Ro%an (eo(le !ho&*h!
a$o&! !he world and in!erac!ed wi!h each o!her wi!hin and
across c&l!&ral lines, !he $e!!er we will &nders!and !he New
Tes!a%en!. And !he $e!!er we &nders!and !he New Tes!a%en!,
!he %ore ade1&a!el0 we as !eachers o# !he ch&rch will $e a$le
!o (roclai% Gods ancien! %essa*e a((ro(ria!el0 !o
con!e%(orar0 c&l!&res. <e are no! in !his alone, o# co&rse, $&!
!he res(onsi$ili!0 does lie wi!h &s !o $e alwa0s in#or%in*
o&rselves. O&r role as #ai!h#&l she(herds o# Gods #lock
de%ands i!. And one o# !he %os! e,ci!in* and ill&%ina!in*
!echni1&es #or $eco%in* #&r!her ac1&ain!ed wi!h !he New
Tes!a%en!s c&l!&ral $ack*ro&nd involves access !o and !he
a$ili!0 !o s!&d0 !he +TT, or a! leas! !he Old Tes!a%en!.
8

2<ord3)!heolo*0 was also known in Jewish circles. Dhilo o#
Ale,andria and cer!ain Ara%aic (ara(hrases o# !he Old Tes!a%en!
;!ar*&%s, (erha(s da!in* !o !he #irs! cen!&r0 or earlier@ s(eak o# !he 2<ord
o# God3 as an a*en! o# crea!ion. Evans ci!es !hese so&rces as e,a%(les o# !he
val&e (ri%ar0 li!era!&re has #or New Tes!a%en! e,e*esis ;0on%anoni%a
Writin/s, (. K@.
).3.3 =oca.ulary as a (ultural (onte$t
I# !he Old Tes!a%en!, es(eciall0 !he +TT, is an o$vio&s c&l!&ral
$ackdro( !o !he New Tes!a%en!, even %ore o$vio&s in !his
re*ard is !he lan*&a*e in which !he New Tes!a%en! is wri!!en.
A ver0 si*ni#ican! ele%en! in New Tes!a%en! lan*&a*e is !he
voca$&lar0 i!s wri!ers had !o work wi!h. Ironicall0, however,
!he voca$&lar0 o# !he Greek New Tes!a%en! has $een
si%&l!aneo&sl0 one o# !he %os! ea*erl0 inves!i*a!ed #ields o# i!s
his!orical)c&l!&ral $ack*ro&nd and one o# !he %os! a$&sed.
Dreachers and !eachers o# !he Bi$le #re1&en!l0 a((eal !o
2wha! i! sa0s in !he Greek,3 in order !o add a&!hori!0 and
in!eres! !o !heir (resen!a!ions. Now I a% #ir%l0 co%%i!!ed !o
!he val&e o# &sin* !he Greek !e,! o# !he New Tes!a%en! in
carr0in* o&! e,e*esis. None!heless, !here are dan*ers !o avoid.
Hhie# a%on* !hese is !he !e%(!a!ion !o i%(ress !he &nini!ia!ed
wi!h o&r (rowess ;or a((aren! (rowess@ in &sin* Greek. .or
%an0 (eo(le in !he (ews, hearin* !he (as!or (re#ace a
(rono&nce%en! wi!h !he words, 2In !he Greek i! sa0s,3 is
!an!a%o&n! !o hearin* -oses (roclai%, 2Th&s sa0s !he +ord/3
<hile we do indeed wan! !o hear wha! !he +ord sa0s ;!ha! is
!he (oin! o# e,e*esis, a#!er all@, we need !o re%e%$er !ha!
e,e*esis is a co%%&ni!0 (ro4ec!, no! !he sole res(onsi$ili!0 o#
one (erson. B0 silencin* all disc&ssion !hro&*h an a((eal !o
2!he Greek,3 even wi!ho&! in!endin* !o do so, we e##ec!ivel0
shor!)circ&i! !he co%%&ni!0s ac!ive (ar!ici(a!ion in !he
(rocess. Add !o !ha! !he ver0 s!ron* (ossi$ili!0 !ha! o&r solo
readin* o# 2!he Greek3 %a0 si%(l0 $e wron*.
One co%%on reason #or %is&sin* Greek in e,e*esis is !he
#ascina!ion s!&den!s, (as!ors and scholars o#!en #eel #or !he
wa0 in which Greek voca$&lar0 2reveals3 hidden %eanin*s.
-an0 (reachers have !old !heir (eo(le !ha! !he Greek word #or
2ch&rch,3 ciiq, %eans !he 2called)o&! ones.3 The0 have
!his i%(ression $eca&se !he0 can iden!i#0 !wo (ar!s !o !he
word' ci 2o&!3 and -iq, a deriva!ive o# !he ver$ i 2!o
call.3 9e!, nowhere in Greek li!era!&re does !he !er% ever %ean
2!he called)o&! ones.3 A*ain, we %a0 %arvel over !he #o&r
se(ara!e Greek words #or 2love,3 or ass&%e !ha! !he (le!hora o#
Greek (re(osi!ions i%(lies %in&!el0 e,ac! n&ances o#
%eanin*, discerni$le onl0 $0 !he !rained e,e*e!e. I have heard
a (as!or insis! !ha! !he (re(osi!ion 2in!o,3 when &sed in !he
(hrase u X 2I $elieve in TtoU Hhris!,3 i%(lies !he
%0s!ical &nion $e!ween !he $eliever and Hhris!. So%ehow, $0
$elievin*, we en!er into Hhris!. This rela!ionshi( $e!ween
$elievers and Hhris! %a0 in #ac! $e 4&s!i#ia$l0 s&((or!ed on
o!her *ro&nds, $&! !his &se o# !he (re(osi!ion $0 no %eans
i%(lies i!, as ano!her occ&rrence o# u can show ;5 Jn
K'5?$@.
.ollowin* a s&%%er !ri( %0 wi#e and I !ook !o Sweden, one
o# %0 co&sins !here wro!e !o &s in En*lish !o sa0 !ha! he ho(ed
we wo&ld soon re!&rn and 2!ake a $a!h3 wi!h hi% a*ain. Even i#
we allow #or cer!ain ele%en!s o# Swedens na!ional re(&!a!ion,
!his is not wha! he %ean!. The Swedish ver$ "a!a,
e!0%olo*icall0 rela!ed !o En*lish "at+ and "at+e, is a co%%on
word #or 2swi%,3 !ho&*h i! can also re#er !o !akin* a $a!h,
con!rar0 !o !he En*lish swi&. The voca$&lar0 s!ocks o#
Swedish and En*lish, while so%ewha! rela!ed, do no! nea!l0
overla(. -0 co&sins invi!a!ion %i*h! have %ade %ore sense !o
a Bri!ish s(eaker, es(eciall0 i# he had said, 2*o $a!hin* wi!h
%e.3 This is $eca&se even Bri!ish and A%erican En*lish do no!
(er#ec!l0 corres(ond in !he dis!ri$&!ion o# voca$&lar0.
2=nickers3 wen! o&! o# #ashion in A%erica in !he 56:?s,
whereas hal# o# all Bri!ons s!ill wear !he%, or so%e!hin* else $0
!ha! na%e.
RealiAin* !his si%(le #ac! a$o&! lan*&a*es hel(s &s !o
overco%e !he i%(ression !ha! so%ehow New Tes!a%en! Greek
words are #&ll o# s(ecial, hidden %eanin*s. <ha! we do need !o
reco*niAe a$o&! Greek voca$&lar0 is no! i!s hidden %0s!eries,
$&! i!s his!orical)c&l!&ral relevance !o !he %essa*e o# !he New
Tes!a%en!. Transla!in* or readin* a selec!ion o# !he Greek New
Tes!a%en! is no %ore %0s!erio&s !han !ransla!in* or readin* a
!e,! in Swedish, S(anish, .rench, Ger%an or Ja(anese, and
o#!en a lo! ess %0s!erio&s !han !ransla!in* a (la0 $0 E&ri(ides
or one o# Dla!os dialo*&es. I# we have no! learned !he relevan!
lan*&a*e ade1&a!el0, however, we will need !o &se s(ecial !ools
#or !he 4o$, one o# !he %os! &se#&l $ein* a le,icon. The word
exi%on is a !echnical !er% #or !he lis! o# voca$&lar0 i!e%s
availa$le !o s(eakers o# a (ar!ic&lar lan*&a*e, !o*e!her wi!h a
descri(!ion o# !heir !0(ical ;conven!ional@ &se. Na!ive s(eakers
o# a lan*&a*e carr0 !heirs aro&nd in !heir headsG non)na!ive
s(eakers *rad&all0 ac1&ire addi!ional 2%en!al3 le,ica !o
var0in* de*rees o# #&llness, $&! !he0 o#!en &se a (rin!ed version
o# !he le,icon ;so%e!i%es callin* i! a 2dic!ionar03@. This is
where all s!&den!s o# New Tes!a%en! Greek #ind !he%selves,
since !here are no s&rvivin* na!ive s(eakers o# !ha! lan*&a*e.
ANGE;S L2;?ING IN W=; ST2<
Ja%es Barrs e(och)endin* $ook @+e 7e&anti%s o1 Bi"i%a
Lan/2a/e ;O,#ord' O,#ord Universi!0 Dress, 56J5@ %ade
$i$lical scholars (ain#&ll0 aware o# !he %an0 lin*&is!ic (i!#alls
s&rro&ndin* !he s!&d0 o# $i$lical words. "ario&s a&!hors since
!hen have $ased !heir advice on Barrs work. Dar!ic&larl0
hel(#&l are !he #ollowin*' D. A. Harson, 'xe/eti%a 4aa%ies,
>nd ed. ;Grand Ra(ids' Baker, 566J@, cha(. 5G D. A. Black,
Lin/2isti%s 1or 7t2!ents o1 0ew @esta&ent Gree-# . 72rvey o1
Basi% 3on%e$ts an! .$$i%ations, >nd ed. ;Grand Ra(ids'
Baker, >???@, cha(. KG and -. Silva, Bi"i%a Wor!s an! @+eir
;eanin/# .n Intro!2%tion to Lexi%a 7e&anti%s, rev. and e,(.
ed. ;Grand Ra(ids' Zondervan, 566K@. Cere are Barrs %ain
warnin*s ;consider !his a side)Barr@'
1. +*oid the dan%ers of ety&olo%i5in%.
E!0%olo*0 is !he s!&d0 o# words #ro% !he (ers(ec!ive o# !heir
roo! #or%s and !heir his!orical &sa*e.
Y Avoid searchin* #or !he 2$asic,3 2roo!,3 or 2ori*inal3
%eanin* o# a wordBas i# i! were discovera$le or as i# i! were
relevan! even i# discovered.
Y Avoid dividin* words in!o !heir co%(onen! (ar!s and !hen
addin* !he% &( a*ain !o arrive a! !he 2real3 %eanin*.
Y Do no! ass&%e !ha! onl0 e!0%olo*icall0 rela!ed words are
relevan! !o each o!her. +o&w and Nidas 2do%ain3
dic!ionar0 *oes a *rea! wa0 !oward rec!i#0in* !his error in
!radi!ional dic!ionaries and word s!&dies.
2. +*oid %ettin% lan%ua%e structure confused ,ith
thou%ht structure.
Y Wit+ res$e%t to a an/2a/eCs sto%- o1 vo%a"2ary' The #ac!
!ha! !he Greeks had !wo !er%s #or #lesh and $od0, ( and
d, while Ce$rew had onl0 one, , does no! i%(l0
!ha! !he Ce$rews saw no dis!inc!ion $e!ween !he $od0 and
i!s cons!i!&!ive %a!erial.
Y Wit+ res$e%t to a an/2a/eCs /ra&&ati%a str2%t2re' God
is no! #e%inine si%(l0 $eca&se !he Ce$rew !er%
2s(iri!3 is *ra%%a!icall0 #e%inineG nor is he %asc&line
$eca&se he is re#erred !o wi!h a %asc&line (rono&n.
3. +*oid %ettin% concepts confused ,ith the ,ords
that refer to the&.
<ords re1er !o conce(!sG !he0 do no! %ontain !he%. The word
O 2*od3 in !he New Tes!a%en! &eans !he sa%e !hin* !here
as i! does in Dla!o, 2s&(erna!&ral, divine $ein*.3 I!s re1eren%e,
howeverBwha! ;or who%@ i! re#ers !oBis di##eren! in !he New
Tes!a%en! #ro% wha! i! is in Dla!o. Da&l and Jes&s &se !he
word !o re#er !o !he God o# IsraelG Dla!o (res&%a$l0 did no!.
*e1eren%e and &eanin/ are !wo di##eren! !hin*s.
S(ecial dan*ers in !his ca!e*or0 incl&de
Y The Mie/iti&ate totaity trans1er.O This ha((ens when we
look &( ever0 occ&rrence o#, sa0, 2#lesh3 and ass&%e !ha!
!he s&% !o!al o# all i!s (ossi$le %eanin*s is (resen! in i!s
ever0 occ&rrence.
Y The Mie/iti&ate i!entity trans1er.O This ha((ens when we
ass&%e !ha! $eca&se !wo i!e%s are re#erred !o $0 !he sa%e
word, !he0 are essen!iall0 !he sa%e conce(!. Or we %a0
ass&%e !he reverse, !ha! $eca&se one i!e% is re#erred !o $0
several words, !hose words all have essen!iall0 !he sa%e
%eanin*, or !ha! !he0 alwa0s re#er !o !he sa%e conce(!.
!. +*oid i%norin% conte$t.
Y In *eneral, !he %eanin* o# a *iven word in a *iven con!e,!
will $e t+e si&$est &eanin/Ft+e east 12 &eanin/F
necessar0 #or !he word !o %ake sense in !ha! con!e,!, e,ce(!
in !he case o# a (&n. Tha! is, we can &se !he con!e,! !o
eli%ina!e all (ossi$le senses $&! one #or a (o!en!iall0
a%$i*&o&s i!e%.
Y Tha! is, #ro% !he ran*e o# a words (ossi$le %eanin*s, a
sin*le con!e,! will selec! !he one i! re1&ires and eli%ina!e
all !he o!hers.
Y To s&% &(' Hon!e,! eli%ina!es (ossi$le %eanin*s.
So !hen, $eca&se !he a&!hors o# !he New Tes!a%en!
doc&%en!s needed !o wri!e !heir %essa*es in !he co%%on
Greek ;called @ o# !he #irs! cen!&r0, !he0 had !o e,(ress
wha! !he0 wan!ed !o sa0 !hro&*h !he voca$&lar0 availa$le !o
!he% in !ha! lan*&a*e. I# !he0 wished !heir readers !o
&nders!and !he %essa*es !he0 sen!, !he0 were &nder an
o$li*a!ion !o &se words #a%iliar !o !heir readers and !o &se
!he% in wa0s reco*niAa$le !o !hose readers. This does no!
%ean !he0 co&ld no! $e crea!ive in !heir &se o# !hose words, or
even (erha(s coin new words #or !heir s(eci#ic (&r(oses. I!
does %ean, however, !ha! !heir crea!ivi!0 in !his re*ard co&ld
no! e,ceed !he li%i!s o# ordinar0 in!elli*i$ili!0 i# !he0 wished
!heir %essa*es !o re%ain in!elli*i$le. ;So%e %odern
!heolo*ians and (hiloso(hers have a((aren!l0 no! *ras(ed !his
(rinci(le/@
A *ood le,icon is desi*ned !o assis! !he non)na!ive s(eaker
in &nders!andin* !e,!s. .or o&r (&r(oses, we need a *ood
le,icon #or !he New Tes!a%en!, and #or En*lish s(eakers none
!oda0 s&r(asses !he !hird edi!ion o# <. Ba&ers . Gree--
'n/is+ Lexi%on o1 t+e 0ew @esta&ent an! Ot+er 'ary
3+ristian Literat2re.
K
This !ool, co%%onl0 re#erred !o as
BDAG ;s!andin* #or edi!ors Ba&er, Danker, Arnd! and
Gin*rich@, (acks a s!a**erin* a%o&n! o# in#or%a!ion on ever0
!er% a((earin* in !he New Tes!a%en! and on %an0 o!hers
$esides. As wi!h an0 !ool, i! $ehooves !he &ser !o s!&d0 !he
ins!r&c!ions $e#ore &seG i! is also wor!h reviewin* !he% #ro%
!i%e !o !i%e as !he 0ears *o $0.
B
DAGs desi*n is !0(ical #or a
dic!ionar0G i! or*aniAes !he voca$&lar0 al(ha$e!icall0, and
wi!hin !he ar!icle on a (ar!ic&lar voca$&lar0 i!e% i! arran*es all
!he da!a in a lo*ical wa0. <e can see a! a *lance how a word
was &sed and wha! i! %ean! in vario&s con!e,!sG so%e words,
like ( 2#lesh,3 occ&r in several di##eren! senses. Re#erences
!o New Tes!a%en! (assa*es in which a word occ&rs a((ear in
$old (rin! #or eas0 iden!i#ica!ion ;a $i* i%(rove%en! over earl0
edi!ions o# !he $ook@. See #i*&re K.5 #or sa%(le en!ries #ro%
BDAG ill&s!ra!in* !hese #ea!&res.
Ano!her sor! o# le,icon is !he se%an!ic do%ain dic!ionar0
edi!ed $0 Johannes +o&w and E&*ene A. Nida.
J
In !his work
!he Greek voca$&lar0 o# !he New Tes!a%en! is or*aniAed in!o
2se%an!ic do%ains,3 or #ields o# %eanin*, ra!her !han
al(ha$e!icall0. .or e,a%(le, ins!ead o# lis!in* !o*e!her in one
ar!icle !he several di##eren! senses o# (, !he do%ain
dic!ionar0 *a!hers !o*e!her all o# !he voca$&lar0 i!e%s
K

<. Ba&er, . Gree--'n/is+ Lexi%on o1 t+e 0ew @esta&ent an! Ot+er
'ary 3+ristina Literat2re, ed. .. Danker, :rd ed. ;Hhica*o' Universi!0 o#
Hhica*o Dress, >???@.
BDAG S!andin* #or edi!ors Ba&er, Danker, Arnd! and Gin*rich
J

J. D. +o&w and E. A. Nida, Gree--'n/is+ Lexi%on o1 t+e 0ew
@esta&ent Base! on 7e&anti% Do&ains, >nd ed., > vols. ;New 9ork' UBS,
5676@.
a((ro(ria!e !o a (ar!ic&lar #ield o# %eanin*, #or e,a%(le,
2#lesh,3 or 2h&%an $ein*.3 These voca$&lar0 i!e%s can $e
ver$s, no&ns, ad4ec!ives, s0non0%s or an!on0%s, *eneral !er%s
or s(eci#ic. The vario&s do%ain)cen!ered ar!icles !hen disc&ss
how !he words collec!ed &nder a do%ain in!errela!e wi!h one
ano!her. Th&s !he word (, $eca&se i! has so %an0 di##eren!
%eanin*s, a((ears in nine di##eren! (laces !hro&*ho&! !he
dic!ionar0. ;Greek and En*lish inde,es *&ide &sers in #indin*
!heir wa0 aro&nd.@ This a((roach !o 2le,ico*ra(h03 s!ands on
!he convic!ion !ha! !he %eanin* o# a !er% occ&rrin* in a *iven
con!e,! is (ar!l0 de#ined $0 !he o!her words !ha! were availa$le
#or !ha! con!e,! $&! were re4ec!ed ;conscio&sl0 or no!@ $0 !he
s(eaker or wri!er. I! can o#!en $e (ro#o&ndl0 ill&%ina!in* !o
know wha! Da&l &i/+t have said, $&! did no! sa0, wha! words
he %i*h! have &sed $&! did no! &se. +o&w and Nida hel( &s !o
see wha! !hose al!erna!ive words %i*h! have $een. .i*&re K.>
re(rod&ces !he se%an!ic do%ain o# 2#or*iveness,3 as de#ined
$0 !he +o&w)Nida dic!ionar0.
ii ;s. !wo ne,! en!ries@ %id. de(.G #&!. i +TTG 5 aor.
(ass. i%(v. iOq ;in %id. %n*. iOq +TT@ ;Co%. e! al.G insG
+TT QThackera0 >O?#SG s. also Dodd and Cill, $elow@.
" to cause to be fa7orably incline3 or 3is*ose3>
propitiate0 conciliate ;Il. 5, 5?? A(olloG Cd!. K, 8O, > an o##ended
Ol0%(ic vic!orG 7, 55>, : The%is!oclesG S!ra$o 8, 8, J o OG
Horn&!&s :8 (. O:, KG Ceracli!. S!o. 5J (. >8, 6 o +G A((ian,
Sa%n. 5> ]J, Cann. >O ] 55K Ou i. _i i. . OuG Cer%. <r. 5,
>>G Dhilo, S(ec. +e*. 5, 55JG Jos., An!. J, 5>8 o Oo i.G 7, 55>, H. A(.
5, :?7 i. OuG Si$Or :, J>KG J>7@. Dass.' o# one addressed in
(ra0er, !o ac! as one who has $een concilia!ed, $&! wi!h #oc&s on !he
ini!ia!ive o# !he one who #&nc!ions !h&s' "e $ro$itiate!, "e &er%i12
or /ra%io2s ;8 =% >8'8G +a :'8>G Da 6'56 Theod.@ w. da!. ;o#
advan!a*e, Es!h 8'5Oh iOq . i uG c(. also Ds O7'6@
iOq ( e( ;da!. o# advan!a*e@ +ave &er%y on &e,
sinner t+at I a& LA "6."5 ;S$ 7K55, O Qins, i%(erial !i%esS O ,
m0 Qa divini!0S@G GJs K'5 ;!wiceG in !he #irs! ins!ance (erh. wi!h
in#. #oll., s. deS!r0cker >76 n. >@.BB)D). ]:58.
( to eli)inate i)*e3i)ents t$at alienate t$e 3eity>
e$piate0 ,ipe out, o# Hhris! as hi*h (ries! o iiO
e 0 0 to ex$iate t+e sins o1 t+e $eo$e @b (."+ ;so -#!.
QNRS" ^%ake a sacri#ice o# a!one%en!S c(. SIG 5?8>, 5K# Q\IG
II
>
,5:JJG IINIII ADS e o mq 1u [ uq
c(O ^le! hi% $e lia$le !o -en T0rranos #or a sin he can have
no ho(e o# e,(ia!in* Qc(. 5=% :'58G on !his ins s. New Docs :, no. JSG
Ds J8'8 e i.G Dss%., NB K> QBS >>KSG Bre0!en$ach 67@.B
HDodd, JTS :>, :5, :K>LJ?G also Dodd 7>L6K on i. and rela!ed
words ;a*ains! Dodd' +-orris, ET J>, K5, >>OL::G RNicole, <TJ 5O,
KK, 55OLKOG in s&((or!' N9o&n*, EvX KK, 7:, 5J6LOJ@G S+0onne!,
"er$&% Do%ini :O, K6, ::JLK>, Sin, Rede%(!ion and Sacri#ice, O?,
5>?LJJ, >KJLJ5G DCill, Gk. <ords and Ce$rew -n*s. JO, >:L87G
=Gre0s!one, 1iO and Rela!ed <ords in !he +TT' NTS >O, 75,
J8?LKJG GCorsle0, New Docs, :, >K ;on Gra0S!one and Cill@G
J.i!A%0er, ^Reconcilia!ion in Da&line Theolo*0, in' No .a%ine in !he
+and ;-c=enAie .es!schr.@ OK, 5KKLOOG J+&nce#ord, An Cis!orical
and E,e*e!ical In1&ir0 in!o !he NT -eanin* o# !he 1AA5lOmAl
Ho*na!es, diss. Ba0lor O6G HBre0!en$ach, "ers_hn&n* 76.BDE+G.
-)-. T<. Sv.
i, 0, o ;s. (rec. and ne,! en!r0@B" a**ease)ent
neccessitate3 by sin> e$piation ;d Od Or(h., Ar*. :6G Dl&!.,
.a$. 57, :G c(. Dl&!., Sol. 5>, K. In !hese cases we have !he (l., (ro$.
re#errin* !o !he individ&al ac!ions !o $e e,(ia!ed. B&! also s*.G Dl&!.,
-or. KJ?d, Ha%ill. O, KG +ev >K'6G Ds 5>6'8G Dhilo, +e*. All. :, 5O8@
i. c 1or &y ex$iation GJs 5'5G so (erh. a$s!r. #or concr. o# Jes&s as
!he i. . ed d "- (.(B 4."C# B&! %n*. > has $een
(o(&lar.
( instru)ent for a**easing> sacrifice to atone0 sin>
offerin% ;EAk 88'>O u i. c(. N&% K'7G > -acc :'::@ s.
a$ove.BS. also li!. ci!ed s.v. ii. DE+G s.v. ii 5. -)-.
T<.
i, u, ;s&$s!. ne&!. o# i QD.a0 ::O I, :##BII ADG
8 -acc 5O'>>G Jos., An!. 5J, 57>SG s. (rec. !wo en!ries@. In Gr)Ro%. li!.
!ha! which serves as an ins!r&%en! #or re*ainin* !he *oodwill o# a
dei!0G concr. a ^%eans o# (ro(i!ia!ion or e,(ia!ion, *i#! !o (roc&re
e,(ia!ion ;I=osDC, 75, :8O o c Ai l
O0 ui0 50 q Oi iG Hhron+ind B 86 AO
iG Dio Hhr0s. 5? Q55S, 5>5. The %n*. is &ncer!ain in DO,0
567K, 55@.
" &eans of e$piation, o# Hhris!, o O o Oo i
w+o& Go! set 1ort+ as a &eans o1 ex$iation ;o 5.(: ;so REBG c(.
HBre0!en$ach, "ers_hn&n*, 76, 5J7 Qs. $elowSG di##!. G.i!Aer, TZ >>,
JJ, 5J5L7: and NRS" ^sacri#ice o# a!one%en!@. The &ni1&e #ea!&re
rela!ive !o Gr)Ro%. &sa*e is !he ini!ia!ive !aken $0 God !o e##ec!
re%oval o# i%(edi%en!s !o a rela!ionshi( wi!h Gods sel#. In !his
(ass. i. has also $een !aken !o %ean
( place of propitiation ;as EAk 8:'58, 5O, >?G c(. also +&!hers
^Gnadens!&hl, and s. on @b D.: $elow@. #or !his view o# i. ;o 5.(: s.
T-anson, JTS 8J, 8K, 5L5? ;a*ains! hi% Bre0!en$ach 5JO#.@BS. also
Dss%., ZN< 8, 56?:, 56:L>5> ;s. EncBi$l III, :?>OL:K@G D.ie$i* and
G=lein i$id. :85L88G S.raenkel, i$id. K, 56?8, >KO#G HBr&s!on, i$id.
O, 56?J, OOL75G Go!!#=i!!el, S!=r 7?, 56?O, >5OL::G EdaS-arco, Il
(iano divino della sal&!e in Ro :'>5L>J' diss. Ro%e :OG "Ta0lor, ET
K?, :6, >6KL:??G GBar!on, ATR >5, :6, 65#G <Davies, Da&l and
Ra$$inic J&dais%
>
KK, >>OL8>G E+ohse, -`r!0rer &. Go!!esknech!
KKG +-orris, NTS >, KKNKJ, ::L8:G D<hi!ele0, JTS n.s. 7, KO, >8?L
KKG DBaile0, Jes&s as !he -erc0 Sea!' diss. Ha%$rid*e 66 ;ins@.BThe
+TT &ses i. o# !he lid on !he ark o# !he covenan!, , which was
s(rinkled w. !he $lood o# !he sin)o##erin* on !he Da0 o# A!one%en!
;E, >K'5J## al. +ikew. Tes!Sol >5'>G Dhilo, Hher. >K, .&*a 5??, -os. >,
6K.BJS!el%a, Hhris!&s o##er $i4 Dls Qw. DhiloS :7@. So @b D.:,
!ransl. &er%y-seatP #or !he his!or0 o# !his word s. OED s.v.BDE+G
s.v. ii 5. -)- s.v. i. EDNT. T<. Sv.
!igure :#"# Entries for ii an3 relate3 9or3s in &AG
So%e !hin*s !o no!ice' ;5@ Individ&al le,ical en!ries ;!hese are !aken
#ro% ((. 8O:LO8@ and !he co%%on de#ini!ions #or each en!r0 are se!
in $old !0(e. ;>@ Each de#ini!ion is #ollowed $0 i!aliciAed 2*losses,3
i.e., En*lish words !ha! %i*h! $e s&$s!i!&!ed #or !he Greek !er% in a
!ransla!ion. O# co&rse, !his i%(lies !ha! de#ini!ions and *losses,
!ho&*h rela!ed, are no! !he sa%e !hin*. No!e as well !ha! so%e
en!ries have onl0 *losses ;e.*., i@. ;:@ The densel0 (acked
(ara*ra(hs #or each en!r0 con!ain in#or%a!ion on !he his!or0 o# !he
word in Greek li!era!&re, whe!her #ro% !he *ra%%a!ical
;%or(holo*ical@ (oin! o# view ;&s&all0 in !he #irs! (ara*ra(h@, or
#ro% !he se%an!ic (oin! o# view ;&nder each se(ara!e de#ini!ion@.
Usa*e in New Tes!a%en! !e,!s is indica!ed wi!h $old re#erences !o
s(eci#ic (assa*es, which %akes !he% eas0 !o s(o!. ;8@ In addi!ion,
%os! (ara*ra(hs re#er !o a weal!h o# secondar0 li!era!&re on !he
!er% in 1&es!ion. .or !he (&r(oses o# 2(as!oral e,e*esis,3 %&ch o#
!his in#or%a!ion will no! $e needed, $&! #or scholarl0 e,e*esis, i! is o#
enor%o&s hel(. I! is so%e!hin* like !he &n!a((ed (o!en!ial availa$le
!o 0o& in 0o&r *arden ro!o!illerG 0o& %a0 never *e! aro&nd !o &sin* i!
!o !ha!ch 0o&r lawn, $&! !he s(ecial a!!ach%en!s are !here i# 0o& ever
need !he%. ;K@ J&s! $e s&re 0o& read !he ins!r&c!ions $e#ore 0o& &se
!he %achine. .or BDAG, !he ins!r&c!ions and a$$revia!ion lis!s
a((ear in !he #ron! o# !he $ook.
& !orgi7eness ,4C#6/4C#"51
4C#6 eq
#
G d
a
, 1G eu
e
' !o re%ove !he *&il! res&l!in*
#ro% wron*doin*B^!o (ardon, !o #or*ive, #or*iveness.
eq
#
' d i o d ^#or*ive &s !he wron*s !ha! we
have done -! J'5>. d
a
' o i u . o d
ci_u d ed ^%0 $lood P which is (o&red o&!
#or %an0 #or !he #or*iveness o# sins -! >J'>7.
eu
e
' eu, i euOO ^#or*ive and 0o& will $e #or*iven
;$0 God@ +k J':O.
I! is e,!re%el0 i%(or!an! !o no!e !ha! !he #oc&s in !he %eanin*s
o# eq
#
, d
a
, and eu
e
is &(on !he *&il! o# !he wron*doer
and no! &(on !he wron*doin* i!sel#. The even! o# wron*doin* is no!
&ndone, $&! !he *&il! res&l!in* #ro% s&ch an even! is (ardoned. To
#or*ive, !here#ore, %eans essen!iall0 !o re%ove !he *&il! res&l!in*
#ro% wron*doin*.
So%e lan*&a*es %ake a clear dis!inc!ion $e!ween *&il! and sin,
and !er%s #or #or*iveness are !here#ore rela!ed !o *&il! and no! !o !he
wron*doin*. There#ore, ^!o #or*ive sins is li!erall0 ^!o #or*ive *&il!.
Since !er%s #or ^#or*iveness are o#!en li!erall0 ^!o wi(e o&!, ^!o $lo!
o&!, or ^!o do awa0 wi!h, i! is o$vio&sl0 no! (ossi$le !o $lo! o&! or !o
wi(e o&! an even!, $&! i! is (ossi$le !o re%ove or o$li!era!e !he *&il!.
4C#D ii
a
' !o #or*ive, wi!h !he #oc&s &(on !he ins!r&%en!ali!0
or !he %eans $0 which #or*iveness is acco%(lishedB^!o #or*ive.
o iiO e 0 0 ^so !ha! !he (eo(les sins wo&ld $e
#or*iven or ^so !ha! God wo&ld #or*ive !he (eo(les sins Ce >'5O.
4C#"C _
$
' !o #or*ive, on !he $asis o# ones *racio&s a!!i!&de
!oward an individ&alB^!o #or*ive. _O ei uq
^#or*ive %e #or $ein* so &n#air > Hor 5>'5:. I! %a0 $e &se#&l in so%e
ins!ances !o !ransla!e _ in > Hor 5>'5: as ^$e so kind as !o
#or*ive %e.
4C#"" ciu' ;a #i*&ra!ive e,!ension o# %eanin* o# ciu
^!o cover over, !o (&! a coverin* on, no! occ&rin* in !he NT@ !o ca&se
sin !o $e #or*ivenB^!o #or*ive, !o ca&se #or*iveness. i . d
ciuOq i e ^how ha((0 are P !hose whose sins are
#or*iven Ro 8'O.
4C#"( i, 0 &G i
a
, u n' !he %eans $0 which sins are
#or*ivenB^!he %eans o# #or*iveness, e,(ia!ion.
i: o i c d ed d ^;Hhris!@ hi%sel#
is !he %eans $0 which o&r sins are #or*iven 5 Jn >'>.
i
a
' o O o Oo i ^God o##ered
hi% as a %eans $0 which sins are #or*iven !hro&*h #ai!h ;in hi%@ Ro
:'>K.
Tho&*h so%e !radi!ional !ransla!ions render i as
^(ro(i!ia!ion, !his involves a wron* in!er(re!a!ion o# !he !er% in
1&es!ion. Dro(i!ia!ion is essen!iall0 a (rocess $0 which one does a
#avor !o a (erson in order !o %ake hi% or her #avora$l0 dis(osed, $&!
in !he NT God is never !he o$4ec! o# (ro(i!ia!ion since he is alread0
on !he side o# (eo(le. i and i
a
deno!e !he %eans o#
#or*iveness and no! (ro(i!ia!ion.
4C#"5 i
$
, u n' !he loca!ion or (lace where sins are
#or*iven ;in !radi!ional !ransla!ions rendered ^%erc0 sea!@B^(lace o#
#or*iveness, (lace where sins are #or*iven. c Xu
(q ii o i ^a$ove !he $o, were !he *lorio&s
win*ed crea!&res s(readin* !heir win*s over !he (lace where sins are
#or*iven Ce 6'K.
!igure :#(# T$e Ne9 Testa)ent se)antic 3o)ain of
%forgi7eness>' accor3ing to Lou9-Ni3a# ,2se3 by
*er)ission#1
So%e !hin*s !o no!ice' ;5@ +o&w)Nida (ri%aril0 serves !hose who
!ransla!e !he New Tes!a%en! in!o !he lan*&a*es o# re%o!e (eo(le
*ro&(s. -&ch o# !he disc&ssion in !he do%ain dic!ionar0 re#lec!s !his
;no!ice !he second and !hird (ara*ra(hs &nder 8?.7@. ;>@ The
e,a%(le shown here ;#ro% +o&w)Nida, ((. 5.K?:L8@ re(resen!s !he
nine New Tes!a%en! Greek !er%s !ha! !he edi!ors re*ard as
$elon*in* !o !he se%an!ic s&$)do%ain o# 2#or*iveness.3 Tha! s&$)
do%ain i!sel# $elon*s !o !he lar*er do%ain o# 2reconcilia!ion and
#or*iveness3 ;n&%$ered 8? in !he overall sche%e o# !he dic!ionar0@.
;:@ En!ries 8?.5> and 8?.5: re(resen! !he sa%e le,ical i!e%s #ea!&red
in #i*. K.5 #or BDAG, $&! here !he0 are rela!ed !o !he o!her !er%s
lis!ed a%on* words relevan! !o 2#or*iveness.3 One o# !he%, ii
also a((ears elsewhere, in connec!ion wi!h !he se%an!ic do%ain o#
2%erc0N%erciless3 ;77.OK@, since !he edi!ors anal0Ae !he no!ion o#
2showin* %erc03 as so%ewha! di##eren! #ro% !ha! o# 2o##erin*
#or*iveness.3 ;8@ This #i*&re ill&s!ra!es !he wa0 +o&w)Nida hel(s &s
!o see wha! o!her !er%s a New Tes!a%en! wri!er %i*h! have &sed, in
a (ar!ic&lar con!e,!, in (lace o# !he ones he ac!&all0 &ses. I! also
hel(s &s !o see how +o&w)Nida can hi*hli*h! !he co%(onen!s o#
%eanin* (ec&liar !o a word ac!&all0 &sed, co%(onen!s !ha! %a0 $e
si*ni#ican! #or !he con!e,! in 1&es!ion.
$.4 CULTURAL %RELEVANCE& AND CULTURAL
TRANSFERENCE
Cow we i%(ar! !he #r&i!s o# o&r la$ors !o !he (eo(le a%on*
who% we live and work !akes &s $e0ond !he (ale o# e,e*esis
and in!o !he real% o# her%ene&!ics. <e will !o&ch on !his
%a!!er in a la!er cha(!er, !ho&*h onl0 $rie#l0, since !his $ook is
(ri%aril0 a$o&! e,e*esis. S!ill, a! !his s!a*e o# !hin*s i! is wor!h
e%(hasiAin* so%e!hin* !ha! lies i%(lici! in !he (recedin*
disc&ssion. I# !he ancien! $i$lical doc&%en!s !he%selves are
c&l!&rall0 condi!ioned, and i# an i%(or!an! ele%en! o# !he
e,e*e!ical !ask involves readin* !hose doc&%en!s as co%(le!el0
as (ossi$le #ro% !he (ers(ec!ive o# !he relevan! ancien!
c&l!&res, wha! e,e*e!es end &( wi!h are %essa*es a((ro(ria!e
to t+ose an%ient settin/s. Cow, !hen, are !hose ancien!
%essa*es !o $e %ade relevan! !o ano!her !i%e and (laceBo&r
own, #or e,a%(leI <e will o#!en need !o carr0 o&! a kind o#
c&l!&ral !rans#erence, where$0 !he 2!ransc&l!&ral3 core o# a
%essa*e is recloaked in !he *ar$ o# so%e new c&l!&ral se!!in*.
;Re!&rn !o #i*. 5.5, which dia*ra%s !his (rocess.@
Da&ls ins!r&c!ion !o wo%en in Horin!h !o cover !heir heads
led !o cen!&ries o# Hhris!ian wo%en wearin* scarves, veils and
o!her head*ear in ch&rch services. I! is no! a &niversal (rac!ice
!oda0, however, and (ro$a$l0 was no! in Da&ls da0 ei!her. I!
%ade sense, a((aren!l0, in #irs!)cen!&r0 Horin!hian c&l!&re,
and we can inves!i*a!e wh0 ;since Da&l is no! e,ac!l0 clear
a$o&! i! in 5 Horin!hians 55@. 9e!, even #or !hose con!e%(orar0
<es!ern ch&rches where wo%en s!ill do cover !heir heads, i!
%a0 no! $e o$vio&s 4&s! how t+is $ra%ti%e addresses an0!hin*
!ranscendin* all !i%e and all c&l!&res. Even !hose who insis! on
a hierarch0 o# *enders ;i!sel# a c&l!&rall0 de$a!a$le 1&es!ion@
wo&ld, I s&s(ec!, $e hard (ressed !o e,(lain wha! scarves have
!o do wi!h i!. The (oin! is !his' kee( !he $i* (ic!&re in %ind. Do
no! le! 0o&rsel# $e dis!rac!ed &nd&l0 $0 isola!ed #ac!ors,
however #ascina!in*, wi!ho&! !r0in* !o &nders!and !he% in !he
con!e,! o# !ha! $i**er (ic!&re. <hen 0o& $rin* !he res&l!s o#
0o&r e,e*esis $ack !o 0o&r own (eo(le, re%e%$er !o re)clo!he
!he% in !he ca!e*ories 0o&r (eo(le &nders!and, all wi!ho&!
losin* !he 2word3 o# !he +ord. This is wha! he has called &s !o
do.
<e enco&n!er a si%ilar (ro$le% when we read !he New
Tes!a%en! !hro&*h !he lenses o# (revio&s c&l!&rall0 in#l&enced
e,e*esis. One o# !he %ore i%(or!an! o# !hese c&rren! (ro$le%s
is !he one addressed $0 !he 2new (ers(ec!ive3 on J&dais%,
Da&l, and !he law. This new (ers(ec!ive co%(rises !wo %ain
iss&es. .irs!, i! has $eco%e clear !ha! !radi!ional Hhris!ian
views o# second)!e%(le J&dais% have $een sorel0 %is!aken.
O
The dra%a!ic even!s o# !he si,!een!h)cen!&r0 Re#or%a!ion
convinced !he ch&rch #or h&ndreds o# 0ears !o co%e !ha!
Dharisaic J&dais% o# !he New Tes!a%en! (eriod vir!&all0
%irrored !he wors! #ea!&res o# %edieval Ro%an Ha!holicis%.
In recen! decades, however, Jewish and Hhris!ian scholars
alike have de%ons!ra!ed !ha! !his is si%(l0 no! so and !ha!
Jewish !heolo*0 in !he #irs! cen!&r0 had a (ro#o&nd
a((recia!ion o# Gods *race and %erc0.
Second, i# !his reassess%en! o# second)!e%(le J&dais% is
well #o&nded, i! %eans !ha! !he !0(icall0 Dro!es!an!
&nders!andin* o# Da&l and his view o# !he +aw is in need o#
revision as well, a! leas! in so #ar as i! de(ends on !ha!
%is!aken (erce(!ion o# second)!e%(le J&dais%. The res&l!in*
de$a!e
7
has led !o a *rowin* realiAa!ion !ha! wha! Da&l re4ec!ed
O

2Second)!e%(le J&dais%3 re#ers !o !he vario&s s!rands o# J&dais%
charac!eriAin* !he (os!e,ilic (eriod #ro% EAra and Nehe%iah in !he si,!h
cen!&r0 B.H. !o !he Ro%an des!r&c!ion o# Jer&sale% in A.D. O?.
7
S(oradic since aro&nd 56??, $&! es(eciall0 vi*oro&s since !he la!e
56O?s. A%on* o!her ar!icles on !he s&$4ec!, see .. Thiel%ans s&%%ar0 o#
!he his!or0 and s&$s!ance o# !he disc&ssion in 2+aw II' Da&l,3 in @+e IVP
Di%tionary o1 t+e 0ew @esta&ent, ed. Daniel G. Reid ;Downers Grove, Ill.'
as ille*i!i%a!e 2works o# !he law3 were !hose #ea!&res o#
J&dais% !ha! !ended !o s&((or! dis!in*&ishin* !he covenan!
(eo(le o# God on !he $asis o# e!hnici!0 and c&l!&ral (rac!ices.
In o!her words, Da&ls concern was no! one o# ar*&in* a*ains!
!he sor! o# 2works ri*h!eo&sness3 !ha! occ&(ied !he +&!heran
Re#or%a!ion ;le*i!i%a!e as !ha! Re#or%a!ion s&rel0 was@.
Ra!her wha! concerned hi% in !his re*ard was an ille*i!i%a!e
res!ric!ion o# !he covenan! (eo(le !o !hose who s&$scri$ed !o
!he Jewish (rac!ices o# circ&%cision, sa$$a!h laws and hol0
da0s, and die!ar0 o$servances. The 2new (ers(ec!ive3 has no!
involved as dra%a!ic a 2revision3 as !he Re#or%a!ion i!sel# did
(erha(s, $&! i! has $een dra%a!ic none!heless.
$.$ PROAILITIES, AMIGUITIES AND
ALTERNATIVES
<ha! we canno! avoid in !his (rocess, an0 %ore !han in !he
(rocess o# anal0Ain* *ra%%a!ical s!r&c!&re, is !he #ac! !ha! we
are alwa0s dealin* wi!h (ro$a$ili!ies. All o# his!orical research
and recons!r&c!ion seeks !he &ost $ro"a"e sol&!ion !o so%e
1&es!ion. <ha! (hiloso(hers &sed !o re#er !o as 2a$sol&!e
cer!ain!03 #orever el&des &s here. <e will alwa0s $e wei*hin*
al!erna!ive (ro(osals and considerin* !he e##ec! o# a%$i*&i!0.
Tha! is !he na!&re o# !he $eas!, and &n!il and &nless we co%e !o
*ri(s wi!h i!, we will alwa0s $e in dan*er o# !akin* !he law in!o
o&r own hands, so !o s(eak. <e will $e !e%(!ed !o insis! !ha!
God has revealed !o 2s !ha! !here can $e no #&r!her disc&ssion
o# so%e iss&e or o!her, wha!ever i! %a0 $e.
In!er"arsi!0 Dress, >??8@, ((. J7OLO?>.
This does no! %ean !ha! we sho&ld avoid (roclai%in*
an0!hin* a! all wi!h dee( convic!ion, even (erha(s wi!h
so%e!hin* a((roachin* a$sol&!e cer!ain!0 on an e%o!ional
level. Nor does t+is %ean !ha! we es!a$lish o&r #ai!h on o&r
e%o!ions, !ho&*h i! does indeed involve !he%. I a% (ersonall0
convinced !ha! Jes&s (h0sical res&rrec!ion, #ro% dea!h !o li#e
a*ain, was a *en&ine, his!orical even!. I a% convinced o# i!
eno&*h !o die #or i! i# I have !o. 9e!, si%&l!aneo&sl0, I reco*niAe
!ha! %an0 (eo(le #ro% all walks o# li#e, no less sincere !han I
a%, are &na$le !o co%%i! !he%selves !o s&ch a #an!as!ic
no!ion. <e %a0 ho(e #or !he% !ha! so%eda0 !he0 can. B&! !he
(oin! is !ha! !here is no wa0 !o (rove a$sol&!el0, as wi!h
%a!he%a!ics or lo*ic, !ha! Jes&s rose #ro% !he dead. <e #ind
o&r his!orical ass&rance o# !he even! #ro% wei*hin* o!her
e,(lana!ions !ha! wo&ld acco&n! #or !he a%aAin* se1&el. There
are (len!0 o# availa$le o(!ions ;as wi!nessed in -! >7'55L5K@.
.or %e, no!hin* e,(lains !he $i* (ic!&re 1&i!e so well as
e,ac!l0 wha! !he New Tes!a%en! !ells &sB!ha! God raised !he
cr&ci#ied Jes&s !o li#e. To !ha! we can add !he ever a%$i*&o&s,
ever el&sive !es!i%on0 o# !he S(iri!, who co%es !o &s in !i%es
o# !ro&$le, s(eakin* words o# wisdo%' It is tr2e, it is tr2e.
O&r con#idence lies so%ewhere in !he %ids! o# !hese %an0
#ac!ors. In Scri(!&re, we read !he s!or0 and i!s in!er(re!a!ions.
The S(iri! o(ens !he e0es o# o&r hear!s !o $elieve. As a
co%%&ni!0 we i%%erse o&rselves in !he c&l!&res and his!or0
o# !ha! ancien! da0 in order !o &nders!and !he old, old s!or0
%ore (er#ec!l0, !es!in* and wei*hin* !he (ossi$ili!ies, !alkin*
!he% over wi!h collea*&es #ro% across !he cen!&ries. <e read,
lis!en and s(eak #ro% wi!hin !he con!e,!s we o&rselves inha$i!,
reco*niAin* how dee(l0 roo!ed we are in o&r own c&l!&res and
allowin* !he sa%e di*ni!0 !o !he wri!ers o# !he $i$lical
doc&%en!s. <e are in !his to/et+erK <e $elieve !he voice o#
Jes&s, echoed #ro% dee( wi!hin &s $0 !he voice o# his
indwellin* S(iri!' 2Re%e%$er, I a% wi!h 0o& alwa0s, !o !he
end o# !he a*e3 ;-! >7'>?@. <e have no reason !o #ear !he
(rocess. <e %a0 en*a*e in i!, !o*e!her, in (eace.
'
LETTERS
Readin* So%eone Elses -ail
.n! w+en t+is etter +as "een rea! a&on/ yo2,
+ave it rea! aso in t+e %+2r%+ o1 t+e
Lao!i%eansP an! see t+at yo2 rea! aso t+e etter
1ro& Lao!i%ea.
3OLO77I.07 4#16
<e !&rn now #ro% !o(ics %ore or less a((lica$le across !he
sco(e o# New Tes!a%en! li!era!&re !o !o(ics (er!inen! !o
(ar!ic&lar li!erar0 s&$*ro&(s. The (ar!ic&lar s&$*ro&( we will
disc&ss in !his cha(!er is !ha! o# !he New Tes!a%en! le!!ers or
e(is!les. ;There is li!!le (rac!ical val&e in dis!in*&ishin*
$e!ween 2le!!ers3 and 2e(is!les,3 as so%e have doneG we can
&se !he words in!erchan*ea$l0 here.@ The vario&s s&$*ro&(s o#
New Tes!a%en! doc&%en!s are de#ined in !er%s o# /enre,
so%e!hin* wor!h $ein* clear a$o&! $e#ore we con!in&e ;J.5@.
Once we se!!le !ha! iss&e, we will consider !he %a!!er o#
readin* le!!ers as his!orical doc&%en!s ;J.>@ and readin* !he%
as ar*&%en!s ;J.:@.
'.1 GENRES AND SUGENRES
+i!era!&re co%es in %an0 *enres, and !his a##ec!s i!s
in!er(re!a!ion. As &sed in En*lish, !he .rench word /enre
co&ld lo*icall0 $e a((lied !o !0(es o# an0!hin*' ani%als, %&sic,
(ain!in*s, occ&(a!ions, (eo(le and even vehicles. B&! i! is
ac!&all0 &sed !o re#er al%os! e,cl&sivel0 !o ca!e*ories o# ar!,
es(eciall0 li!era!&re. +i!era!&re co%es in %an0 !0(es and
s&$!0(es, dis!in*&ished $0 s!0le, con!en!, (&r(ose and so on.
<e are #a%iliar in o&r c&l!&re wi!h s&ch li!erar0 #or%s as
le!!ers, news(a(er ar!icles, !rea!ies and o!her le*al doc&%en!s,
as well as (oe!r0, shor! s!ories, novels and co%ic s!ri(s.
Scholarl0 essa0s, %oral disco&rses, 4okes, ser%ons, adver!isin*
slo*ans, ca%(ai*n s(eeches and %an0 o!her kinds o# wri!in*
cons!i!&!e so%e o# !he vas! arra0 o# li!erar0 *enres and
s&$*enres we &se.
The e,e*e!ical i%(lica!ion is !ha! in order !o $e #air !o a
(erico(e, we e,e*e!es %&s! consider !he kind o# li!era!&re !o
which i! $elon*s. Tha! is, we %&s! !ake in!o considera!ion i!s
#&nc!ion, which is closel0 rela!ed !o i!s *enre. Honsider !his
li!!le di!!0 #ro% !he la!e 56K?s, adver!isin* a (rod&c! #or s!0lin*
%ens hair'
Bry%re&e, a itte !a"C !o yaK
6se &ore ony i1 yo2 !areK
Wat%+ o2tK @+e /irsC a $2rs2e yaK
@+ey ove to r2n t+eir 1in/ers t+ro2/+ yo2r +airK
<e canno! a((roach !his 2da$3 o# li!erar0 ele*ance wi!h !he
sa%e in!er(re!ive a!!i!&de we wo&ld ass&%e in a((roachin* a
#arewell le!!er !ha! a Hivil <ar soldier wri!es !o his wi#e a week
$e#ore he is killed in $a!!le a! -anassas. The a((roach we
wo&ld !ake !o !he online hel( #or o&r new Bi$le so#!ware wo&ld
$e di##eren! s!ill.
I! is e1&all0 i%(or!an! #or $i$lical in!er(re!a!ion !o know
wha! (ar!ic&lar !0(e o# %a!erial we are dealin* wi!h.
Tradi!ionall0, scholars iden!i#0 #o&r %ain *enres in New
Tes!a%en! li!era!&re' e$istes, Gos$es, .%ts and a$o%ay$se.
<e %i*h! even wish !o sa0 !here are onl0 t+ree %ain *enres,
*ro&(in* Gos(els and Ac!s !o*e!her &nder !he r&$ric o#
2narra!ive.3 Cowever !ha! %a0 $e, wi!hin !hese %ain *enres
!here are %an0 o!her s&$*enres ;so%e!i%es called 2re*is!ers3@,
each wi!h i!s (ec&liar charac!er and in!er(re!ive res!ric!ions.
Dara$les, #or e,a%(le, and ho&sehold codes ;also known $0 !he
Ger%an !er% Ha2sta1en@, s(eeches, h0%ns, s&%%ar0
s!a!e%en!s, a(horis%s and %an0 o!hers *ive !he !hree %ain
*enres varie!0 and color. The0 also re1&ire s(ecialiAed
a!!en!ion #ro% e,e*e!es.
Te,!s $elon*in* !o !he *enre o# e(is!le a((ear onl0 here and
!here in Old Tes!a%en! $ooks ;e.*., in Jere%iah, EAra,
Nehe%iah and !he de&!erocanonical > -acca$ees@, $&! !he
New Tes!a%en! is #&ll o# le!!ers. As %an0 as !wen!0 or !wen!0)
one o# !he !wen!0)seven "oo-s in !he New Tes!a%en! are
le!!ers or co%(ila!ions o# le!!ers. Ac!s 5K, >:, and Revela!ion
>L: con!ain %ore. -os! o# !hese $i$lical doc&%en!s have !he
$asic sha(e !0(ical o# le!!ers #ro% -edi!erranean an!i1&i!0,
h&ndreds o# which have !&rned &( in !he *ar$a*e d&%(s o#
ancien! E*0(! ;see !he !wo e,a%(les (rovided in !he side$ar on
(a*e 55J@'
O(enin*' Sender, !o receiver. Gree!in*.
Ice Breaker' Thanks*ivin* or (ra0er #or P
Bod0' The %ain $&siness
Hlosin*' Gree!in*s, $lessin*.
"ario&s s&$*enres ;s&$!0(es or 2re*is!ers3@ are re(resen!ed
even a%on* !he New Tes!a%en! le!!ers. Dhile%on and
Dhili((ians #&nc!ion as (ersonal reco%%enda!ionsG
Dhili((ians also con!ains a !hank)0o& no!e. .irs! Horin!hians
OL58 res(onds !o 1&es!ions, and Ro%ans reads like a didac!ic
!rea!ise, as does 5 John. A(olo*ies ;in !he sense o# de#enses@
charac!eriAe Gala!ians 5L>, > Horin!hians and (erha(s 5 John,
and e!hical ins!r&c!ion ;called 2(arenesis3@ can $e #o&nd in
%an0 e(is!les, incl&din* 5 Thessalonians, E(hesians 8LJ, and
Ja%es. Gala!ians and 5 Horin!hians O *ive advice. -ore #or%al
ins!r&c!ion can $e #o&nd in !he 2ch&rch orders3 reco%%ended
in !he Das!oral E(is!les and in !he ho&sehold codes
DHa2sta1enE (reserved in Holossians :L8, E(hesians KLJ and
5 De!er >L:. So%e e(is!les ac!&all0 look like ser%ons or
ho%ilies, once (reached !o a (ar!ic&lar cons!i!&enc0G 5 John,
Ja%es and Ce$rews #all in!o !his ca!e*or0.
TW= ANCIENT LETTE;S !;=M EG<PT
The #ollowin* !wo le!!ers, !he #irs! wri!!en aro&nd !he %iddle o#
!he !hird cen!&r0 B.H. and !he second so%e!i%e d&rin* !he #irs!
cen!&r0 A.D., were $o!h recovered !oward !he end o# !he
nine!een!h cen!&r0. The #irs! is #ro% a 0o&n* %an !o his #a!her,
Hleon, an archi!ec! in !he .a0&% dis!ric! o# E*0(!. The second,
likewise #ro% a son !o his #a!her, lacks an ice$reaker, 1&i!e
#i!!in* #or !he s(oiled)$ra! !one o# !he %essa*e. The o(enin*s
and closin*s o# !he le!!ers are (rin!ed in $old, !he one
i%e"rea-er in i!alics, and !he $od0 o# $o!h le!!ers in (lain !0(e.
Bracke!s Q S inser! e,(lana!or0 in#or%a!ion. Transla!ions
;sli*h!l0 ad4&s!ed@ are #ro% Geor*e -illi*an, 7ee%tions 1ro&
t+e Gree- Pa$yri ;Ha%$rid*e' Universi!0 Dress, 56>O@, ((. OL
7, 5?>L:.
LETTE; "
Polycrates to $is fat$er> greeting# I a& /a! i1 yo2 are in
/oo! +eat+, an! every t+in/ ese is to yo2r &in!. We
o2rseves are in /oo! +eat+. I have o#!en wri!!en !o 0o& !o
co%e and in!rod&ce %e, in order !ha! I %a0 $e relieved #ro%
%0 (resen! occ&(a!ion. And now i# i! is (ossi$le, and none o#
0o&r work hinders 0o&, do !r0 and co%e !o !he Arsinoe #es!ival
Qin honor o# !he la!e, dei#ied X&een ArsinoeSG #or i# 0o& co%e, I
a% s&re !ha! I shall easil0 $e in!rod&ced !o !he kin* QD!ole%0
IIS. =now !ha! I have received O? drach%as #ro% Dhilonides
Q!he wri!ers $ro!herS. Cal# o# !his I have ke(! $0 %e #or
necessaries, $&! !he res! I have (aid as an ins!all%en! o#
in!eres!. This ha((ens $eca&se we do no! *e! o&r %one0 in a
l&%( s&% $&! in s%all ins!all%en!s. Write to us yourself>
t$at 9e )ay Ano9 $o9 you are circu)stance3 an3 not
be an8ious# TaAe care of yourself t$at you )ay be 9ell>
an3 co)e to us in goo3 $ealt$# !are9ell#
LETTE; (
T$eon to T$eon $is fat$er> greeting# QNo i%e"rea-er.S
9o& did a #ine !hin*/ 9o& have no! !aken %e awa0 alon* wi!h
0o& !o !he ci!0/ I# 0o& re#&se !o !ake %e alon* wi!h 0o& !o
Ale,andria, I won! wri!e 0o& a le!!er, or s(eak !o 0o&, or wish
0o& heal!h. And i# 0o& do *o !o Ale,andria, I won! !ake 0o&r
hand, or *ree! 0o& a*ain hence#or!h. I# 0o& re#&se !o !ake %e,
!ha!s wha!s &(/ And %0 %o!her said !o Archela&s, 2Ce &(se!s
%e' awa0 wi!h hi%/3 B&! 0o& did a #ine !hin*/ 9o& sen! %e *i#!s
B*rea! ones, h&sks/ The0 deceived &s !here, on !he 5>!h, when
0o& sailed Qdown !he Nile River, (res&%a$l0S. Send #or %e
!hen, I $eseech 0o&. I# 0o& do no!, I won! ea!, I won! drink/ So
!here/ I *ray for your $ealt$# Eate. )ont$ an3 3ayF
Tubi "6#
All New Tes!a%en! le!!ers, even !he %os! (ersonal ;e.*.,
Dhile%on, > and : John@, a((ear !o $e ei!her se%iconscio&sl0
or #&ll0 conscio&sl0 in!ended $0 !heir wri!ers #or $2"i%
cons&%(!ion. The0 are 2(&$lic3 ei!her in re*ard !o a local
con*re*a!ion ;Dhile% 5L8@ or in re*ard !o several
con*re*a!ions ;Hol 8'5JG Rev >L:@. This is !r&e even !ho&*h all
o# !he% are 2occasional3 in na!&re. <he!her an0 o# !he% was
never ac!&all0 in!ended !o #&nc!ion as a (&$lic doc&%en! ;:
JohnI@ is %oo!, since !he0 have all $een (&$lic now #or nearl0
!wo %illennia. <e do need !o realiAe, however, !ha! $ein*
in!ended #or 2(&$lic cons&%(!ion3 does no! necessaril0 i%(l0
2conscio&sl0 wri!!en as Col0 Scri(!&re,3 valid #or all !i%e on a
(ar wi!h wha! we now call !he Old Tes!a%en!. "er0 likel0 Da&l
wo&ld $e shocked, and (erha(s e%$arrassed, !o #ind
*enera!ions o# Hhris!ians dili*en!l0 s!&d0in* his $rie# no!e !o
Dhile%on, es(eciall0 i# he were !o recall how #orce#&l, al%os! !o
!he (oin! o# (&sh0, he $eco%es in i!. The #ac! !ha! !his li!!le
*e% +as $een canoniAed as Scri(!&re is a !es!i%on0 !o !he
ear!hiness o# !he incarna!ion' God is no! asha%ed !o &se &s as
we are, even !o $eco%e one o# &s.
'.2 HISTORICAL CONTEXT: WHO IS ON THE
OTHER END(
This (oin! $rin*s &s $ack !o !he iss&e o# his!orical con!e,!,
in!rod&ced in cha(!er #ive. A ver0 i%(or!an! (oin! !o *ras(
a$o&! New Tes!a%en! le!!ers is in #ac! !heir o%%asiona na!&re.
The0 were each wri!!en, like +incolns Ge!!0s$&r* Address,
wi!h res(ec! !o a ver0 s(eci#ic occasion, no! as a *eneral
!rea!ise on so%e !heolo*ical !o(ic, *ood #or all !i%e. The0 %a0
indeed $e *ood #or all !i%e, $&! !ha! (res&%a$l0 was no! !heir
wri!ers ori*inal in!en!ion. There#ore, in order !o in!er(re! New
Tes!a%en! le!!ers (ro(erl0, we %&s! work a! &nders!andin*
wha! !he ori*inal occasion was #or each o# !he% and !rea! !he%
accordin*l0. <e can consider !heir his!orical con!e,! #ro%
!hree (ers(ec!ives' ;5@ !he !asks !he0 were in!ended !o
acco%(lish, ;>@ !he o!her side o# !he conversa!ion cond&c!ed in
!he%, and ;:@ !he c&l!&ral ass&%(!ions !he a&!hor !aci!l0 %ade
as he wro!e.
7.2.1 Tas>'riented Theolo%y1 Sent on a 4ission
The 2!ask)orien!ed3 !heolo*0 o# !he e(is!les, res&l!in* as i! does
#ro% !heir occasional na!&re, #ro% !heir a&!hors sense o#
%ission, is ac!&all0 no! all !ha! di##eren! #ro% !he (&r(ose o#
ser%ons and co&nselin* in !he local ch&rch !oda0.
Un#or!&na!el0, !he da!es, ori*ins and so%e!i%es even !he
a&!hors o# New Tes!a%en! doc&%en!s are &ns(eci#iedBor
inade1&a!el0 s(eci#iedBand !he le!!ers are o#!en ;#or &s@
(la*&ed wi!h va*&eness arisin* #ro% c&l!&ral and si!&a!ional
ass&%(!ions shared $0 wri!ers and readers, !o which we have
no i%%edia!e access !oda0. <ha!, #or e,a%(le, does Da&l
%ean $0 acc&sin* his Jewish readers o# h0(ocri!icall0 ro$$in*
!e%(les, even !ho&*h !he0 a$hor idols ;Ro% >'>>@I As =ris!er
S!endahl has said, 2Even !he divinel0 ri*h! answer is no! heard
ari*h! i# i! is a((lied !o !he wron* 1&es!ion.P O&r vision is
o#!en %ore o$s!r&c!ed $0 wha! we !hink we know !han $0 o&r
lack o# knowled*e.3
5
+e!s !ake !his &( in %ore de!ail.
<e have in %ind !he iden!i#ica!ion o# !he s(eci#ic (ro$le% a
doc&%en! seeks !o solve, !he %ission i! ho(es !o acco%(lish,
!he occasion to w+i%+ i! s(eaksB!he ce%e!er0 dedica!ion a!
Ge!!0s$&r*, #or e,a%(leBra!her !han !he $roader his!orical
$ackdro( wit+in w+i%+ i! s(eaks. Tha! s(eci#ic si!&a!ion is
o#!en re#erred !o wi!h !he Ger%an (hrase 7itQ i& Le"en
;2si!&a!ion in li#e3@. All Scri(!&re is occasional in !his senseG
each (iece has i!s own 7itQ i& Le"en. ;Ac!&all0, !his !er% is
%ore co%%on in !he s!&d0 o# Gos(el %a!erial, which we will
!ake &( in !he ne,! cha(!ers, $&! i! works here as well.@ All o#
!he Bi$les individ&al $ooks ;and even se(ara!e (ar!s o# so%e
$ooks@ ori*ina!ed in res(onse !o concre!e his!orical si!&a!ions
or occasions. In !he New Tes!a%en!, e(is!les %os! readil0
de%ons!ra!e !his charac!eris!ic ;4&s! as (ro(he!ic $ooks do in
!he Old Tes!a%en!@. =nowled*e o# !hose si!&a!ions is hel(#&l,
o#!en indis(ensa$le, !o an acc&ra!e e,e*esis o# a *iven (assa*e.
5

=ris!er S!endahl, Pa2 .&on/ ,ews an! Genties an! Ot+er 'ssays
;Dhiladel(hia' .or!ress, 56OJ@, (. J.
This is no! !o sa0, however, !ha! we alwa0s have !ha!
knowled*e.
So%e New Tes!a%en! e(is!les *ive clear and hel(#&l cl&es
!o !heir his!orical si!&a!ion and !he !ask a! hand. .irs!
Horin!hians, #or e,a%(le, ske!ches !he o&!lines o# !he (ro$le%s
o# schis% and (ower s!r&**le in !he Horin!hian $od0, !hin*s
Da&l has heard a$o&! #ro% Hhloes (eo(le ;5 Hor 5'5?L5>@. In
#ac!, !he en!ire le!!er re#lec!s vario&s as(ec!s o# !he Horin!hian
2si!&a!ion.3 Second Thessalonians >'5L5>, on !he o!her hand,
(rovides a classic e,a%(le o# ins&##icien! in#or%a!ion,
re#errin* as i! does !o 2!he3 co%in* re$ellion, !o 2!he lawless
one,3 and !o so%e!hin* which 2now res!rains hi%.3 No!
wishin* !o was!e his ink, Da&l sli(s in!o shor!hand' 2Do 0o&
no! re%e%$er !ha! I !old 0o& !hese !hin*s when I was s!ill wi!h
0o&I3 ;> Thess >'K@. <e can see !ha! he wished !o rec!i#0 a
(ro$le% in Thessalonica, and wha! he sa0s a$o&! i! here %a0
have $een eno&*h #or !he #irs! readers. B&! !wo %illennia la!er,
we are le#! wonderin* wha! i! was all a$o&! and how i! %i*h!
a##ec! &s. There has $een no shor!a*e o# s&**es!ions.
Toda0 !he iron0 o# o&r si!&a!ion is !ha! while we need !o
recons!r&c! !he his!orical con!e,!s l0in* $ehind vario&s New
Tes!a%en! (assa*es in order !o &nders!and !heir ori*inal
%essa*es, !he %a4ori!0 o# o&r recons!r&c!ions are h0(o!he!ical.
The co%%en!aries and (ro#essional 4o&rnals are #illed wi!h
con#lic!in* !heories and al!erna!ive scenarios. B&! as we saw a!
!he end o# !he las! cha(!er, !ha! is (recisel0 !he na!&re o# !he
disci(line, and we %&s! do o&r $es! wi!h wha! we have. ;This
(ro$le% is co%(o&nded in !he Gos(els, where !here are a!
leas! !hree (ossi$le li#e)si!&a!ions' ;a@ !ha! o# Jes&s hi%sel# in
!he da0s o# his ear!hl0 %inis!r0, ;$@ !ha! o# !he (os!)Eas!er
co%%&ni!ies, and ;c@ !ha! o# !he Evan*elis!s as !he0 wri!e !o
(ar!ic&lar ch&rches la!er in !he #irs! cen!&r0.@ S!ill, no %a!!er
how #r&s!ra!in* i! %a0 $e no! !o know wha! we wo&ld like !o
know, !he (rinci(le re%ains !ha! we &nders!and $i$lical
doc&%en!s ;and !here#ore $i$lical !eachin*@ $es! when we
allow #or and !r0 !o acco&n! #or !he 2!asks3 !he0 were #irs!
%ean! !o carr0 o&!.
7.2.2 The 'ther Side of the (on*ersation
Dar! o# o&r (ro$le% in !his is !ha! wha! we overhear in a New
Tes!a%en! le!!er is 4&s! one side o# !he conversa!ion. I! wo&ld
$e enor%o&sl0 &se#&l ;no! !o %en!ion e,ci!in*@ i# we were !o
#ind Da&ls (ersonal corres(ondence #iles, incl&din* an0
dis!&r$in* le!!ers he had received #ro% Horin!h, or (ossi$le
co%%&ni1&as #ro% Driscilla and A1&ila !ellin* hi% a$o&! !he
si!&a!ion in Ro%e. +ackin* !hese reso&rces, scholars have done
!heir $es! !o recons!r&c! !he o!her side o# !he conversa!ions
re(resen!ed in !he New Tes!a%en! corres(ondence. The0 do
!his $elievin* wi!h *ood reason !ha! !he %ore we &nders!and
a$o&! !hose conversa!ions, !he $e!!er we will &nders!and wha!
Da&l or Ja%es or an0 o# !he o!her le!!er)wri!ers is sa0in*.
One !echni1&e #or recons!r&c!in* !he 2#&ll3 conversa!ion is
a kind o# 2%irrored3 readin* o# an e(is!le. Honsider 5 John 5'KL
>'> as a !es! case. Hare#&l anal0sis o# !ha! !e,! reveals a series o#
si, i#)!hen cons!r&c!ions. Take 5 John 5'J, #or e,a%(le' 2I1 we
sa0 we have #ellowshi( wi!h QGodS while we are walkin* in
darkness, Tt+enU we lie and do no! do wha! is !r&e.3 .&r!her
anal0sis reveals !ha! !hese si, i#)!hen cons!r&c!ions (air o## in!o
!hree se!s. In !his wa0 verse J is answered $0 verse O' 2$&! i# we
walk in !he li*h! as he hi%sel# is in !he li*h!, Q!henS we have
#ellowshi( wi!h one ano!her, and !he $lood o# Jes&s his Son
cleanses &s #ro% all sin.3 "erses 7 and 6 #or% !he ne,! (air and
5'5?L>'> covers !he !hird (air.
<ha! a((ears !o $e ha((enin* here is !ha! !he a&!hor ;we
can call hi% John@ #irs! 1&o!es !he sor! o# !hin* he has heard
his !heolo*ical o((onen!s !eachin* ;5 Jn 5'J, 7, 5?@ and !hen
re(lies !o i! wi!h wha! he considers !o $e so&nd !eachin* ;5 Jn
5'O, 6 and >'5L>@. Cis o((onen!s, !hen, were a((aren!l0
insis!in* !ha! !heir #ellowshi( wi!h God was &na##ec!ed $0 wha!
John re*arded as walkin* in darkness ;5 Jn 5'J@, and !ha! !he0
were nei!her sin#&l ;5 Jn 5'7@ nor *&il!0 o# havin* co%%i!!ed
sins ;5 Jn 5'5?@. Ho%$ined wi!h o!her hin!s #ro% !hro&*ho&! 5
John ;e.*., 5 Jn 8'>@, !hese 2%irrored3 clai%s s!ron*l0 s&**es!
!ha! John was dealin* wi!h (eo(le o# a *nos!ic s!ri(e, (eo(le
who shar(l0 dis!in*&ished $e!ween !he reali!0 o# !he s(iri!&al
world and !he irrelevance o# !he %a!erial world. In !heir view
a((aren!l0, !he wa0 !he0 lived o&! !heir (h0sical e,is!ence had
no connec!ion !o !he reali!ies o# !heir s(iri!&al e,is!ence. Th&s
!he0 even denied !ha! !he divine Hhris! had co%e as a h&%an
(erson o# #lesh and $lood, and insis!ed !here#ore !ha! !he0
!he%selves as %e%$ers o# !ha! divine Hhris! had no #&r!her
need !o $e concerned wi!h !he cons!rain!s o# !heir own #leshl0
e,is!ence. These are !he no!ions John con#ron!s in 5'KL>'>, and
readin* 5 John wi!h !hese la!e)#irs!)cen!&r0 iss&es in %ind
$rin*s a de(!h o# e,e*e!ical &nders!andin* o!herwise no!
(ossi$le. 2-irrored readin*3 is an e##ec!ive %e!hod #or
recoverin* !hose iss&es, i# i! is &sed wi!h discre!ion and wi!h
!he realiAa!ion !ha! i! is o(en !o circ&lar reasonin* and !h&s no
less s&$4ec! !o a$&se !han an0 o!her (roced&re in his!orical
s!&dies.
7.2.3 (ultural +ssu&ptions
Readin* widel0 in !he (ri%ar0 li!era!&re o# !he (eriod is
es(eciall0 hel(#&l wi!h re*ard !o recons!r&c!in* s&ch
si!&a!ions. I! (rovides !he 2*a!herin* sense o# $ein* !here3
disc&ssed in cha(!er #ive. ;A*ain, a sa%(lin* o# !ha! li!era!&re,
s&ch as !ha! (rovided $0 H. =. Barre!!,
>
*ives &s a !an!aliAin*
!as!e o# i!.@ Hon!e%(orar0 *nos!iciAin* (hiloso(hies, #or
e,a%(le, (rovide cl&es !o !he iss&es 5 John addresses wi!h i!s
insis!ence on !he 2#leshl03 Hhris!, or !o !hose !ha! Holossians
has in view when i! s(eaks o# !he cos%ic Hhris!. =nowled*e o#
#irs!)cen!&r0 Ro%an laws rela!in* !o slaver0 and slave
ownershi( ill&%ina!es wha! Da&l sa0s in his le!!er !o Dhile%on,
hel(in* &s !o *&ess in!elli*en!l0 a! wha! he reall0 wan!s
Dhile%on !o do. In#or%a!ion o# !his kind hel(s !o #ill in !he
*a(s le#! #or &s $0 !he #ac! !ha! e(is!olar0 2!asks3 are o#!en
i%(lied $&! no! de#ined. I! does !he sa%e !hin* #or o!her *a(s,
s&ch as !hose le#! $0 !he 2ina&di$ili!03 o# !he conversa!ion
(ar!ners or $0 &ns(oken c&l!&ral ass&%(!ions. A (erson near
and dear !o %e &sed !o (oin! o&! !he $rake (edal and o!her
#a%iliar vehic&lar con!rols ever0 !i%e I &sed his car. <e call
>

H. =. Barre!!, ed., @+e 0ew @esta&ent Ba%-/ro2n!# Writin/s 1ro&
.n%ient Gree%e an! t+e *o&an '&$ire @+at I2&ine 3+ristian Ori/ins,
rev. ed. ;New 9ork' Car(erSan.rancisco, 567O@.
s&ch &nnecessar0 in#or%a!ion (edan!icG we sh&n i! i# we can.
There is no reason !o $elieve !ha! !he ancien!s #el! an0
di##eren!l0 a$o&! i!. The New Tes!a%en! wri!ers and !heir
readers shared an enor%o&s weal!h o# c&l!&ral ass&%(!ions,
co%%on in#or%a!ion needin* no rei!era!ion, $&! %&ch o# !his
in#or%a!ion has *one los! wi!h !he (assin* o# !i%e and !he
c&l!&ral %i*ra!ion o# !he ch&rch. Drovidin* i! is no lon*er
(edan!ic.
One o# !he %ore o$vio&s o# !hese c&l!&ral ass&%(!ions is
e%$odied in !he choice o# Greek as !he lan*&a*e !he
a&!hors &sed. No New Tes!a%en! wri!er $o!hers !o e,(lain
Greek *ra%%ar and voca$&lar0 !o his readersG he ass&%es
!he0 will &nders!and. Eviden!l0 !he ori*inal addressees did. <e
never ca!ch Da&l sa0in* so%e!hin* like, 29o& do &nders!and
wha! I %ean $0 !he #&!&re !ense, don! 0o&I I! %eans i! hasn!
ha((ened 0e!. And !he word evi!entyN I! %eans ^as #ar as we
know, ri*h!I3 Toda0, however, we s(end !ho&sands o# dollars
and h&ndreds o# ho&rs 4&s! learnin* !he r&di%en!s o# !ha!
lan*&a*e so !ha! we can *e! in on !he $i$lical conversa!ion.
On ano!her level, 5 Horin!hians 55 (res&((oses an en!ire
co%(le, o# c&l!&ral (rac!ice #orei*n !o %odern readers, a! leas!
!o readers in %&ch o# !he En*lish)s(eakin* world. <ha! is all
!his #&ss a$o&! de%andin* head coverin*s #or wo%en and
re*ardin* lon* hair on %en as de*radin* ;5 Hor 55'58L5K@I In
!he %id)56J?s, %0 #a!her cer!ainl0 !ho&*h! he &nders!ood !he
(ro$le% wi!h lon* hair on %en ;or on !eena*e $o0s an0wa0@,
since I was le!!in* %ine *row o&! in order !o i%i!a!e !he
Bea!les. B&! I s&s(ec! !ha! !he iss&es involved #or %0 dad were
di##eren! #ro% !he ones Da&l deal! wi!h. Honsider wha! Da&l
%eans when he sa0s ;in 5 Hor 55'5?@, 2.or !his reason a wo%an
o&*h! !o have a s0%$ol o# a&!hori!0 on her head, "e%a2se o1
t+e an/es.3 An*elsI <ha! an*elsI Da&ls Horin!hian readers
a((aren!l0 &nders!ood wha! he %ean! wi!ho&! needin* i!
e,(lained !o !he%. .or &s i! is a 2*a(.3 The (oin! once a*ain is
!ha! wi!ho&! access !o !his in#or%a!ion a$o&! !he his!orical
se!!in* o# a $i$lical !e,!, o&r &nders!andin* o# !ha! !e,! is
i%(airedG $&! o&r need #or !his sor! o# in#or%a!ion does no!
*&aran!ee !ha! we will alwa0s have i!. Honvenien!l0 #or &s,
%&ch o# wha! we do needBas #ar as i! can (la&si$l0 $e
recons!r&c!edBis availa$le in a *ood Bi$le dic!ionar0 or
co%%en!ar0. .or 1&ick hel( wi!h 5 Horin!hians 55'5?, #or
ins!ance, we %i*h! cons&l! ar!icles on an*els or head coverin*s
in !he Di%tionary o1 Pa2 an! His Letters.
:
T@;=2G@ T@E L==?ING GLASS INT= ( -=@N
Usin* !he sor!s o# 1&es!ions s&**es!ed 4&s! a$ove in sec!ion
J.>.> and no!hin* $&! !he !e,! o# > John, !r0 0o&r own hand a!
recons!r&c!in* !he si!&a!ion $ehind !ha! le!!er. Then co%(are
0o&r res&l!s wi!h !hose (rovided here.
@+e raw !ata
v. 5a 2+ad03' an individ&al ;c#. : Jn 5@ or a con*re*a!ionI I#
!he la!!er, wh0 so desi*na!ed hereI Need #or a codeI
v. 5$ 2!he elder3' descri(!ion or (osi!ionI I# !he la!!er, wha!
:

E.*., Daniel G. Reid, 2An*els, Archan*els,3 and Hrai* S. =eener, 2-an
and <o%an,3 in Di%tionary o1 Pa2 an! His Letters, ed. Gerald ..
Caw!horne e! al. ;Downers Grove, Ill.' In!er"arsi!0 Dress, 566:@, ((. >?L
>:, :OKLOO, and K7:L6> ;es(. ((. K7KL7J@.
sor! o# leadershi( s!r&c!&re i%(liedI
v. 5c 2I love in !r&!h3' veiled all&sion !o o!hers who do no!
love ;no!e !he e%(ha!ic cu 2I3@, or who clai% !o love $&!
do no! do so 2!r&l03I
v. 5d 2all !hose who know !he !r&!h3' veiled all&sion !o
%e%$ers o# so%e o!her *ro&( who do no! know i!I
v. :a 2Jes&s Hhris!, !he .a!hers Son3' (ossi$le e%(hasis on
!he rela!ion o# Jes&s !o !he Hhris! and !o !he .a!herI
v. :$ 2in !r&!h and love3' charac!eris!ic o# John. See%s al%os!
added here !o 2JohanniAe3 !he s!andard *ree!in* 2*race,
%erc0, and (eace.3 Is !here so%e s(ecial Johannine
re#erence #or 2!r&!h3 N 2love,3 !ha! is, so%e (ar!ic&lar
$ehavior in %indI
v. 8a 2so&e o# 0o&r children3' an all&sion !o a #ac!ion wi!hin
!he con*re*a!ionI
v. 8$ 2#ro% !he .a!her3' an0 s(ecial reason #or no! sa0in*
2#ro% !he Son3I
v. Ka 2new co%%and%en!3' re%iniscen! o# John 5:':8. Cere,
however, i! is no! a new co%%and%en! an0%ore, $&! an
old one ;c#. 5 Jn >'OG K':@.
v. K$ 2no! a new co%%and%en!3' all&sion !o !he o((osi!ions
havin* inven!ed a 2new3 oneI ;c#. v. 6@
v. Kc 2#ro% !he $e*innin*3' i# !he 2old3 co%%and%en! is !ha!
recorded in John 5:':8, !hen does !he 2$e*innin*3 re#er !o
!he ear!hl0 %inis!r0 o# Jes&sI
v. Kd 2love each o!her3' re#erence !o (erceived #law in !he
o((osi!ions e!hicI
v. O 2%an0 deceivers P world3' a clear re#erence !o one
as(ec! o# !he si!&a!ion
v. 7 2look !o 0o&rselves3' ano!her as(ec! o# !he si!&a!ion' !he
elders an,ie!0 #or !he s(iri!&al wel#are o# !he 2lad0,3 which
he sees !hrea!ened $0 !he schis%a!ic, here!ical !ravelin*
!eachers
v. 6a 2*oes ahead3' likel0 an ironic re#erence !o !he
2advanced3 new !eachin* ;c#. new co%%and%en! in v. K,
and !he con!en! o# !he advanced !eachin* in v. O@
v. 6$ 2does no! have God3' denial o# !he o((onen!s clai%s
v. 6c 2$o!h !he .a!her and !he Son3' correc!ive !o o((onen!s
division o# .a!her #ro% ;h&%an@ SonI
v. 5?a 2co%es !o 0o&3' all&sion !o !he !ravelin*)%issionar0 or
i!ineran!)!eacher s!0le o# leadershi(I See also > John 5>' 2I
ho(e !o co%e !o 0o&.3
vv. 5?$L55 2receive P *ive *ree!in*3' re#erence !o %eans $0 which earl0
!eachers had !heir $ase o# o(era!ion, de(enden! on local
hos(i!ali!0 ;like !ravelin* Hhris!ian sin*in* *ro&(s !oda0@.
Hon!ras! : John KL7.
v. 5> 2%&ch !o wri!e !o 0o&3' (ossi$le re#erence !o wha! is
now known as 5 JohnI An0 his!orical rela!ionshi( !o : John
5:L58I
v. 5: 2elec! sis!er3' !es!i#ies !o a s0s!e% o# ch&rches or local
con*re*a!ions, &nder !he elders leadershi(. Cow %i*h! !his
$e rela!ed !o !he con*re*a!ion o# : JohnI
72&&ary o1 res2ts, "ase! on raw !ata ta-en ri/+t 1ro& t+e
text
a. Several locall0 %ee!in* con*re*a!ions associa!ed wi!h each
o!her &nder !he leadershi( o# ;a! leas!@ 2!he Elder.3
$. Hon*re*a!ions no&rished $0 !ravelin*, i!ineran! !eachers,
(erha(s ad%inis!ered $0 and incl&din* !he Elder.
c. So%e o# !hese !ravelin* !eachers, or (erha(s, 2s!ran*ers3
#ro% elsewhere, have $e*&n !eachin* a 2new,3 sel#)clai%ed
2advanced3 doc!rine, a! !he core o# which is !he denial o# real
h&%ani!0 !o !he divine Hhris!G Jes&s !he %an is no! !he Hhris!,
and vice versa. Derha(s i%(lies Jes&s is no lon*er needed as a
%eans o# access !o God.
d. .&r!her charac!eris!ic o# !his 2advanced3 doc!rine is !ha! i!
enco&ra*es ;i# no! o&!ri*h! !eaches@ a de)e%(hasis on lovin*
$ehavior.
e. So%e %e%$ers o# !he *ro&( have $een swa0ed $0 !his
!eachin*, and o!hers, while no! swa0ed 0e!, are none!heless
;innocen!l0, (erha(s@ s&((or!in* !he heres0 $0 *ivin*
hos(i!ali!0 !o i!s !ravelin* !eachers.
#. The Elder is alar%ed eno&*h a$o&! !he s(iri!&al wel#are o#
his #locks !ha! he hi%sel# (lans !o visi! !he% and anno&nces his
in!en!ion in !his le!!er.
One o!her area o# research wor!h %en!ionin* here is !ha! o#
sociolo*ical anal0sis o# !he $i$lical world. Al!ho&*h e,e*e!es
and his!orians have lon* $een a!!en!ive !o !he social as(ec!s o#
#irs!)cen!&r0 J&deo)Greco)Ro%an c&l!&re, recen! decades have
seen re%arka$le e##or!s !o $rin* scien!i#ic ri*or !o !his s&$4ec!.
Scholars s(eciall0 !rained in sociolo*ical !heor0 have !&rned
!heir !alen!s and !heir science !o anal0Ain* !he $i$lical c&l!&res,
wi!h an e0e !o ill&%ina!in* !he $i$lical !e,!.
8
Iss&es s&ch as
#a%il0 s!r&c!&re, weddin*s and *ivin* in %arria*e, divorce,
(oli!ics and econo%ics, !he overla((in* o# (oli!ics and reli*ion,
(ower and a&!hori!0, sha%e and honor, class dis!inc!ions and
social %o$ili!0 ;or !he lack o# i!@Ball !hese #ac!ors (la0 silen!
$&! si*ni#ican! roles in !he $ack*ro&nd o# a !e,!. Deo(le
*rowin* &( i%%ersed in !hose c&l!&res had no (ar!ic&lar need
!o hear !heir socio)c&l!&ral ass&%(!ions s(elled o&! !o !he% in
8

A &se#&l s&rve0 o# !his area o# s!&d0 #or Da&line li!era!&re is S. H.
Bar!on, 2Social)Scien!i#ic A((roaches !o Da&l,3 Di%tionary o1 Pa2 an! His
Letters, ((. 76>L6??G no!e !he li!era!&re he ci!es.
a co%%&nica!ion #ro% Da&l or Ja%esG !hose ass&%(!ions
co&ld $e !aken #or *ran!ed no less !han <es!erners !ake #ree)
%arke! !rade and !rial)$0)4&r0 #or *ran!ed. 9e! #or <es!ern
e,e*e!es, a knowled*e o# !he (rivile*es, a&!hori!0 and
res(onsi$ili!0 o# !he #irs!)cen!&r0 Greco)Ro%an $ater1a&iias
;!he r&lin* (a!riarch@ in his ho&sehold !hrows %&ch li*h! on a
(assa*e like E(hesians K'>5LJ'6. The e,e*e!e sees how
co&n!er)c&l!&ral !he %essa*e o# 2%&!&al s&$%ission3 ;E(h
K'>5@ is #or !he Hhris!ian h&s$and)#a!her)%as!er. Hhris!
re%ains 2head3 o# !he ch&rch, his $od0, and !h&s (rovides a
ra!ionale #or a #irs!)cen!&r0 %an !o ac! !he role o# 2head3 o# his
own ho&sehold. Cowever, !he ac!&al wa0 in which Hhris!
12n%tions as head o# !he ch&rch, sacri#icin* hi%sel# #or her
sake, radicall0 revol&!ioniAes !he sociall0 acce(!a$leBin #ac!,
le*alBwa0 a Hhris!ian o&*h! !o 2r&le3 over his #a%il0. Th&s,
ori*inal readers o# !he le!!er !o !he E(hesians wo&ld have
ca&*h! !he i%(lica!ions wi!ho&! havin* !he sociolo*ical
$ackdro( s(elled o&!, $&! %odern <es!ern readers will no!.
Sociolo*ical anal0sis hel(s !o #ill in !his *a(.
K
'.3 ARGUMENT
I! is an oversi%(li#ica!ion !o sa0 !ha! wha! we have 4&s! $een
disc&ssin* is !he w+y and !he +ow o# an e(is!olar0
co%%&ni1&a, and !ha! !&rnin* !o !he 2ar*&%en!3 o# an e(is!le
involves !he w+at. S!ill, !here is so%e lo*ic in (&!!in* i! !ha!
K

The sa%e (rinci(le a((lies !o Gos(el s!&d0. See, e.*., =. H. Canson
and Do&*las Oak%an, Paestine in t+e @i&e o1 ,es2s# 7o%ia 7tr2%t2res
an! 7o%ia 3on1i%ts ;Dhilade(hia' .or!ress, 5667@.
wa0. <e do indeed need !o &nders!and !he his!oricall0
de!er%ined ;occasional@ !heolo*ical)%issional !ask addressed
$0 a $i$lical wri!er, as well as !he (ar!ic&lar #or% his wri!in*
!akes and !he c&l!&ral acco%%oda!ions he %akes in order !o
co%%&nica!e wi!h his a&dience. B&! we also need !o
&nders!and !he con!en! o# his %essa*e. <ha! in #ac! is he
sa0in* on !his 2occasion3 and in !his #or%a!I <ha! is his
ar*&%en!I <e can !ake !his &( &nder !hree headin*s'
rhe!orical cri!icis%, s0n!ac!ical s!r&c!&re and lo*ical
develo(%en!.
7.3.1 8hetorical (riticis&
A%on* !he %an0 #ascina!in* a((roaches !aken !o $i$lical
li!era!&re in recen! decades, one (ar!ic&larl0 a((ro(ria!e !o
New Tes!a%en! le!!ers is rhe!orical cri!icis%. <orkin* #ro%
!he !heories o# #a%o&s rhe!oricians o# an!i1&i!0 ;Aris!o!le,
Hicero, X&in!ilian@, so%e scholars have anal0Aed Da&ls le!!ers
as i# Da&l hi%sel# were a s!&den! o# Greco)Ro%an rhe!oric and
as i# he cra#!ed his le!!ers %ore or less in s!ric! accordance wi!h
!he 2r&les3 o# !he %as!ers. -an0 o# !hese anal0ses are (ro$a$l0
e,a**era!ed, $&! !he0 are hel(#&l never!heless. The0 %ake &s
aware !ha! Da&l was, a#!er all, a %an o# his !i%e, one who was
e%inen!l0 ca(a$le o# ada(!in* hi%sel#, even as a Jewish
scholar, !o !he conven!ions o# his Gen!ile a&diences.
Hri!ics reco*niAe !hree %ain 2orien!a!ions3 #or ancien!
Greco)Ro%an rhe!oric' 1orensi%, e$i!ei%ti% and !ei"erative.
J
J

E.*., G. A. =enned0, 0ew @esta&ent Inter$retation @+ro2/+
*+etori%a 3riti%is& ;Hha(el Cill' Universi!0 o# Nor!h Harolina Dress,
567J@, and a classic a((lica!ion, C. D. Be!A, Gaatians, Cer%eneia
.orensic rhe!oric is orien!ed !oward !he (as!G i! de#ends or
acc&ses so%eone re*ardin* ac!&al (as! ac!ions ;2B&! when
He(has ca%e !o An!ioch, I o((osed hi% !o his #ace, $eca&se he
s!ood sel#)conde%ned3G Gal >'55, where Da&l de#ends hi%sel#@.
E(ideic!ic rhe!oric is orien!ed !o !he (resen!G i! (raises or
$la%es ;eval&a!es@ a (erson re*ardin* (resen! val&es or
$ehavior ;2.or, !o $e*in wi!h, when 0o& co%e !o*e!her as a
ch&rch, I hear !ha! !here are divisions a%on* 0o&G and !o so%e
e,!en! I $elieve i!3G 5 Hor 55'57@. Deli$era!ive rhe!oric is
orien!ed !oward !he #&!&re, enco&ra*in* or diss&adin*
so%eone re*ardin* a (ossi$le #&!&re ac!ion ;2<e who are
s!ron* o&*h! !o (&! &( wi!h !he #ailin*s o# !he weak3G Ro%
5K'5@.
+ikewise, !here are !hree *ro&nds #ro% which an ancien!
a&!hor or ora!or can %o!iva!e !he a&dience or %ake an a((eal
!o !he%' , o/os and $at+os. An a((eal #ro% is %ade
on !he $asis o# !he co%%&nica!ors %oral a&!hori!0. -o!hers
&se !his one' 2Beca&se I said soG !ha!s wh0/3 I# !he $asis o# !he
a((eal is a de%ons!ra!ion o# !he ri*h!ness or lo*ic o# !he
(ro(osal, i! is %ade on !he *ro&nd o# o/os. C&s$ands &se !his
one' 2<ell, i! 4&s! %akes senseG !ha!s wh0/3 And i# !he
ar*&%en! is driven ho%e on !he $asis o# (ersonal a##ec!ion or
o$li*a!ion, i! is #o&nded on $at+os. -arlon Brando, as !he
God#a!her, &sed !his one' 29o& owe %e !hisG !ha!s wh0/3
In addi!ion !o orien!a!ion and *ro&nds o# a((eal, %odern
rhe!orical cri!ics also reco*niAe ancien! sche%es #or or*aniAin*
a co%%&nica!ion. .or e,a%(le, a !0(ical sche%e o# !his sor!
;Dhiladel(hia' .or!ress, 56O6@.
lis!s !he #ollowin* ele%en!s in !he $od0 o# a #or%al le!!er ;or a
s(eech@'
O(enin*' iden!i#0in* wri!er and addressees
'xor!i2&' es!a$lishin* a ra((or! wi!h addressees
Pro$ositio' s!a!in* !he %ain $&rden o# !he le!!er, i!s !hesis
3on1ir&atio' descri$in* wha! %akes !he $ro$ositio necessar0
*e12tatio'
silencin* an0 an!ici(a!ed o$4ec!ion !o !he
$ro$ositio
Peroratio'
s&%%in* &( !he %a!!er and (ossi$l0 la0in* o&!
#or !he addressees once a*ain !he e,(ec!a!ions
!ha! !he wri!er has #or !he%, $ased on !he
$ro$ositio
Hlosin*' *ree!in*s and *ood wishes !o addressees
O!her rhe!orical #ea!&res o# a !e,! incl&de !ricks o# !he
!rade, s&ch as so%e o# !hose we disc&ssed a$ove in cha(!er
#o&r' chias%s, incl&sios, re(e!i!ions, con!ras!s and !he like.
Da&ls shor! le!!er !o Dhile%on (rovides a hand0 e,a%(le
#or ill&s!ra!in* !hese !hin*s. I# 0o& can, !ake a %o%en! !o read
i! $e#ore *oin* on ;i! !akes less !han !wo %in&!es@. <e can
1&ickl0 see !ha! Da&l is askin* Dhile%on !o (er#or% so%e deed
re*ardin* !he r&nawa0 slave Onesi%&s. This deed is no!
e,(lici!l0 s(eci#ied in !he le!!er, $&! i! is no! so%e!hin*
Dhile%on has alread0 done, nor is i! so%e!hin* he is (resen!l0
doin* ;a! leas! #ro% Da&ls (ers(ec!ive@G i! is so%e!hin* as 0e!
&ndone, #&!&re. Th&s, #ro% a rhe!orical (oin! o# view, !he le!!er
!o Dhile%on $e!ra0s a 2deli$era!ive3 orien!a!ion. Da&l is no!
!r0in* !o acc&se, de#end or eval&a!eG he is !r0in* !o (ers&ade
Dhile%on !o ac!.
The le!!er is heav0 wi!h iss&es o# %o!iva!ion. Da&l ad%i!s,
#or ins!ance, !ha! he has !he 2e!hical3 a&!hori!0 ;rhe!orical
@ !o co%%and Dhile%on !o do !his !hin* ;wha!ever i! is@,
$&! he (re#ers ins!ead !o a((eal !o Dhile%ons re*ard #or Da&l
and his o$li*a!ion !o Da&l ;Dhile% 7L6G rhe!orical $at+os@.
+o*ic Do/osE a((ears !o (la0 no si*ni#ican! role in !he %a!!er,
e,ce(! (erha(s in verse 5O, where Dhile%ons love #or Da&l
sho&ld (erha(s 2lo*icall03 $e !rans#era$le !o so%eone Da&l
hi%sel# loves ;no!e !he i#)!hen cons!r&c!ion@. 9e! !he overall
!one o# !he le!!er echoes Da&ls sense o# wha! Dhile%on owes
hi%, a Brandolike callin*)in o# de$!s. <e %i*h! no! wan! !o
call i! a 2(a!he!ic3 le!!er, $&! i# we did, rhe!orical cri!ics wo&ld
know wha! we %ean!.
<e can also anal0Ae !he le!!ers rhe!orical s!r&c!&re. I# 0o&
!ook !wo %in&!es !o read !he le!!er a %o%en! a*o, 0o& %a0
have alread0 o$served so%e o# wha! now #ollows. The o(enin*
!hree verses (rovide e,ac!l0 !ha!B!he o$enin/. Da&l, in !he
co%(an0 o# Ti%o!h0, addresses hi%sel# !o his #riend Dhile%on,
!o Dhile%ons #a%il0 ;a((aren!l0@, and !o !he ch&rch %ee!in*
in Dhile%ons ho&se. Ne,!, wi!h !he exor!i2& ;Dhile% 8LO@,
Da&l a!!e%(!s !o rees!a$lish ra((or! wi!h Dhile%on, (raisin*
hi% #or his *ood record a%on* !he sain!s. Ce ho(es !his will
(re(are Dhile%on !o hear wha! he reall0 has on his %ind. This
re1&es! Da&l se!s o&! now in verses 7L5? as !he $ro$ositio,
%akin* his $asic ;i# va*&e@ a((eal on $ehal# o# ;or (erha(s
2#or3@ Onesi%&s. The #ollowin* sec!ion, as !he %on1ir&atio
;Dhile% 55L5J@, o&!lines Onesi%&ss new s!a!e o# a##airs
4&s!i#0in* Da&ls re1&es!' !he #or%erl0 &seless $o0 has now
$eco%e a $ro!her in Hhris!. In verse 5O, Da&l $e*ins !he
$eroratio !o s&% &( his case. B&! he $reaks o## #or a %o%en!
in a re12tatio in order !o acknowled*e so%e o# !he o$4ec!ions
Dhile%on %a0 le*i!i%a!el0 raise and !o 2re#&!e3 !he% ;Dhile%
57L56@. Ce !hen res&%es his $eroratio ;Dhile% >?L>5@. J&s!
$e#ore !he %osin/ *ree!in*s in verses >:L>K, Da&l inser!s one
las! %o!iva!ional !wis!, $ased %ore on !han on !he $at+os
he has o(era!ed #ro% #or !he %os! (ar! &( !o !his (oin!. Da&l
eviden!l0 in!ends !o co%e and (ersonall0 check &( on how
Dhile%on and Onesi%&s are *e!!in* alon* ;Dhile% >>@.
I! is &nlikel0 !ha! Da&l conscio&sl0 i%i!a!ed !he rhe!oricians
o# his da0 as he co%(osed his le!!ers. Ce (ro$a$l0 did no!
(a&se !o sa0 !o hi%sel#, (en in hand, 2Now #or !he re12tatioK3
B&! he %a0 well have had an ed&ca!ed sense o# !he (ro(er wa0
!o wri!e !o a weal!h0 and res(ec!ed 2*en!le%an3 a$o&! one o#
his r&nawa0 slaves. Ei!her wa0, o&r own awareness o# !he
!0(ical Greco)Ro%an %e!hod o# ar*&in* an iss&e $rin*s &s a
*ood dis!ance down !he road !oward seein* how Da&l, or so%e
o!her $i$lical wri!er, %i*h! have (&rs&ed !he cra#!in* o# s&ch
an e(is!le. And !ha! can hel( &s hear !ha! e(is!le as !he #irs!
readers %&s! have heard i!.
7.3.2 Syntactical Structure
None o# !hese rhe!oricall0 %o!iva!ed s!r&c!&res wo&ld have
a##ec!ed !he readers a! all i# wha! was said in !he% %ade no
sense. The (hrases and sen!ences %akin* &( !he s!a*es o#
Da&ls le!!er %&s! also $e well desi*ned, as we ar*&ed a$ove in
cha(!er #o&r. I# co%%&nica!ion is !o !ake (lace, !he s0n!a, o# a
!e,! needs !o $e %eanin*#&l !o wri!er and readers alike, ideall0
%eanin* !he sa%e !hin* !o each. The ver0 #ac! !ha! we have
$een a$le !o iden!i#0 !he rhe!orical s!a*es o# Da&ls ar*&%en! in
!he le!!er !o Dhile%on shows !ha! Da&l !he wri!er has
ade1&a!el0 con#or%ed !o !he 2r&les3 o# Greek s0n!a, ;and
!ha! his En*lish !ransla!ors have con#or%ed !o !he r&les o#
En*lish s0n!a,@. Anal0Ain* !he s!r&c!&re o# !ha! s0n!a,,
conscio&sl0 or no!, hel(s readers !o *ras( !he wri!ers %essa*e.
;To review wha! we %ean $0 !he s0n!ac!ic s!r&c!&ral anal0sis o#
a !e,!, re#er a*ain !o #i*&res 8.5LJ.@
7.3.3 Lo%ical /e*elop&ent of /iscourse
+a0in* o&! a *ra(hic re(resen!a!ion o# !he s0n!ac!ical
rela!ionshi(s e,is!in* wi!hin and $e!ween sen!ences o# a !e,!,
even !ho&*h i! is an essen!ial s!a*e o# e,e*esis, can onl0 !ake &s
so #ar. =nowin* t+at !wo cla&ses are rela!ed !o each o!her does
no! necessaril0 !ell &s +ow !he0 are rela!edB!ha! is, !he
%eanin* or lo*ic o# !heir rela!ionshi(. In which one o# !he
%an0 (ossi$le wa0s, #or e,a%(le, is cla&se B lo*icall0
s&$ordina!e !o cla&se AI Is B !he reason #or A, !he res&l! o# A,
!he condi!ion #or A, !he (&r(ose o# A, !he concl&sion !o $e
drawn #ro% A, or is A i!s 2con!ra)e,(ec!a!ion3 Deven t+o2/+ B
is tr2e, nevert+eess Tan! %ontrary to a ex$e%tationU . is aso
tr2eEN Is !he rela!ionshi( chronolo*ical Dw+en, a1ter, "e1ore,
!2rin/EN I# A and B are %oor!inate! cla&ses ;ra!her !han one
o# !he% $ein* s2"ordina!ed !o !he o!her@, does B e,(and on A,
con!radic! A, res!a!e A or (rovide a s(eci#ic e,a%(le or
e,a%(les #or !he %ore *eneral AI
<ha! !hese (ossi$ili!ies re(resen! is !he lo*ic o#
co%%&nica!ion, !he disco&rse lo*ic. This is no! !he sa%e !hin*
as !he o/os)$ased rhe!orical %o!iva!ion ;al!erna!ive !o
and $at+os@ %en!ioned a$ove &nder J.:.5. Tha! kind o# lo*ic is
!he sor! where one %i*h! wri!e ?.e.!. a! !he end ;?2o! erat
!e&onstran!2&' 2<ha! we se! o&! !o (rove has now $een
de%ons!ra!ed/3@. Cere, however, we are re#errin* !o !he wa0
lan*&a*e 4&**les ideas and (&!s !he% in!o vario&s
rela!ionshi(s. Even an illo*ical ar*&%en! ;in !he ?.e.!. sense@
needs !o $e e,(ressed 2lo*icall0,3 in order !o $e reco*niAed as
illo*ical.
+e!s a((l0 !his !o !he le!!er !o Dhile%on. The o(enin* word
o# !he sec!ion in which Da&l in!rod&ces !he %ain order o#
$&siness is !he hi*h)level con4&nc!ion 2!here#ore3 ;Dhile%
7@. This is a 2hi*h)level3 con4&nc!ion $eca&se i! #&nc!ions here
!o connec! ;2con4oin3@ !wo (ara*ra(hs, ra!her !han !wo
sen!ences or !wo cla&ses wi!hin a sen!ence. <e have alread0
seen !ha! in verses 8LO ;!he exor!i2&@ Da&l es!a$lishes
ra((or! wi!h Dhile%on $0 le!!in* hi% know how %&ch he
a((recia!es Dhile%ons e,cellen! !es!i%on0 and *ood)hear!ed
!rea!%en! o# !he sain!s. <e now see #ro% !his li!!le word
!ha! Da&l s!rokes Dhile%ons e*o in !his #ashion no! si%(l0 in
order !o reconnec! wi!h hi% (leasan!l0 $&! in order !o (&!
Dhile%on in a kind o# dile%%a. Dhile%on is (res&%a$l0
lis!enin* !o !he le!!er $ein* read alo&d ;$0 T0chic&sI@ in !he
(resence o# his #a%il0 and !he ch&rch in his livin* roo%. I# he
has $een noddin* in a (leased ;$&! %odes!@ wa0 as he lis!ens
!o !he !e,! o# verses 8LO, he will now #ind i! ver0 awkward !o
re#&se Da&ls re1&es! re*ardin* Onesi%&s, e,(ressed in !he
$ro$ositio ;Dhile% 7L5?@. .or wi!h Da&l has !ied !he !wo
(ara*ra(hs !o*e!her 2lo*icall03 as *ro&nds)!o)e,hor!a!ion' 2A
is !r&e a$o&! 0o&, t+ere1ore do B.3 Dhile%on canno! re#&se
Da&ls re1&es! now wi!ho&! si%&l!aneo&sl0 de%ons!ra!in* !ha!
Da&l is wron* in his *ood o(inion, an o(inion Dhile%on has
alread0 assen!ed !o ;so we *a!her@. <he!her s!ric!l0 2lo*ical3 or
no! ;in !he ?.e.!. sense@, !his anal0sis re(resen!s !he 2disco&rse
lo*ic3 o# wha! Da&l sa0s here.
A! a 2lower3 level, even $e!ween cla&ses wi!hin a sin*le
sen!ence, !he sa%e lo*ical rela!ionshi(s e,is!. So%e o# !hese
are onl0 i%(lici!l0 2%arked,3 (ar!ic&larl0 !hose #or%ed wi!h
(ar!ici(ial cons!r&c!ions. Honsider Dhile%on 8LKa ;which
cons!i!&!es onl0 (ar! o# a sen!ence s!re!chin* #ro% Dhile% 8
!hro&*h Dhile% J@'
l_d ( O( u
u u c d u_d u,
eiu u eq i .
In !he %ain cla&se, (&lled o&! !o !he le#! %ar*in, Da&l
clai%s, 2I alwa0s !hank %0 God.3 This s!a!e%en! is s&((or!ed
$0 !wo s&$ordina!ed (ar!ici(ial cla&ses ;no!e !he i!aliciAed
(ar!ici(les u 2%akin*3 and eiu 2hearin*3@, $&!
s&((or!ed howI Dar!ici(ial cla&ses do not e,(lici!l0 de#ine !he
2lo*ical3 rela!ionshi( $e!ween !he%selves and !heir
2*overnin*3 %ain cla&seG readers %&s! in#er !he rela!ionshi(
on !heir own. This is in con!ras! !o !he cla&se a! !he end o#
Dhile%on O, which is e,(lici!l0 %arked $0 !he ca&sal
con4&nc!ion 2$eca&se.3 The a$sence o# an e,(lici! %arkin*
o# !he lo*ical rela!ionshi(s $e!ween cla&ses in verses 8LKa does
no! %ean !hose rela!ionshi(s do no! %a!!er, %&ch less !ha!
!he0 do no! e,is!. B&! wha! are !he0I Honsider how !he NRS"
%akes !he rela!ionshi(s e,(lici! $0 s&((l0in* En*lish
con4&nc!ions ;i!aliciAed here@'
W+en I re%e%$er 0o& in %0 (ra0ers,
I alwa0s !hank %0 God
"e%a2se I hear o# 0o&r love P and 0o&r #ai!h.
O# co&rse, whe!her !he NRS" has correc!l0 &nders!ood !he
connec!ions $e!ween !he %ain cla&se and i!s !wo s&$ordina!es
is ano!her 1&es!ion ;I s&s(ec! i! has@. Horrec! or no!, !his wa0
o# readin* Dhile%on 8LKa re(resen!s Da&l as !hank#&l !o God
"e%a2se he kee(s hearin* wha! a #ine, #ai!h#&l Hhris!ian
$ro!her Dhile%on is, and as e,(ressin* his !hanks !o God #or
!ha! #ac! every ti&e he (ra0s. The !wo (ar!ici(ial cla&ses
answer !he 2lo*ical3 1&es!ions w+en and w+y Da&l !hanks God
so %&ch.
To &nders!and !he i%(lica!ions !ha! a $i$lical e(is!le %a0
have #or con!e%(orar0 readers, we %&s! #ai!h#&ll0 anal0Ae i!s
!e,!&al con!en!Bi!s ar*&%en!, (ara*ra(h $0 (ara*ra(h, no less
!han readin* i! wi!hin i!s his!orical, c&l!&ral and li!erar0
con!e,!s. I! is !he sole%n and hol0 d&!0 o# %inis!ers o# !he
<ord o# God !o devo!e !he%selves !o !his !ask #or !he heal!h o#
!he #locks en!r&s!ed !o !he%. To ne*lec! !his callin* in !he
na%e o# %ana*e%en! and or*aniAa!ional ad%inis!ra!ion, or
#or an0 o!her *ood and wholeso%e as(ec! o# (as!oral %inis!r0,
is !o #os!er a weak and shallow con*re*a!ion, no %a!!er how
lar*e i! *e!s.
'.4 A SIMPLIFIED PROCEDURE FOR EPISTLE
EXEGESIS
<e can close !his cha(!er wi!h a series o# 2s!e(s3 (rovidin* a
shor!hand %e!hod #or *e!!in* a *ood *ro&ndin* in !he !e,! o#
an e(is!le. Dres&((osed are all !he iss&es we have deal! wi!h so
#ar in !his $ook ;!e,!&al cri!icis%, !ransla!ion, $o&ndaries,
e!c.@.
A. Ac1&ain! 0o&rsel# wi!h !he s!r&c!&re o# !he $ook as a whole,
!he 2%acros!r&c!&re3 #or 0o&r (erico(e.
5. Do not si%(l0 (l&n*e in!o a (assa*e or a (erico(e wi!ho&!
!akin* acco&n! o# i!s $ook as a whole. Ideall0, i# 0o& can do so,
work o&! !he $ooks s!r&c!&re 0o&rsel# $e#ore 0o& cons&l! o!her
o(inions.
>. I# 0o& do no! have eno&*h !i%e !o work o&! 0o&r own
anal0sis, a! leas! *e! an orien!a!ion in !he $ook #ro%
co%%en!aries or dic!ionar0 ar!icles, (re#era$l0 %ore !han one.
:. +on*)ran*e, alwa0s $e workin* wi!h so&e $i$lical $ook. Use
(erha(s si, %on!hs or a 0ear !o develo( a workin* *ras( o#,
sa0, Gala!ians or Jere%iah ;!he Old Tes!a%en! is o&rs, !oo@.
8. I! is i%%ensel0 &se#&l !o do an 2anno!a!ed o&!line3 #or an
en!ire $ook, in order !o see !he #low o# !he ar*&%en! and !he
(lace occ&(ied $0 individ&al (erico(es in !he sche%e o# !he
whole. An anno!a!ed o&!line (rovides shor!, (i!h0 s&%%aries
o# each sec!ion and s&$sec!ion, ena$lin* !he &ser !o ski%
in!elli*en!l0 over !he s&r#ace o# a $ooks ar*&%en! $e#ore
(l&n*in* in!o !he de!ails. I! also hel(s in 2(lacin*3 a (ar!ic&lar
(erico(e wi!hin i!s li!erar0 con!e,!.
B. Anal0Ae !he (erico(es 2%icros!r&c!&re.3 Do a s0n!ac!ical
anal0sis and a disco&rse anal0sis o# !he (erico(e i!sel#. Base
!hese anal0ses on 0o&r own !ransla!ion, o# co&rse. I# 0o&
have no! s!&died Greek 0e!, !hen a! leas! cons&l! several
!ransla!ions and co%(are how !he0 !rea! !he s0n!ac!ical and
disco&rse rela!ionshi(s.
H. S&%%ariAe res&l!s so #ar. .ro% s!e(s A and B, wri!e o&!, in
0o&r own words, shor! (reli%inar0 s&%%aries #or $o!h ;5@
!he in!ernal lo*ic and con!en! o# !he (erico(e and ;>@ !he
wa0 !he (erico(e #i!s in!o !he lo*ic o# i!s lar*er con!e,! and
o# !he $ook i!sel#. Re%e%$er !he i%a*e o# !he s!one wall
#ro% cha(!er !hree, in which sec!ions o# !he wall are $o!h
4oined !o o!her sec!ions !o %ake &( !he whole wall and are
likewise !he%selves #or%ed #ro% !he 4oinin* !o*e!her o#
s%aller (ieces. S&%%ariAe !hese res&l!s in shor!
s!a!e%en!s, each in one sen!ence i# (ossi$le. These
s&%%aries sho&ld $e considered workin* s!a!e%en!s,
s&$4ec! !o revision as 0o&r research con!in&es, $&!
#&nc!ionin* as a kind o# *&ide #or !he !i%e $ein*.
ANN=TATE =2TLINE =! ;=MANS 0."/6.5C
Below is an o&!line and anno!a!ion o# !he s&$sec!ions o# !he
!hird %a4or (or!ion o# Da&ls le!!er !o Ro%e. Cavin*
de%ons!ra!ed a$sol&!e conde%na!ion ;Ro% 5'57L:'>?@ and
a$sol&!e *race ;Ro% :'>5LK'>5@ in !he (revio&s !wo sec!ions,
Da&l now re#&!es !he #alse concl&sion !ha! we are #ree !o $e as
sin#&l as we (lease.
Grace> la9 an3 libertinis) ,;o) 0."/6.5C1
Cow does !his doc!rine o# ri*h!eo&sness $0 #ai!h s1&are wi!h
!he o$vio&s necessi!0 o# $ein* o$edien! !o !he law o# GodI
5. Grace is no! an e,c&se !o sin. ;Ro% J'5LO'J@
a. Han !hose iden!i#ied wi!h Hhris! con!in&e in sinI ;Ro% J'5L
58@
Once $a(!iAed in!o &nion wi!h Hhris!, we share in all !ha! is
his, incl&din* his havin* died !o !his world and his havin* $een
raised !o a new li#e #ree #ro% !he (ower o# sin.
$. -&s! !he li$era!ed s!ill $e enslavedI ;Ro% J'5KL>:@
I! is no! (ossi$le si%(l0 !o $e #ree #ro% sinG we %&s! s&$%i! !o
ri*h!eo&sness as o&r new %as!er or $e enslaved !o sin a*ain.
Hhris! has %ade i! (ossi$le !o $e enslaved !o ri*h!eo&sness.
c. Are !he widowed s!ill %arriedI ;Ro% O'5LJ@
In Hhris!, o&r #a!al %arria*e !o !he law, which (rovokes o&r
sin, is over. The wors! !he law can in#lic! &(on &s is dea!hG once
dead we are o&! o# reach o# !he a&!hori!0 o# law. B&! Hhris! has
died &nder !he law, and we are in Hhris!G conse1&en!l0 we !oo
have died &nder ;and !here#ore !o@ !he law.
>. The law is no! sin#&l. ;Ro% O'OL>K@
a. Sin, no! !he law, is !he c&l(ri!. ;Ro% O'OL5>@
<hile no! i!sel# sin#&l, !he law has $een &sed $0 sin !o (rod&ce
sin and dea!h.
$. The law is (owerless a*ains! sin. ;Ro% O'5:L>K@
The law is hol0, 4&s! and *ood, 0e! hel(less !o kee( !he
Hhris!ian #ro% sinnin*. Cowever, al!ho&*h in one res(ec! !he
Hhris!ian does sin, in ano!her all)i%(or!an! sense i! is no
lon*er !he $eliever !ha! does i! $&! his or her sin#&l old na!&re,
which o# co&rse has alread0 $een conde%ned. The Hhris!ians
new na!&re is no! s&$4ec! !o !he law.
:. The S(iri! chan*es ever0!hin*. ;Ro% 7'5L:?@
a. The %ind o# !he S(iri!B!he %ind o# !he 2#lesh.3 ;Ro% 7'5L
55@
Da&l con!ras!s !he diso$edien! old na!&re and !he o$edien! new
na!&re in !er%s o# !he 2#lesh3 and !he S(iri!. The $eliever,
renewed in !he S(iri!, a$ides $0 !he law o# !he S(iri!.
$. Dea!h !o !he 2#lesh3 $0 !he (ower o# !he S(iri!. ;Ro% 7'5>L
5O@
The #lesh is $o!h dead and in !he (rocess o# ;dail0@ $ein* (&! !o
dea!h. The s&##erin* associa!ed wi!h !his (rocess is !he sa%e
s&##erin* end&red $0 Hhris! and is !he lo! o# !he Hhris!ian who
is o$edien! !o Hhris!, as Gods child, in !his (resen! li#e.
c. The S(iri! aids &s in o&r s&##erin*. ;Ro% 7'57L:?@
Bein* led $0 !he S(iri! %eans s&##erin* in !his world, as i! did
#or Hhris!. B&! !he S(iri! s&((or!s &s in !his s&##erin* $0 his
(er#ec! (ra0ers #or &s and $0 enco&ra*in* &s wi!h !he ho(e, a
sec&re knowled*e, o# #&!&re *lor0.
D. Take in!o acco&n! an0 si*ni#ican! c&l!&ral iss&e !ha! wo&ld
ill&%ina!e !he ancien! !e,!. Honsider s&ch c&l!&ral #ac!ors
as !he social role o# !he $ater1a&iias, or !he i%(erial laws
*overnin* slaver0, or !he (ossi$le reasons Horin!hian
Hhris!ian wo%en were e,(ec!ed !o cover !heir heads when
!he ch&rch *a!hered #or cor(ora!e worshi(. All o# !hese ;and
%an0 %ore@ si*ni#ican!l0 de!er%ine how we o&*h! !o read
!he !e,!s a##ec!ed $0 !he%.
E. De!er%ine !he his!orical 2occasion3 #or !he $ook and 0o&r
(erico(e. Anal0Ae !he his!orical occasion #or !he $ook and
(assa*e and #eed !ha! da!a $ack in!o 0o&r considera!ions in
s!e( H. -ake an0 necessar0 ad4&s!%en!s in !he s!a!e%en!s
0o& co%(osed #or !ha! s!e(.
.. .or%&la!e a !e,!)$ased (lan #or !eachin* or (reachin* 0o&r
!e,!. Use !he res&l!an! s!a!e%en!s #ro% s!e( D !o assis! 0o&
in #or%&la!in* !he !he%e and s&$(oin!s o# a Bi$le s!&d0, or
!he !he%e ;no! necessaril0 !he s&$(oin!s@ o# a ser%on.
Think !hro&*h how !he c&l!&ral con!e,! re(resen!ed in !he
ori*inal si!&a!ion rela!es !o !he c&l!&ral con!e,! in which
!he (eo(le 0o& serve are livin*. Those !wo c&l!&ral con!e,!s
will seldo% $e in a one)!o)one rela!ionshi(G !ha! is, wearin*
ha!s and scarves will no! likel0 $ear !he sa%e c&l!&ral val&e
in !oda0s "anco&ver as !he0 once did in Horin!h.
<e !&rn now in !he ne,! !wo cha(!ers !o !he *enre o# New
Tes!a%en! narra!ives' !he #o&r Gos(els and !he Ac!s o# !he
A(os!les.
)
NARRATIVES I
Tellin* !he Old, Old S!or0
@+e $assa/eway o1 t+e si!e %+a&"ers wi!ene!
1ro& story to storyP 1or t+e str2%t2re was
s2$$ie! wit+ a stairway a aro2n! t+e te&$e.
4or t+is reason t+e str2%t2re "e%a&e wi!er 1ro&
story to story.
One as%en!e! 1ro& t+e "otto& story to t+e
2$$er&ost story "y way o1 t+e &i!!e one.
'V'AI'L 41#8
S!ories, or narra!ives, sor! !he%selves in!o a varie!0 o#
ca!e*oriesBheroic ac!ion, %0s!eries, ro%ances, !ra*edies and
co%edies, $io*ra(hies and adven!&res, #a$les and #air0 !ales, !o
na%e onl0 a #ew. 9e!, !he0 all di##er #ro% le!!ers in !he sa%e
$asic wa0. +e!!ers ar*&eG s!ories (lo!. Tha! *rossl0
oversi%(li#ies !he %a!!er, I ad%i!, since so%e s!ories con!ain
le!!ers ;or consis! o# no!hin* $&! le!!ers@ and so%e le!!ers
incor(ora!e s!ories ;as Gala!ians does a! 5'5:L>'58@. .or !ha!
%a!!er, a (lo! is no!hin* $&! an ar*&%en! in !he #or% o# a
se1&ence o# even!s ;a *ood s!or0 alwa0s has a (oin! !o %ake@,
and an ar*&%en! is so%e!hin* like an a$s!rac!ed (lo!Ba
se1&ence o# ideas. Never!heless, i! works #or !he %o%en! !o
(ain! !his $road)s!roke dis!inc!ion $e!ween !he !wo ca!e*ories'
le!!ers ar*&e and s!ories (lo!.
On !he o!her hand, wha! a *ood s!or0 has in co%%on wi!h a
well)#or%ed le!!er, indeed wi!h a well)#or%ed co%%&nica!ion
o# an0 sor!, is %o+eren%e. +ike a *ood ar*&%en!, an e##ec!ive
s!or0 has a $e*innin*, a %iddle and an endin*, all iden!i#ia$le
and all rela!ed !o each o!her in so%e %eanin*#&l wa0. The
coheren! rela!ionshi( $e!ween !he (ar!s and !he whole is !he
s&$4ec! o# cha(!er !hree. There !he (oin! is %ade !ha!
coherence o(era!es on %an0 levels, holdin* words !o*e!her !o
#or% cla&ses and (hrases, 4oinin* sen!ences in!o (ara*ra(hs,
and si%ilarl0 on 2&(3 !o sec!ions, (ar!s and whole doc&%en!s.
Each 2$rick3Bor cl&s!er o# $ricksBin a 2wall3 is iden!i#ia$le
(ar!l0 $0 vir!&e o# i!s in!ernal coherence, as well as (ar!l0 $0 i!s
$o&ndaries. Each #inds a (ar! o# i!s si*ni#icance wi!hin !he
con!e,! o# so%e lar*er whole i! hel(s !o $&ild. ;In!ernal
con!en!, o# co&rse, also con!ri$&!es !o si*ni#icance.@ The idea o#
coherence on vario&s levels &nderlies wha! we now have !o sa0
a$o&! in!er(re!in* !he s!ories o# !he New Tes!a%en!. In order
!o $e #air !o !hese ancien! doc&%en!s, we %&s! kee( in %ind
!ha! !heir a&!hors worked ver0 hard !o sha(e !he% in!o sel#)
con!ained, coheren! wholes, and we %&s! read !he% !ha! wa0.
).1 THE GOSPELS AND THE ACTS OF THE
APOSTLES AS SELF"CONTAINED, COHERENT
STORIES
The varie!0 o# %eans wri!ers can &se #or crea!in* and
s&s!ainin* coherence in a li!erar0 (iece is (ro$a$l0 li%i!ed onl0
$0 !he i%a*ina!ion o# !he wri!er. 9e!, ever0 c&l!&re and a*eB
no! !o %en!ion !he ver0 na!&re o# lan*&a*e and !he h&%an
%indBo##ers a read0)%ade se! o# !ools #or !he 4o$. <e
disc&ssed a n&%$er o# !hese in cha(!er !hree' incl&sios,
chias%s, !he%es, (rono&ns, consis!enc0 o# (la0ers in !he cas!
;(erha(s in a series o# rela!ed s!ories@, re(e!i!ions and (a!!erns
o# vario&s kinds, and %an0 o!hers. Cere are !wo e,a%(les.
?.1.1 The Gospel of 4atthe, as a Whole
Several #ea!&res o# -a!!hews Gos(el are #a%o&s #or !heir
(ower !o crea!e coherence. So%e o# !he% o(era!e a! a ver0 hi*h
level, s!i!chin* !he en!ire $ook !o*e!herG o!hers o(era!e a!
vario&s lower levels, *ivin* s%aller &ni!s !heir dis!inc!l0
iden!i#ia$le charac!er. This is si%ilar !o !he di##erence in
2levels3 we saw in cha(!er si, $e!ween !he hi*her)level
#&nc!ion o# 2!here#ore3 in Dhile%on 7 and !he lower)level
#&nc!ion o# 2$eca&se3 in Dhile%on O' one connec!s whole
(ara*ra(hs, while !he o!her connec!s cla&ses wi!hin a sin*le
sen!ence. In cha(!er !hree, we no!ed -a!!hews (a!!erned
re(e!i!ion o# Jes&s words, 20o& have heard P $&! I sa0 !o 0o&,3
which ;a! a lower level@ %arks o## -a!!hew K'>5L87 as a
se(ara!e $&! coheren! &ni! wi!hin !he Ser%on on !he -o&n!. A!
a %&ch hi*her level, however, -a!!hew 5'>: and -a!!hew
>7'>? #&nc!ion like $ookends aro&nd !he en!ire Gos(el ;!he0
#or% an incl&sio@, re#lec!in* each o!her wi!h !he shared !he%e
o# Gods (resence wi!h his (eo(le. This li!erar0 !echni1&e
serves no! onl0 !o !ie !o*e!her !he $e*innin* and !he end o#
-a!!hews Gos(el, $&! !o *ive !he overall Gos(el acco&n! a
(ar!ic&lar slan! as well' !he s!or0 o# Jes&s, accordin* !o
-a!!hew, is a$o&! Gods re!&rn !o $e 2wi!h &s.3 This s&**es!s
!o !he e,e*e!e !ha! in so%e #ashion ever0!hin* a$o&! -a!!hews
Gos(el s!or0 con!ri$&!es !o !his !he%e. In his #irs! (&$lic
a((earance, #or e,a%(le ;-! :'5:L5O@, Jes&s co%es wit+ t+e
$eo$e !o receive Johns $a(!is% o# re(en!ance ;see also -!
57'>?@.
Si%&l!aneo&sl0, ano!her -a!!hean re(e!i!ion hel(s &s !o
see !he sha(e o# !he whole s!or0 as -a!!hew a((aren!l0 saw i!.
-a!!hew 8'5O and 5J'>5 dis(la0 !he sa%e wordin*' eo
q( o 1q0 P 2.ro% !ha! !i%e on, Jes&s $e*an !o P3 In !he
#irs! case Jes&s "e/an to $ro%ai& !he Gos(el %essa*e, and in
!he second he "e/an to s+ow !he disci(les !ha! !he o!her side o#
-essiahshi( involves s&##erin* and dea!h. This re(e!i!ion
;#o&nd onl0 a! !hese !wo (laces in !he $ook@ s&**es!s !ha!
-a!!hew (resen!s Jes&s s!or0 in !hree (ar!s' his $ir!h, $a(!is%
and !e%(!a!ion ;-! 5'5L8'5J@G his (reachin*, !eachin* and
healin* %inis!r0 in Galilee ;-! 8'5OL5J'>?@G and his %inis!r0
o# s&##erin* and dea!h, chie#l0 in J&dea ;-! 5J'>5 and on@.
Takin* !his cl&e in co%$ina!ion wi!h !he 2God)wi!h)&s3 !he%e
anno&nced in !he $ookends, we $e*in !o *e! an idea o#
-a!!hews !heolo*ical %essa*e. God has co%e once %ore !o his
sin#&l (eo(le, !o $e wi!h !he%, iden!i#0in* hi%sel# wi!h !he% in
!heir s&##erin*, and !hro&*h his own s&##erin* se!!in* !he% #ree
!o $less all !he na!ions o# !he ear!h.
Th&s ever0 (or!ion o# !he Gos(el o# -a!!hew, ever0
(erico(e, ever0 (ara$le, ever0 healin* s!or0, ever0 s(eech,
needs !o $e read in !he con!e,! o# his lar*er, overridin* !he%e.
In !he Ser%on, when Jes&s con!ras!s !he inheri!ed !radi!ion
wi!h his own s(in on !hin*s ;-! K'>5L87@, we are !o hear !he
voi%e o1 Go! a&on/ 2s, hel(in* &s !o &nders!and %ore
(er#ec!l0 his (er#ec! will. <hen Jes&s &nnecessaril0 !o&ches
!he &n!o&cha$les ;-! 7'5L5K@, we *e! a $old look a! wha! Go!Cs
$resen%e a&on/ 2s se!s &s #ree !o do. Each (iece o# !he s!or0
con!ri$&!es !o (or!ra0in* God as havin* re!&rned !o &s as a
GodBa kin*Bwho s&##ers wi!h &s in order !o %ake &s his
ins!r&%en! o# rede%(!ion #or !he en!ire world. I! does no! !ake
a rocke!)scien!is! or a se%inar0 (ro#essor !o #i*&re !his o&!. I!
si%(l0 re1&ires (a0in* a!!en!ion !o !he $i* (ic!&re and !he
si*nals an a&!hor (rovides #or reco*niAin* i!. Usin* !ools like a
Bi$le dic!ionar0, a concordance and a Gos(el s0no(sis ;which
we will look a! in a %o%en!@, even readin* en!irel0 !hro&*h a
Gos(el in a sin*le si!!in*, %ake i! (ossi$le !o see so%e o# !hese
si*nals in rela!ivel0 shor! order. <ha! we have said here a$o&!
-a!!hew *oes do&$leBso !o s(eakB#or +&ke.
?.1.2 =olu&e 1 and =olu&e 2
<e need !o reco*niAe one ver0 i%(or!an! !hin* a$o&! +&kes
Gos(el !ha! se!s i! o## #ro% !he o!her !wo S0no(!ic Gos(els, as
well as #ro% John. Tha! %a4or dis!inc!ion is !ha! !he Gos(el o#
+&ke is onl0 !he #irs! (ar! o# a !wo)vol&%e work. Each o# !he
o!her !hree Gos(els s!ands alone, $&! +&ke does no!. The
canonical (osi!ionin* o# Johns Gos(el $e!ween +&ke and Ac!s
o$sc&res !his #ac!G +&ke is *ro&(ed wi!h !he o!her !wo
S0no(!ics ;-ark and -a!!hew@, and John is *ro&(ed wi!h !he
o!her !hree Gos(els, leavin* Ac!s cho((ed o## #ro% i!s Gos(el
$ase. This (ro$a$l0 e,(lains wh0 %an0 o# &s (reachers and
!eachers #ail !o #ac!or in !he (resence o# Ac!s when we do
e,e*esis in +&ke, or #or !ha! %a!!er #ail !o #ac!or in +&ke when
we do e,e*esis in Ac!s. This co%%on #ail&re is &n#air !o $o!h
$ooks. The s!or0 !old in !he Gos(el o# +&ke (rovides !he
(rel&de !o a %&ch lar*er s!or0, and we need !o read i! in !ha!
lar*er con!e,!. Honversel0, !he s!or0 o# Ac!s arises o&! o# !he
earlier s!or0 !old in +&ke and canno! $e &nders!ood a(ar! #ro%
i!. O$vio&sl0, we canno! &nders!and !he earl0 ch&rch wi!ho&!
knowin* !he s!or0 o# Jes&sG !ha! is no! !he (oin! here. <ha! I
%ean ins!ead is !ha! we canno! &nders!and !he s!or0 o# Jes&s
as it is to! in L2-e wi!ho&! &nders!andin* !he s&$se1&en!
s!or0 o# !he earl0 ch&rch as it is to! in .%ts and vice versa.
There are clear li!erar0 rela!ionshi(s $e!ween !he $ooks o#
+&ke and Ac!s !ha! $ind !he% !o*e!her as an or*anic, coheren!
li!erar0 &ni!0. Ever0 !i%e we (reach or !each #ro% +&ke, we
need !o kee( in %ind !he se1&el in Ac!s, #or !he0 work !o*e!her,
!he one risin* o&! o# and #&l#illin* !he o!her.
Se! +&ke and Ac!s end)!o)end ;(&llin* Johns Gos(el o&! o#
!he wa0 #or !he %o%en!@, and s!e( $ack #or a $e!!er view.
No!ice how !he0 are in!rod&ced wi!h %a!chin* (re#aces
addressed !o so%eone na%ed Theo(hil&s, (ossi$l0 a Ro%an
o##icial *ivin* #inancial s(onsorshi( !o +&kes (ro4ec! ;&nless
his na%e is %erel0 a s0%$ol #or an0 2God)lovin*3 reader@.
No!e !oo, !ha! in !he earl0 s!a*es o# !he Gos(el, +&ke *oes !o
e,a**era!ed e##or!s !o coordina!e !he s!or0 wi!h Ro%an
(oli!ical his!or0 ;+k >'5L>G :'5L>@. The #inal scenes o# Ac!s are
corres(ondin*l0 se! in Ro%e, %akin* Ro%e an incl&sio aro&nd
!he !wo)(ar! work ;o(era!in* so%e!hin* like !he God)wi!h)&s
!he%e in -a!!hew@. -eanwhile, !he ac!&al s!or0 in +&ke $e*ins
in Jer&sale%, in !he !e%(le, and con!rar0 !o !he version in
-ark and -a!!hew, i! c&l%ina!es no! in Galilee, $&! a*ain in
Jer&sale%. This ca&ses Jer&sale% !o #&nc!ion as an incl&sio #or
!he #irs! vol&%e, !he Gos(el. Ac!s !hen ;as vol&%e !wo@ $e*ins
in Jer&sale% ;where vol&%e one leaves o##@, and in accordance
wi!h !he (ro*ra%%a!ic s!a!e%en! in Ac!s 5'7, !he s!or0 !races
!he e,(ansion o# !he ch&rch #ro% Jer&sale%, $0 vario&s
*eo*ra(hic in!ervals, all !he wa0 !o Ro%e. Direc!l0 in !he
cen!er o# !his !wo)(ar! s!or0, ac!in* as !he hin*e, !he #&lcr&%,
!he (ivo! (oin! o# i! all, is !he co%(le, even! o# !he dea!h,
res&rrec!ion and ascension o# Jes&s. .i*&re O.5 *ra(hicall0
re(resen!s !his s!r&c!&re.
Unders!ood in !his wa0, +&ke)Ac!s (resen!s &s wi!h !he
s!or0 o# how God has in!ervened in wor! a##airs, no! 4&s! in
Jewish a##airs. Ce has done so !hro&*h !he Jewish -essiah,
Jes&s o# NaAare!h, $rin*in* a$o&! no! onl0 !he resol&!ion o#
Israels lon* e,ile $&! also !he resol&!ion o# !he en!ire worlds
(redica%en!. Ever0!hin* in "ot+ +&ke and Ac!s needs !o $e
&nders!ood in !his lar*er (ers(ec!ive, #or !ha! is how !he
a&!hor +&ke desi*ned his (ro4ec!. In #ac!, !he ver0 s!r&c!&re o#
+&ke)Ac!s s(eaks in !his wa0 !o !he dis!&r$in* 1&es!ion raised
$0 %an0 li$era!ion and con!e,!&al !heolo*ians' how can !he
$arti%2ar na!&re o# Jes&s, as a %ale Jew, $e o# si*ni#icance !o
#e%ales and %ales o# all c&l!&resI <e honor +&ke, and
Scri(!&re, when we (a0 a!!en!ion !o !his 1&es!ion, $eca&se
+&ke hi%sel# does so !hro&*h !he 2&niversal3 wa0 in which he
(resen!s !he s!or0 o# Jes&s, !he %ale Jew.
!igure +#"# LuAe-Acts. Geogra*$ical Structure
).2 HISTORY OR LITERATURE(
There is, however, an ele(han! in !he roo%. Al!ho&*h we have
!oo li!!le s(ace in a $ook like !his !o deal wi!h i! in an0
ade1&a!e wa0, we sho&ld a! leas! acknowled*e i!s (resence
;and we will re!&rn !o i! in a $i! %ore de!ail in cha(!er ei*h!@.
-an0 o# &s *rew &( wi!h no clear sense o# !he di##erences
a%on* !he #o&r Gos(els, nor, reall0, o# !heir vario&s
si%ilari!ies. .or %e a! leas!, !he Gos(els %er*ed in!o one
con#&sed and &ndi##eren!ia!ed acco&n! o# Jes&s li#e. I! never
occ&rred !o %e !ha! !he0 re(resen!ed an0!hin* o!her !han
s!rai*h!#orward records o# Jes&s ac!&al words and deeds. A!
so%e (oin! I $e*an !o realiAe !ha! !here were 1o2r Gos(els #or a
reason and !ha! each one had i!s own (ar!ic&lar wa0 o# !ellin*
Jes&s s!or0. And wi!h !ha!, !he ele(han! en!ered !he roo%.
Si%(l0 (&!, !he ele(han! is !his' <ha! is !he rela!ionshi(
$e!ween ;a@ wha! ac!&all0 ha((ened da0)!o)da0 d&rin* Jes&s
ear!hl0 li#e in ancien! Dales!ine, on !he one hand, and ;$@ wha!
!hese #o&r doc&%en!s se(ara!el0 re(or! a$o&! !ha! li#e, on !he
o!herI Are !he Gos(els 2his!ories,3 or are !he0 2li!era!&re3I
O# co&rse, (&!!in* i! !his wa0 ass&%es !ha! his!or0 and
li!era!&re are %&!&all0 e,cl&sive' an acco&n! o# an even! can $e
ei!her one or !he o!her, $&! no! $o!h. This is an &nnecessar0
ass&%(!ionG in #ac!, i! (res&((oses !he i%(ossi$le, #or !here is
no wa0 !o record an even! wi!ho&! recordin* i! 1ro& a
$arti%2ar $ers$e%tive. Even i# we had a video!a(e o# Jes&s
healin* !he le(er, !he (oin! o# view #ro% which !he ca%era was
ai%ed wo&ld have $een a $arti%2ar (oin! o# view. Even i# we
had a holo*ra(hic video recordin* o# i!, we o&rselves, !he
2readers,3 co&ld 2read3 i! #ro% onl0 one an*le a! a !i%e. An0
acco&n! o# an0 even! en*a*es in !he (rocesses o# selec!ion,
arran*e%en! and ada(!a!ion, and !hese !hree s!or0)!ellin*
ac!ivi!ies are onl0 do)a$le #ro% one (ers(ec!ive a! a !i%e. The
s&% !o!al o# !hese (rocesses a((lied !o crea!in* a (ar!ic&lar
acco&n! re(resen!s !he s!or0!ellers own (oin! o# view. The #&ll0
or$ed con!e,! o# an0 even! is #ar !oo co%(le, !o allow a
co%(le!e descri(!ion in an acco&n! o# !ha! even!, le! alone !he
#&ll co%(rehension o# i! $0 so%e ha(less lis!ener. Ders(ec!ive
is inesca(a$le.
This, I $elieve, is wh0 we have #o&r Gos(els, no! 4&s! one.
No sin*le re!ellin* o# an0 even! can ca(!&re i! in all i!s
(ro#&ndi!0 and co%(le,i!0, and cer!ainl0 no! an even! o# s&ch
cos%ic %a*ni!&de. <e know onl0 a ver0 li!!le a$o&! Jes&s
en!ire li#e ;as Jn >5'>K s&**es!s@, $&! we do hear a$o&! i! #ro%
#o&r di##eren! an*les. The e,e*e!ical 1&es!ion, *iven !his s!a!e
o# a##airs, is !his' wha! are !hese #o&r Gos(el wi!nesses ac!&all0
like ;incl&din* !he #ac! !ha! one o# !he% co%es in !wo
vol&%es@, and how does knowin* !his hel( &s !o &nders!and
!heir res(ec!ive %essa*esI
).3 HISTORICAL", FORM" AND SOURCE"CRITICAL
APPROACHES TO THE GOSPELS
Gos(el anal0sis has develo(ed ela$ora!el0 over !he las! !wo or
!hree cen!&ries, and wi!h increasin* s(eed since !he %id)
!wen!ie!h cen!&r0. The his!or0 o# !his develo(%en! !o so%e
de*ree #ollows !he shi#!s in !he (hiloso(hical and (oli!ical
cli%a!e, es(eciall0 in !he ind&s!rial <es!. Toda0, however,
!hese %os!l0 <es!ern !rends #ind !he%selves challen*ed $0
o&!s(oken !heolo*ians, %ale and #e%ale, #ro% +a!in A%erica,
A#rica, and Asia, and even #ro% wi!hin !he <es!Band none !oo
soon in %an0 res(ec!s. S!ill, wi!h re*ard !o !he na!&re o# !he
Gos(els as doc&%en!sBes(eciall0 in connec!ion wi!h !he
a!!e%(! !o recover !heir ori*inal %essa*eB%&ch o# !he res&l!
o# <es!ern scholarshi( (rovides &s a (la!#or% #ro% which !o
work. .or !he (resen! (&r(oses, we can %ake several
ass&%(!ions a$o&! !he Gos(els.
?.3.1 Historical Fra&e,ors
Hha(!ers #ive and si, e%(hasiAe !he i%(or!ance o# s!&d0in* a
$i$lical doc&%en! wi!hin !he con!e,! o# i!s his!orical and
c&l!&ral se!!in*. This (ers(ec!ive a((lies no less !o !he Gos(el
%a!erials !han !o o!hers. To a((recia!e +&ke 57'6L58, #or
e,a%(le, we need !o know how a Dharisee and a !a, collec!or
were each re*arded $0 !he res(ec!a$le (o(&lace o# #irs!)cen!&r0
Jer&sale% ;2res(ec!a$le,3 $eca&se +&ke has Jes&s !ellin* !his
(ara$le !o a res(ec!a$le a&dience@. Ge!!in* !his wron* s(oils
o&r *ras( o# Jes&s (oin!, as well as an0 $ene#i! we %i*h! ho(e
!o derive #ro% i!. <e do no! need !o review !his (rinci(le here.
<e do need !o no!ice, however, !ha! !he his!orical se!!in* o# !he
Gos(els is %ore co%(lica!ed !han !ha! o#, sa0, Da&ls le!!er !o
Dhile%on.
There are in #ac! !hree his!orical se!!in*s relevan! !o Gos(el
e,e*esis ;#o&r, i# we co&n! o&r own as e,e*e!es, $&! we do !his
#or e(is!les, !oo@. -os! o$vio&s is (ro$a$l0 !he +istori%a
settin/ o1 ,es2s +i&se1 as he walked !he d&s!0 roads ;and
s!or%0 lakes@ and !alked wi!h !he (eo(le o# Dales!ine.
;Scholars o#!en re#er !o !his wi!h !he Ger%an (hrase 7itQ i&
Le"en ,es2, 2Jes&s li#e si!&a!ion.3@ <e can le*i!i%a!el0 ask
where he was and wha! ha((ened in s&ch and s&ch a si!&a!ion
!o (ro%(! hi% !o !ell !he (ara$le o# !he Good Sa%ari!an ;+k
5?'>6L:O@. So%e!i%es !he Evan*elis!s s(ell o&! !hese
circ&%s!ances #or &s ;as +&ke ac!&all0 does in +k 5?'>KL>6@,
and o!her !i%es !he0 leave !he% &ns!a!ed, or onl0 va*&el0
indica!e !he% ;no!e c ci ( i( 2a! !ha! !i%e3 as a va*&e
se!!in*)%arker' -! 55'>KG 5>'5, e!c.@.
A second his!orical se!!in* re(resen!ed $0 !he Gos(els is
!he sit2ation o1 ea%+ 'van/eist as he wro!e his Gos(el. J&s! as
i! is &nlikel0 !ha! Da&l wro!e !he e(is!le !o Dhile%on wi!h all o#
2s in %ind, i! is al%os! cer!ain !ha! !he a&!hors o# -ark,
-a!!hew, +&ke and John had !heir own res(ec!ive
con*re*a!ions or (a!ron;s@ #ore%os! in %ind as !he0 wro!e. I!
is also #air !o ass&%e !ha! (ar! o# wha! %o!iva!ed each
Evan*elis! !o !ell his own version o# Jes&s s!or0 wo&ld have
$een !he iss&es (la*&in* !he (eo(le !o who% an Evan*elis!
ori*inall0 wro!e. -ark, #or e,a%(le, e%(hasiAes !he secrec0 o#
Jes&s -essiahshi(, and -a!!hew is es(eciall0 in!eres!ed in !he
#a!herhood o# God. In Johns %ind a((aren!l0, !he 2si*ns3
;qi@ !ha! Jes&s (er#or%ed were (ar!ic&larl0 e##ec!ive #or
convincin* Johns readers o# Jes&s iden!i!0 as Son o# God. <e
can reasona$l0 in#er !ha! !hese #ea!&res a((ear $eca&se o#
needs !he Evan*elis!s saw in !heir res(ec!ive a&diences.
A !hird his!orical se!!in* relevan! !o !he Gos(els si!s
$e!ween !he o!her !wo' !he $erio! o1 t+e eary %+2r%+. I! is
a*ain #air !o ass&%e !ha! in !he da0s, 0ears and decades
#ollowin* !he Res&rrec!ion and Den!ecos!, Hhris!ians
no&rished !he%selves wi!h wha! !he0 re%e%$ered #ro% !he
%inis!r0 o# Jes&s. So%e o# !his 2%e%or03 wo&ld have $een
wri!!en down, $&! %&ch o# i! do&$!less s&rvived #or a lon* !i%e
in oral #or% $e#ore $ein* co%%i!!ed !o wri!in* ;and (ro$a$l0
#or a lon* !i%e a#!er@. This in!eri% se!!in*, !ho&*h di##ic&l! !o
doc&%en!, is i%(or!an! never!heless, $eca&se i! was d&rin*
!his !i%e !ha! %an0 o# !he Gos(el (erico(es ac1&ired !heir
(resen! #or%. A! leas!, !ha! is !he !heor0 o# 1or& %riti%s.
?.3.2 For& (riticis&
Scholars who s(ec&la!e a$o&! !he e##ec! o# !his #reelance &sa*e
o# oral !radi!ion in !he (eriod o# !he earl0 ch&rch concl&de !ha!
(ar!ic&lar !0(es ;#or%s@ o# Gos(el (erico(es were &sed in
(ar!ic&lar %inis!r0 si!&a!ions. So%e (erico(es #oc&s on a (i!h0
re%ark o# Jes&s and #ra%e i! wi!hin a descri(!ion o# !he
circ&%s!ance leadin* &( !o i!. O!hers reco&n! an e,orcis% or a
healin* s!or0, or an al!erca!ion $e!ween Jes&s and an!a*onis!ic
reli*io&s leaders, in which Jes&s s&ccess#&ll0 o&!wi!s his
ene%ies. .or% cri!ics have iden!i#ied n&%ero&s 2#or%s3 and
assi*ned !he% !o !0(ical se!!in*s, #or%s s&ch as (ara$les,
na!&re)%iracles and so)called le*ends like !he !rans#i*&ra!ion
or !he !e%(!a!ion. ;The so%ewha! incendiar0 word e/en!
re#ers !o even!s !ha! do no! lend !he%selves !o his!oricall0
veri#ia$le inves!i*a!ion. E,ce(! !o so%e (eo(le, i! does no!
i%(l0 !ha! !he0 did no! or co&ld no! have ha((ened.@ I! is
en!irel0 reasona$le !o i%a*ine !0(ical si!&a!ions in which s&ch
s!ories and sa0in*s wo&ld have $een &sed in !ha! earl0 (eriod.
Then, in a so%ewha! circ&lar wa0 o# co&rse, #or% cri!ics &se
!hese h0(o!hesiAed se!!in*s !o in!er(re! !he #or%s in 1&es!ion
and !he (ar!ic&lar (erico(es classi#ied &nder !he%.
Take, #or e,a%(le, !he !e%(le conversa!ion Jes&s has wi!h
!he Dharisees a$o&! 2Davids son3 ;-! >>'85L8JG -k 5>':KL:OG
+k >?'85L88G 2I# David !h&s calls hi% +ord, how can he $e his
sonI3@. I# we a$s!rac! !he s!or0 #ro% i!s several Gos(el con!e,!s
and look a! i! as an inde(enden! (iece o# #loa!in* Jes&s)
!radi!ion in !he %iddle o# !he #irs! cen!&r0, we can easil0
con4ec!&re how i! %i*h! have #&nc!ioned as a hand0 li!!le
wea(on in a(olo*e!ic or evan*elis!ic circ&%s!ances. As a
$rillian! s!roke o# Jes&s e,e*esis, e##ec!ivel0 silencin* his
cri!ics ;-! >>'8J@, !his $rie# s!or0 co&ld 1&i!e reasona$l0 have
$een handed down orall0 #or 0ears $e#ore so%eone, -ark
(erha(s, !ook !he !ro&$le !o wri!e i! &(. These h0(o!he!ical $&!
en!irel0 (la&si$le 2oral3 circ&%s!ances 2con!e,!&aliAe3 !he
s(eech in !he li#e o# !he earl0 ch&rch and (rovide a $asis #or
&nders!andin* i!s si*ni#icance !o !he earlies! $elievers. Tha!
si*ni#icance will no! necessaril0 %a!ch !he si*ni#icance i! had
#or Jes&s in !he ori*inal conversa!ion. Nor will i! necessaril0
%a!ch !he si*ni#icance i! la!er has #or -ark ;or -a!!hew or
+&ke@.
-an0 #or% cri!ics have c0nicall0 ass&%ed !ha! !he oral
!radi!ion a$o&! Jes&s was s&$4ec! !o so %&ch in#or%al and
&ncon!rolled ada(!a!ion in !he (eriod o# !he earl0 ch&rch !ha!
we can now have ver0 li!!le con#idence in !he his!orical
relia$ili!0 o# i!s res&l!s #or !he li#e o# Jes&sG !he0 $elieve !ha! i!
%os!l0 !es!i#ies !o !he evolvin* s!a!e o# !he earl0 ch&rch. B0 !he
sa%e !oken, #or %an0 o!her s!&den!s o# !he Gos(els, !here is
4&s! a $i! !oo %&ch s(ec&la!ion in !he #or%)cri!ical (ro*ra% !o
ins(ire *rea! con#idence in i!s res&l!s a! all. There is in #ac!
*ood reason !o $elieve !ha! !he !radi!ion was #ar %ore
con!rolled, !ho&*h in %an0 res(ec!s 2in#or%all0,3 !han
<es!ern #or%)cri!ics have con#iden!l0 a##ir%ed.
5
S!ill, one o#
!he %os! &se#&l #r&i!s o# #or% cri!icis% is !he awareness !ha!
%an0 s!ories o# Jes&s words and deeds do&$!less s&rvived #or
so%e !i%e as discre!e &ni!s, &nconnec!ed wi!h one ano!her in a
li!erar0 wa0. On !he o!her hand, a *ood deal o# wha! !he earl0
ch&rch 2re%e%$ered3 d&rin* !his !i%e had al%os! cer!ainl0
$een wri!!en down, so%e o# i! in !he #or% o# e,!ended
narra!ives ;!he !rial and cr&ci#i,ion, (erha(s@, o!hers in !he
5

=enne!h E. Baile0, 2In#or%al Hon!rolled Oral Tradi!ion and !he
S0no(!ic Gos(els,3 .sia ,o2rna o1 @+eoo/y K ;5665@' :8LK8. Tho&*h I
in!end !o kee( #oo!no!es !o a %ini%&% in !his $ook, Baile0s ar!icle is so
#ascina!in* and 2sa!is#0in*,3 !ha! I #eel i! is wor!h %en!ionin*. Baile0 has
s(en! %os! o# his li#e and lon* career a%on* !he (easan! c&l!&res o# !he
-iddle Eas! and has a !hin* or !wo !o sa0 a$o&! !he relia$ili!0 o# (easan!
oral !radi!ions. The ar!icle is hard !o #ind, $&! i! is well wor!h !rackin*
down. A re(rin! o# i! a((eared in !he 4o&rnal >?, no. > ;566K@' 8L
55.
#or% o# sa0in*s)collec!ions or e,!ended s(eeches. This leads &s
!o so2r%e %riti%is&.
?.3.3 Source (riticis&
+&ke 5'5L8 %akes i! a$&ndan!l0 clear !ha! in !he co%(ila!ion o#
his Gos(el !he a&!hor %ade &se o# vario&s so&rces, so%e o#
!he% written so&rces. In o!her words, +&kes s!or0 o# Jes&s
was no! co%(osed #ro% +&kes own #irs!)hand %e%ories o#
Jes&s li#e and %inis!r0. Ce had o!her reso&rces !o work wi!h.
So%e o# !hese %a0 have $een live in!erviews he cond&c!ed wi!h
(ersons in Dales!ine who had $een on hand !o see Jes&s in !he
#lesh, or who had $een s(eciall0 char*ed wi!h 2re%e%$erin*3
!he s!ories. ;This role o# kee(in* !he !radi!ion %a0 $e wha!
+&ke %eans $0 2servan!s o# !he word3 q 0 u, +k
5'>.@ B0 his own !es!i%on0, he was wi!h Da&l d&rin* !he la!!ers
!wo)0ear i%(rison%en! in Haesarea on !he Dales!inian
seacoas! ;Ac!s >5L>O@, which wo&ld have (rovided +&ke wi!h
a%(le o((or!&ni!0 #or research. +&kes ad%ission !o &sin*
so&rces ;+k 5'5L8@ o(ens !he door #or askin* how %&ch an0 o#
!he #o&r Evan*elis!s relies on his own (ersonal, e0ewi!ness
e,(erience in wri!in* his Gos(el. In answerin* !his 1&es!ion,
so&rce cri!icis% !akes &s in ano!her direc!ion o# i%%ense
i%(or!ance.
A#!er cen!&ries o# s!&d0in* and de$a!in* !he iss&e, New
Tes!a%en! scholars now reco*niAe !ha! !here (ro$a$l0 e,is!s
so%e sor! o# direc! li!erar0 in!errela!ionshi( a%on* a! leas! !he
#irs! !hree Gos(els, !he so)called S0no(!ic Gos(els, -a!!hew,
-ark and +&ke. Johns Gos(el s!ands in a ca!e*or0 all i!s own
in !his res(ec!. <e canno! a##ord !he s(ace in !his $ook !o
disc&ss !he %a!!er in an0 de!ail, $&! we do need !o (resen! !he
!wo %os! co%%on e,(lana!ions #or !he wa0 !he S0no(!ic
Gos(els rese%$le one ano!her in !he order in which !he0
(resen! Jes&s s!or0 and in !heir #re1&en!l0 ver$a!i%
a*ree%en! wi!h one ano!her.
The #ac!s, *rea!l0 si%(li#ied, are !hese. .or one !hin*, so%e
acco&n!s o# Jes&s words and deeds show &( in all !hree
S0no(!ic Gos(els, o#!en in !he sa%e order and o#!en in
ver$a!i% a*ree%en!. Scholars call !his %a!erial !he tri$e
tra!ition. The !rans#i*&ra!ion ;-k 6'>L5? and (arallels@ is an
e,a%(le o# !his !ri(le !radi!ion. Second, so%e!i%es -a!!hew
and -ark (reserve %a!erial %issin* #ro% +&ke ;like !he s!or0
o# !he S0ro(hoenician wo%an, -k O'>8L:?G -! 5K'>5L>7@, and
so%e!i%es +&ke and -ark (reserve %a!erial %issin* #ro%
-a!!hew ;!he healin* o# !he de%oniac in !he s0na*o*&e, -k
5'>:L>7G +k 8'::L:O@. B&! %ore in!ri*&in* #or Gos(el so&rce)
!heoris!s is, !hird, !he #ac! !ha! -a!!hew and +&ke (reserve in
co%%on a ver0 lar*e selec!ion o# %a!erial no! #o&nd in -ark.
-&ch o# i! consis!s o# Jes&s words and %&ch o# i! e,hi$i!s
ver$a!i% or nearl0 ver$a!i% a*ree%en! $e!ween !hese !wo
Gos(els. This %a!erial co%%on !o -a!!hew and +&ke, $&!
lackin* in -ark, is known as !he !o2"e tra!ition. The +ords
Dra0er (rovides one o# !he %ore #a%o&s e,a%(les o# !he
do&$le !radi!ion ;-! J'6L5:G +k 55'5L8@. .o&r!hB$esides !he
!ri(le and do&$le !radi!ions and !he overla(s $e!ween -ark
and ei!her -a!!hew or +&ke ;$&! no! $o!h@Beach o# !he !hree
S0no(!ic Gos(els also has &ateria $e%2iar to itse1. Onl0
+&ke, #or ins!ance, re(or!s !he visi! o# !he she(herds !o !he
%an*er ;+k >@, and onl0 -a!!hew (reserves !he acco&n! o# !he
%a*i and o# Jose(hs !akin* !he hol0 #a%il0 !o E*0(! in order
!o esca(e !he Sla&*h!er o# !he Innocen!s ;-! >@. -ark con!ains
!he leas! a%o&n! o# (ec&liar %a!erial, $&! his acco&n! o# Jes&s
#a%il0 re*ardin* hi% as o&! o# his %ind ;-k :'56L>5@ (rovides
an e,a%(le. Gos(el so&rce cri!icis% a!!e%(!s !o e,(lain !hese
vario&s in!errela!ionshi(s.
The %os! co%%onl0 acce(!ed so&rce)cri!ical e,(lana!ion
ass&%es !ha! -arks Gos(el was wri!!en #irs!, !ha! is, i!
ass&%es 2-arkan (riori!0.3 Accordin* !o !his !heor0, $o!h
-a!!hew and +&ke la!er %ade &se o# -arks work as !he0
wro!e !heir own Gos(els, $&! !he0 did so in!e$en!enty o1 one
anot+er. <e co&ld call !his e,(lana!ion !he 2one-Gos$e
h0(o!hesis,3 since onl0 -ark serves as a so&rce #or each o# !he
o!her !wo. Cowever, !rea!in* -ark as !he sole so&rce #or
-a!!hew and +&ke does no! acco&n! #or !he do&$le !radi!ionB
!ha! ver0 lar*e (or!ion o# !he as!onishin* a*ree%en!s $e!ween
-a!!hews Gos(el and +&kes Gos(el !ha! !he co%%on &se o#
-ark canno! e,(lain, since i! is no! #o&nd in -ark. This is a
serio&s (ro$le%. Cow do we solve i!I "iewin* !he da!a in !his
wa0 ;!ha! is, ass&%in* -arkan (riori!0@ enco&ra*es &s !o
(os!&la!e a se%on! written so2r%e, which, like -arks Gos(el,
-a!!hew and +&ke $o!h &sed ;!ho&*h, a*ain, inde(enden!l0@.
Scholars &se !he Ger%an word W2ee 2so&rce3 !o re#er !o !his
o!herwise &nknown doc&%en! &sed inde(enden!l0 $0 $o!h
-a!!hew and +&ke. The0 call i! 2X3 #or shor!. Th&s, !here are
!wo so&rce !o%2&ents in !his scenario' !he Gos(el o# -ark and
X, a h0(o!he!ical collec!ion o# ;%os!l0@ Jes&s sa0in*s. This
*ives &s !he desi*na!ion, 2two-!o%2&ent h0(o!hesis3 ;or,
so%e!i%es, !he 2!wo)so2r%e h0(o!hesis3@. Takin* in!o
considera!ion !he (res&%ed ;also h0(o!he!ical@ so&rces o#
%a!erial (ec&liar !o -a!!hew and +&ke ;2-3 and 2+,3
res(ec!ivel0@, so%e (eo(le s(eak o# !his sol&!ion !o !he
S0no(!ic (ro$le% as !he 21o2r)doc&%en! h0(o!hesis.3
In (lace o# -arkan (riori!0, however, a less widel0 acce(!ed
sol&!ion !o !he s0no(!ic (ro$le% ass&%es ins!ead !ha!
-a!!hews Gos(el a((eared #irs! ;!here#ore 2-a!!hean
(riori!03@. Deo(le call !his a((roach !he 2!wo)Gos$e
h0(o!hesis.3 This can $eco%e con#&sin*, since !he o!her
sol&!ion is known as !he 2!wo)!o%2&ent5so2r%e h0(o!hesis.3
So $e care#&l/ Accordin* !o !his al!erna!ive !heor0, +&ke %ade
&se o# -a!!hews ;(ree,is!in*@ Gos(el as he wro!e his own.
This e,(lains !he do&$le !radi!ion. +a!er on, -ark, wi!h access
!o $o!h -a!!hew and +&ke as so&rces, a$rid*ed each o# !he% in
order !o (rod&ce his own, shor!er version ;cho((in* o&! !he
%a!erial we now call !he do&$le !radi!ion, #or e,a%(le@. This
!hen acco&n!s $o!h #or !he !ri(le !radi!ion and #or !he (laces
where -ark overla(s wi!h ei!her -a!!hew or +&ke and no!
wi!h !he o!her.
+ookin* onl0 a! !he s&r#ace o# !hese !hin*s, and invokin*
!he (rinci(le o# 2Occa%s raAor3 ;!ha! !he si%(les! sol&!ion is
$es!@, we %i*h! wonder wh0 !he !wo)doc&%en! h0(o!hesis is a
%ore (o(&lar sol&!ion !o !he S0no(!ic (ro$le% !han !he !wo)
Gos(el h0(o!hesis is. A#!er all, wh0 inven! a h0(o!he!ical
doc&%en! like X i# we don! need !oI The answer is !ha! !he
a((eal o# !he !wo)doc&%en! h0(o!hesisBeven wi!h XB
increases !he %ore scholars co%(are !he !hree Gos(els in
de!ail. <he!her we ass&%e !ha! -ark &sed -a!!hew and +&ke,
or !ha! -a!!hew and +&ke ;inde(enden!l0@ &sed -ark, we
%&s! lo*icall0 ask wh0 !he 2&ser3 %ade chan*es in his so&rces.
.or %os! Gos(el scholars, !he 2i%(rove%en!s3 !ha! -a!!hew
and +&ke wo&ld have %ade !o -arks s!or0 see% %ore
his!oricall0 (la&si$le !han !he 2i%(rove%en!s3 -ark wo&ld
have %ade !o -a!!hew and +&ke. Bo!h -a!!hews dic!ion and
+&kes are #ar %ore (olished !han -arks, and -arks
(resen!a!ion o# !he disci(les, even o# Jes&s, is less re#ined,
al%os! %ore o##ensive, !han ei!her +&kes version or
-a!!hews. -arks acco&n! o# Jes&s #a%il0 re*ardin* hi% as
o&! o# his %ind ;-k :'56L>5@, #or e,a%(le, see%s %ore like
so%e!hin* -a!!hew and +&ke wo&ld have dro((ed o&! !han
like so%e!hin* -ark wo&ld have added. <hile i! is no!
concl&sive, !his kind o# reasonin* s!ron*l0 s&**es!s !ha!
-a!!hew and +&ke have ac!&all0 2i%(roved3 -ark, ra!her !han
!he o!her wa0 aro&nd. Tha! is, on !his *ro&nd 2-arkan
(riori!03 a((ears %ore likel0 !han 2-a!!hean (riori!0.3 Tho&*h
scholars s!ill de$a!e !he 1&es!ion, !he re%ainder o# !his cha(!er
will o(era!e #ro% !he (ers(ec!ive o# !he !wo)doc&%en!
h0(o!hesis ;-arkan (riori!0@. Tha! i! %a!!ers, and !ha! i!
%a!!ers a *rea! deal, $eco%es o$vio&s in !he ne,! sec!ion,
which is devo!ed !o re!a%tion %riti%is&.
).4 REDACTION CRITICISM
The !er% re!a%tion is 4&s! ano!her, older word #or 2edi!in*.3
Redac!ion cri!icis% o# !he Gos(els is !he s!&d0 o# how one
Gos(el wri!er edi!ed ano!her Gos(el ;or o!her so&rces@ in !he
(rocess o# co%(osin* his own. O# co&rse, i! ass&%es !ha! s&ch
&se !r&l0 did occ&r, and !o so%e de*ree i! vis&aliAes !he
res&l!in* 2new3 Gos(el as a kind o# second edi!ion o# !he
so&rce. Tha! is, accordin* !o !he !wo)Gos$e h0(o!hesis, +&kes
Gos(el is so%e!hin* like !he 2second edi!ion3 o# -a!!hew, and
-ark is an a$$revia!ed second edi!ion o# +&ke, as well as a
2!hird edi!ion3 o# -a!!hew. On !he o!her hand, in !er%s o# !he
!wo)!o%2&ent h0(o!hesis ;!he sol&!ion #ollowed here@, $o!h
-a!!hew and +&ke re(resen! inde(enden! 2second edi!ions3 o#
-ark. Even !his, however, is no! reall0 !he ri*h! wa0 !o view
!he %a!!erG none o# !he res&l!in* Gos(els is !o $e re*arded as a
second ;or !hird@ edi!ion o# i!s so&rce doc&%en!;s@. Each
Gos(el wri!er in!ended !o !ell !he s!or0 o# Jes&s in his own
(ar!ic&lar wa0, no! si%(l0 !o #i, &( !he so&rce;s@ he &sed. This
is a%(l0 clear in +&kes (rolo*&e.
?.!.1 Sources and 8edactions
B&! wha! does redac!ion cri!icis% !ell &s, and how does i! do
soI S&((ose I dra#! a le!!er #or %0 wi#e !o send !o o&r
con*resswo%an, $&! %0 (oli!ical views and %0 wi#es do no!
(recisel0 coincide. In !he dra#!, I !ell !he con*resswo%an !ha!
!he *overn%en! needs !o s!ar! &( !he Can#ord n&clear #acili!0
a*ain real soon, so !ha! we will no! e,(erience so %an0 ener*0
crises. -0 wi#e, in co(0in* !he le!!er over as a #inal dra#!,
%akes a s&$!le chan*e or !wo. <hen she is done, we now &r*e
!ha! *overn%en! needs !o %ean &( !ha! Can#ord n&clear
#acili!0 real soon, even t+o2/+ we will likel0 e,(erience %an0
&ore ener*0 crises. +eave o&! a word or (hrase here, chan*e a
word or !wo !here, and (res!o/ a new %essa*e. An0one wi!h
$o!h dra#!s in hand co&ld co%(are !he% wi!h each o!her and
de!er%ine !he (oli!ical views o# each wri!er. On !he o!her hand,
wi!ho&! knowin* which dra#! ca%e #irs! and which de(ended
on !he o!her, !he redac!ion cri!ic is &na$le !o discern which
wri!er %ade %ons%io2s chan*es #ro% his or her so&rce. This is a
si*ni#ican! (ro$le% #or in!er(re!a!ion, $eca&se %akin* s&ch
%ons%io2s chan*es i%(lies an es(eciall0 s!ron* %o!iva!in*
in!eres!, one !ha! (erha(s s!ands o&! #ro% o!her in!eres!s.
So, i# -arks Gos(el ca%e #irs!, as in !he !wo)!o%2&ent
h0(o!hesis, !hen we have no wa0 o# knowin* wha! so&rce -ark
hi%sel# %a0 have devia!ed #ro% in order !o %ake a (ar!ic&lar
(oin!, nor wha! !hose (ar!ic&lar (oin!s wo&ld $e. Al!ho&*h we
have o!her %eans a! o&r dis(osal #or discernin* his !heolo*ical
in!en!ions, -arks edi!orial !rea!%en! o# a -nown so2r%e
wo&ld no! $e one o# !he%. I! wo&ld $e si%ilar #or -a!!hews
Gos(el, &nder !he !wo)Gos$e h0(o!hesis. 9e!, a*ain &nder !he
!wo)!o%2&ent h0(o!hesis, when we read ei!her -a!!hew or
+&ke and co%(are i! wi!h -ark, we are a$le !o ded&ce s(ecial
in!eres!s in -a!!hew and +&ke #ro% o$servin* !he wa0 each
%akes chan*es in -arks s!or0. This is wh0 !he choice o# a
sol&!ion !o !he S0no(!ic (ro$le% i%(lies a $i* di##erence in
res&l!s. <hose conscio&sl0 %ade chan*es are we discernin*
an0wa0' -a!!hews and +&kes, or -arksI
The iss&e wi!h X, !he o!her so&rce in !he !wo)doc&%en!
h0(o!hesis, is %ore co%(lica!ed. S&((ose !ha!, in addi!ion !o
%0 wi#es edi!orial work, %0 da&*h!er also %ade a co(0 #ro%
%0 ori*inal dra#! o# a le!!er !o o&r con*resswo%an, %akin*
chan*es in +er own wa0Bdi##eren! #ro% !he chan*es %0 wi#e
%ade. B&! s&((ose she did so a#!er %0 wi#e had alread0 %ailed
hers and wi!ho&! ever havin* seen her %o!hers version.
Un#or!&na!el0 #or 0o&, %0 ori*inal dra#! has since vanished.
Think o# %0 los! ori*inal dra#! as like X, and consider %0 wi#es
le!!er and %0 da&*h!ers le!!er, $o!h $ased on %0 dra#!, as like
-a!!hew and +&ke. Now so%ewha! la!er, $o!h %0 wi#es co(0
and %0 da&*h!ers #all in!o 0o&r hands. 9o& can discern where
!heir co(ies a*ree and where !he0 di##er, and so%ehow 0o&
know ;(re!end wi!h %e here, oka0/@ !ha! !he0 $o!h &sed !he
sa%e #irs! dra#! ;%ine@ as a so&rce. 9o& do no! know which one
o# !he% %ade chan*es #ro% !he ori*inal, however, since 0o& do
no! have !he ori*inal #or co%(arison. -0 da&*h!er &r*es !ha!
Can#ord $e re!&rned !o !he Na!ive A%erican co%%&ni!0, while
%0 wi#e, as 0o& recall, &r*es !ha! i! $e cleaned &(. <hich one
%ade a s$e%ia e11ort !o e,(ress her own (ar!ic&lar (ers(ec!ive
and which one %erel0 #ollowed %0 leadI Or do $o!h devia!e
#ro% !he ori*inal, $&! in di##eren! direc!ionsI This is !he
(ro$le% wi!h X. <e do no! even know whe!her X e,is!ed as a
wri!!en doc&%en!, le! alone wha! e,ac!l0 i! %a0 have looked
like. All we have !o *o $0 are !he %an0 and vario&s wa0s
-a!!hew and +&ke a*ree wi!h each o!herBor so%e!i%es
a&ost a*ree wi!h each o!herBa*ains! -ark. <here +&ke and
-a!!hew di##er #ro% each o!her in wordin* or e%(hasis in !he
;shared non)-arkan@ X %a!erial, we canno! $e cer!ain which
one #ollows !he (res&%ed ori*inal, or whe!her ei!her one o#
!he% does. Thin*s !h&s re%ain considera$l0 a%$i*&o&s where
X is concerned. This has no! (reven!ed X)scholars #ro%
erec!in* #a$&lo&s X)cas!les in !he air, however.
As res(onsi$le e,e*e!es o# !he S0no(!ic Gos(els, we have
li!!le choice $&! !o work #ro% one or ano!her !heor0 o# !he
li!erar0 rela!ionshi( a%on* !he%. I# i! co%es !o a choice
$e!ween !he !wo)so&rce h0(o!hesis and !he !wo)Gos(el
h0(o!hesis, !hen we %&s! (ick one or !he o!her. <e canno!
si%&l!aneo&sl0 ass&%e !ha! -a!!hew 2edi!ed3 -ark an! !ha!
-ark 2edi!ed3 -a!!hew. In one sense, i! does no! %&ch %a!!er
which !heor0 we work #ro%, so lon* as we (ick oneG we are in
*ood co%(an0 ei!her wa0. <e will have &ore *ood co%(an0
wi!h !he !wo)doc&%en! h0(o!hesis, $&! /oo! co%(an0 wi!h
ei!her. The res&l!s will di##er o# co&rse, $&! !ha! onl0 %akes #or
(rod&c!ive conversa!ion a%on* !he %e%$ers o# !he Bod0. I# i!
were i%(or!an! !o God !ha! we *e! i! a$sol&!el0 ri*h!, I s&s(ec!
he wo&ld have ;and co&ld have@ %ade i! clearer. The #ac! !ha!
he has no! %ade i! clearer !han i! is %eans, I !hink, !ha! i! is
also i%(or!an! !o hi% !ha! we work !o*e!her on i!.
?.!.2 8edaction as Selection
I! will $e ver0 hel(#&l !o 0o& i# 0o& cons&l! a Gos(el s0no(sis as
we work !hro&*h !his disc&ssion. A $i! la!er, we will s(end
considera$le !i%e on how !o %ake *ood &se o# !he s0no(sis.
-eanwhile, i# 0o& have access !o =. Alands 7yno$sis o1 t+e
4o2r Gos$es or i!s Greek version, 7yno$sis W2att2or
'van/eior2&,
>
#li( i! o(en !o inde, 5 #or eas0 re#erence. The
#ollowin* disc&ssion ass&%es !he Aland 7yno$sis.
Once redac!ion cri!ics have clari#ied a workin* %odel o#
who edi!ed who% ;s&ch as !he !wo)doc&%en! !heor0@, !he0
anal0Ae a !e,! in !er%s o# see%tion, arran/e&ent and
a!a$tation. In o!her words, nei!her -a!!hew nor +&ke see%t
-ark :'56L>5 ;!he harsh reac!ion o# Jes&s #a%il0 !o his sense
o# %ission@G we co&ld sa0 !ha! !he0 2de)selec!3 i!. B&! !he0 do
selec! %os! o# -arks o!her %a!erial, !ho&*h no! alwa0s !he
sa%e (ar!sB-a!!hew ;-! 5K'>5L>7@ selec!s, $&! +&ke de)
selec!s, -arks s!or0 o# !he S0ro(hoenician wo%an, #or
ins!ance. -oreover, havin* selec!ed one o# -arks (erico(es,
-a!!hew or +&ke %a0 !hen (roceed !o eli%ina!e ;de)selec!@
ele%en!s wi!hin i! or !o incl&de addi!ional %a!erial selec!ed
#ro% !he lar*er Jes&s)!radi!ion in circ&la!ion a! !he !i%e ;oral
or o!herwise, even #ro% X@. -ark *oes !o ela$ora!e len*!hs !o
descri$e Jes&s enco&n!er wi!h !he de%oniac in !he co&n!r0 o#
!he Gerasenes ;-k K'5L>?@. -a!!hew re!ains !he s!or0 ;-!
7'>7L:8@, se!!in* i! in a sli*h!l0 di##eren! *eo*ra(hical loca!ion
and addin* a second de%oniacG $&! o!herwise he c&!s i! !o !he
$one, de)selec!in* lar*e ch&nks o# de!ail (reserved $0 -ark.
On !he o!her hand, -a!!hew and +&ke $o!h selec! !he acco&n!
o# Jes&s !e%(!a!ion ;-k 5'5>L5:@. B&! whereas -arks version
o# !he even! is as lean as i! can $e wi!ho&! vanishin* al!o*e!her,
$o!h -a!!hew and +&ke work o&! !heir 2edi!ions3 o# i! wi!h
considera$le #lair and si%ilarl0 eno&*h !o raise !he 1&es!ion o#
>

=. Aland, ed., 7yno$sis W2att2or 'van/eior2&, 5:!h rev. ed.
;S!&!!*ar!' De&!sche Bi$el*esellscha#!, 567K@, and =. Aland, ed., 7yno$sis o1
t+e 4o2r Gos$es, rev. ed. ;New 9ork' Uni!ed Bi$le Socie!ies, 567>@.
X as a shared so&rce ;-! 8'5L55G +k 8'5L5:@. All o# !his raises
!he 1&es!ion, w+yN <h0 does -a!!hew, or +&ke, choose no! !o
incl&de !his or !ha! !e,! #ro% -ark, which, accordin* !o !heor0,
la0 ri*h! !here $e#ore his ver0 e0esI Discernin* an answer !o
!ha! 1&es!ion %oves &s alon* !he road !oward &nders!andin*
!he %o!ives $ehind !he chan*es %ade and !h&s !oward
*ras(in* !he !heolo*ical %essa*e !he evan*elis! wishes !o
conve0.
?.!.3 8edaction as +rran%e&ent
The second s!a*e o# redac!ion cri!icis% involves anal0Ain*
arran/e&ent. +&ke selec!s -arks s!or0 o# Jes&s ho%e!own
ser%on, which -ark (osi!ions well alon* in his Gos(el ;-k
J'5LJ@. +&ke however (laces i! ver0 earl0 in his Gos(el, a! !he
ver0 o&!se! o# Jes&s %inis!r0 in Galilee ;+k 8'5JL:?@. -a!!hew
also selec!s !his (erico(e, $&! he leaves i! in rela!ivel0 !he sa%e
(lace -ark has i!. <h0, we %a0 ask, does +&ke rearran*e !he
se1&ence o# !hin*s like !hisI Dar! o# !he answer %a0 lie in !he
wa0 +&ke also adds considera$le de!ail !o -arks acco&n! o#
!he even!, ela$ora!in* on wha! Jes&s ac!&all0 had !o sa0 in !he
ser%on. In +&kes hands, !he ser%on a! NaAare!h $eco%es a
(ro*ra%%a!ic s!a!e%en!, a kind o# %ani#es!o, #or Jes&s
%ission ;and $0 e,!ension in!o Ac!s, !ha! o# !he earl0 ch&rchI@.
As is !he case wi!h selec!ion, arran*e%en! can $e a((lied
no! onl0 !o a (erico(es (osi!ion wi!hin !he Gos(els lar*er
#ra%ework $&! also !o !he ele%en!s wi!hin a (erico(e. +&ke
and -a!!hew $o!h (reserve a *enealo*0 o# Jes&sG -a!!hews
co%es a! !he ver0 #ron! o# his Gos(el, $&! +&ke (laces his
version $e!ween !he acco&n!s o# !he $a(!is% and !he
!e%(!a!ion o# Jes&s. In addi!ion !o !hese di##erin* 2$i*)(ic!&re3
arran*e%en!s, !hese !wo *enealo*ies di##er in!ernall0 $0
r&nnin* in o((osi!e direc!ions. -a!!hews $e*ins wi!h
A$raha% and #lows downs!rea%, while +&kes $e*ins wi!h
Jes&s and #lows &(s!rea%, all !he wa0 (as! A$raha% !o Ada%
and God ;+k :'>:L:7@. I! is no acciden! !ha! +&ke !akes !he
reader #ro% !here direc!l0 !o !he !e%(!a!ion in !he deser!. B0
doin* so, +&ke (resen!s Jes&s as !he new Ada%, #acin* a new
!e%(!a!ion, and re(resen!in* all o# h&%ani!0, Jewish and
Gen!ile alike. Arran*e%en! is a (ower#&l redac!ional !ool.
?.!.! 8edaction as +daptation
Edi!ors a!a$t !heir so&rce %a!erial !o s&i! !heir own !as!es and
o$4ec!ives. Selec!ion and arran*e%en! are !wo #or%s o#
ada(!a!ion, whe!her on !he level o# an en!ire $ook or on !he
level o# a (erico(e, $&! !here are o!her #or%s o# ada(!a!ion as
well. -a!!hew selec!s -arks (erico(e on !he healin* o# De!ers
%o!her)in)law ;-k 5'>6L:5@, $&! he arran*es i! !o #ollow !he
Ser%on on !he -o&n! ;-! 7'58L5K@. Ce also %akes cer!ain
in!ernal rearran*e%en!s !o i! in order !o %ake i! re#lec! !he
chias!ic sha(e o# !he s!or0 o# !he le(er ;-! 7'>L8G we will
re!&rn !o !his (oin! in cha(!er ei*h!@. In addi!ion, however,
-a!!hew ada(!s so%e o# !he lan*&a*e o# -arks acco&n!,
chan*in* a word or !wo here, a (rono&n !here, &n!il !he
%o!her)in)law s!or0 1&i!e o$vio&sl0 2%a!ches3 !he le(ers
s!or0. This edi!orial %ane&ver ena$les -a!!hew !o $ind
!o*e!her !hree healin*s as a li!erar0 &ni! ;le(er, cen!&rions
2son3 Q-! 7'KL5:S and De!ers %o!her)in)law@ and !here$0 !o
e%$ed wi!hin !he% a (ro#o&nd !heolo*ical s!a!e%en!' Jes&s
has co%e !o !o&ch !he &n!o&cha$les, even !ho&*h !o&chin*
!he% is a((aren!l0 no! re1&ired #or healin* !he%.
?.!.) + Word of #ncoura%e&ent in This
.or %an0 o# &s, !hinkin* o# !he Gos(els in !his wa0 can $e
con#&sin* and dis!&r$in*. I# -ark is (ar! o# Gods Col0 <ord,
i! can dis!&r$ &s !o hear !ha! even -a!!hew or +&ke wo&ld have
dared !o !rea! i! in !his wa0. Cow co&ld !he si%(le ac! o#
readin* !he Gos(el s!or0 $eco%e so con#&sin*l0 co%(le,I
These are &nders!anda$le concerns, $&! !he0 co%e a! !he
%a!!er #ro% !he wron* end. @+ey i&$y t+at o2r ass2&$tions
a"o2t Hoy 7%ri$t2re are to "e $reserve! in s$ite o1 w+at we
&ay !is%over a"o2t t+e 7%ri$t2res 1ro& st2!yin/ t+e& as
t+ey are. <ha! we o&*h! !o do ins!ead is wha! we &s&all0 clai%
!o $e doin* an0wa0' we need !o allow !he a%t2a charac!er o#
!he Scri(!&res !o de#ine #or &s wha! o&r ass&%(!ions a$o&!
!he% sho&ld $e. I# we can !r&s! !he God who has *iven &s !hese
doc&%en!s, can we also !r&s! hi% !o have *iven &s so%e!hin*
he a((roves o#I O&r res(onsi$ili!0 is no! !o decide in advance
wha! !he $i$lical doc&%en!s o&*h! !o $e like, $&! !o et t+e& "e
wha!ever !he0 ac!&all0 are. <e canno! (ro(erl0 &nders!and
!he% or co%%&nica!e !heir %essa*e &nless we !rea! !he% wi!h
!ha! kind o# res(ec!. <e need no! #ear !he search #or !he !r&!h.
Tha! said, we %&s! also ad%i! !ha! !he %odel we have 4&s!
considered does no! necessaril0 re#lec! !he !r&!h we seekG #or
now, however ;in %0 view an0wa0@, i! %akes !he $es! sense o#
!he evidence $e#ore &s.
).$ USING A GOSPEL SYNOPSIS
As hin!ed a$ove ;see #oo!no!e >@, t+e !ool o# choice #or s!&d0in*
!he Gos(els !his wa0 is !he 7yno$sis o1 t+e 4o2r Gos$es,
edi!ed $0 =&r! Aland. I! is availa$le in En*lish ;RS" !e,!@ and in
Greek ;wi!h !he +a!in !i!le 7yno$sis W2att2or 'van/eior2&@.
There are si%ilar !ools, $&! Alands is !he +a%$or*hini o#
Gos(el s0no(ses. The edi!orial (ec&liari!ies o# each individ&al
Gos(el are every "it as &2%+ $art o1 t+e ins$ire! Wor! o1 Go!
as is !he Gos(el s!or0 i!sel#. This %eans !ha! we can *rea!l0
$ene#i! #ro% &sin* a !ool like !his in !he anal0sis o# Gods
<ord. As a !ool, !he s0no(sis ena$les &s !o $e %ore readil0
#ai!h#&l !o !he <ord in i!s #&llness !han we co&ld o!herwise $e,
like &sin* a $ackhoe ins!ead o# a hand)!rowel !o e,cava!e a new
$ase%en!. No! !ha! i! wo&ld o!herwise $e i%(ossi$le !o
acco%(lish !he sa%e res&l!sG ra!her, !he s0no(sis %akes !he
4o$ #ar easier. .or !ha! reason, we will s(end !he res! o# !his
cha(!er on how !o #ind o&r wa0 aro&nd in !he !ool and on how
!o &se i!. This %eans !ha! !he !one and charac!er o# !he
#ollowin* disc&ssion will $e 1&i!e di##eren! #ro% !he %a!erial in
sec!ions O.5LO.8, %ore a 2how)!o3 !han a 2wha!)is3 disc&ssion.
?.).1 /esi%n of the Synopsis
The desi*n o# !he Aland 7yno$sis can $e (&AAlin*.
Unders!andin* how i! was ;a((aren!l0@ co%(iled hel(s &s in
&nders!andin* !he wa0 i! is laid o&!. Cere is !he lo*ic o# i!. As
we *o !hro&*h !his, i! will $e hel(#&l i# 0o& kee( 0o&r co(0 o#
!he 7yno$sis o(en !o inde, 5, !he 2Inde, o# !he Gos(el
Darallels3 ;((. :85LKK in !he En*lish edi!ionG all (a*e
re#erences in !he #ollowin* disc&ssion re#er !o !his edi!ion@. The
7yno$sis (rovides ;a@ !he !e,! o# each o# !he #o&r Gos(els
arran*ed in i!s (ro(er order, s!ar! !o #inish. Si%&l!aneo&sl0, #or
each Gos(els individ&al (erico(es, and in as li!!le s(ace as
(ossi$le, i! also (rovides ;$@ an0 (arallel !e,!s #ro% !he o!her
Gos(els, convenien!l0 la0in* !he% side $0 side in col&%ns. In
order !o (rovide !hese services, !he 7yno$sis is desi*ned as
#ollows. Envision a lar*e workroo% wi!h #o&r lon* !a$les where
!he c&!!in*)and)(as!in* (rocess o# asse%$lin* !he 7yno$sis is
&nderwa0.
5. .irs! vis&aliAe each Gos(el laid o&! on i!s own !a$le and
c&! &( in!o i!s se(ara!e (erico(es. The (oin!s o# division
$e!ween (erico(es re#lec!, o# co&rse, !he edi!ors #or%)cri!ical
4&d*%en!. <e are #ree !o challen*e an0 o# his decisions in !his,
$&! i# we do, we need !o $e a$le !o sa0 wh0 we do and !o s&((l0
;and 4&s!i#0@ an al!erna!ive anal0sis.
>. Ne,!, !he (erico(es o# each se(ara!e Gos(el ;%akin* &(
!he en!ire Gos(el@ are laid o&! in !he order !he0 #ollow in !ha!
Gos(el, (erico(e $0 (erico(e, all !he wa0 !hro&*hBa*ain, one
Gos(el (er work!a$le.
:. -an0 o# !hese individ&al (erico(es, s&ch as !hose !ha!
$elon* !o !he !ri(le or !he do&$le !radi!ion, rea((ear in one or
%ore o# !he o!her Gos(els, !ho&*h no! necessaril0 in !he sa%e
order or (recisel0 !he sa%e #or%. .ro% inde, 5, we can see, #or
e,a%(le, !ha! John !he Ba(!is!s (reachin* o# re(en!anceB
(erico(e 58, n&%$ered in !he le#!)hand %ar*inBocc&rs in $o!h
-a!!hew and +&ke. So%e o# !hese corres(ondin*, (arallel
(erico(es are o$vio&sl0 al!erna!e versions o# !he 2sa%e3 s!or0.
O!hers are less o$vio&sl0 so $&! are close eno&*h in cer!ain
res(ec!s !o $e !rea!ed as (arallels !o each o!her.
8. Then, #or each o# !he #o&r Gos(els, one Gos(el a! a !i%e,
co(ies are %ade o# !he (arallel (erico(es #ro% wherever !he0
occ&r in !he ot+er t+ree Gos(els. These co(ies are !hen laid o&!
in se(ara!e col&%ns on each work!a$le alon*side !heir (arallel
co&n!er(ar!s in !he 2leadin*3 Gos(el #or !ha! !a$le, wi!h one
col&%n #or each se(ara!e 2non)leadin*3 Gos(el. Th&s, !he
order o# !he d&(lica!ed (erico(es #ro% !he o!her !hree 2non)
leadin*3 Gos(els is o#!en scra%$led in !he (rocess. In !he
7yno$sis, !he 2leadin*3 Gos(el is whichever one o# !he #o&r !he
7yno$sis is c&rren!l0 #oc&sin* on.
K. Now, on each se(ara!e work!a$le in !he c&!!in* roo%
;where we are cons!r&c!in* !he 7yno$sis@, we have #o&r
se(ara!e col&%ns o# Gos(el (erico(esBone #or each Gos(el,
one se! (er !a$le. To chan*e !he %e!a(hor sli*h!l0, !he0 are like
decks o# cards, each deck arran*ed in (ro(er order #or !ha!
Gos(el. In addi!ion, where a((ro(ria!e, and in (arallel
col&%ns, we have a!!ached !o each (erico(e ;!o each card in a
deck@ co(ies o# all i!s (arallel cards #ro% !he o!her Gos(els.
J. Ne,!, all #o&r o# !hese decks are in!er)sh&##led in!o one
&aster !e%-. In !he (rocess o# co%$inin* !he #o&r decks, we
eli%ina!e all red&ndan! cards in order !o c&! down on siAe and
!he &se o# s(ace. Inde, 5 (rovides a lis! %ade #ro% !he
co%$ined decks o# !hese (erico(es and (arallels. <herever
(arallel (erico(es occ&r in !he sa%e rela!ive order in !heir
res(ec!ive Gos(els, !he se(ara!e (erico(es #or !hose Gos(els
a((ear !o*e!her in one (lace, ra!her !han a((earin* in !wo or
!hreeBor even #o&rBse(ara!e (laces. .or an e,a%(le, look in
inde, 5 a! (erico(e >?, 2The Te%(!a!ion.3 The 7yno$sis
arran*es !he se(ara!e Gos(el col&%ns rela!ive !o each o!her so
!ha! !his (erico(e co%es a! !he sa%e rela!ive (lace in -a!!hew,
-ark and +&ke. Th&s, !he da!a #or !he !e%(!a!ion does no!
need !o a((ear in !hree di##eren! (erico(e loca!ions, one #or
each Gos(elG 2slo!3 >? does !he 4o$ $0 i!sel# #or all !hree.
O. .inall0, in inde, 5, and in !he res! o# !he 7yno$sis, we can
dis!in*&ish !he 2in)order3 ;lead@ %a!erial #ro% !he 2o&!)o#)
order3 ;(arallel@ %a!erial $0 whe!her $old !0(e or (lain !0(e is
&sed #or indica!in* !he cha(!er)verse re#erences. The $old !0(e
re#ers !o in)order (erico(es #or a *iven Gos(el. A (lain !0(e
re#erence indica!es a (arallel !e,! d&(lica!ed and dis(laced #or
convenien! co%(arison wi!h so%e o!her Gos(els 2in)order3
(erico(e.
Take a %o%en! now !o look over !he #o&r Gos(el col&%ns
in !he ne,! #ew (a*es o# inde, 5. Tr0 !o vis&aliAe !hese #o&r
se(ara!e lis!s havin* $een %er*ed, sh&##led !o*e!her like decks
o# cards, wi!h !he ad4acen! red&ndancies weeded o&!. J&d*in*
#ro% !he in#or%a!ion (rovided in !he inde, a! (erico(e 5>7
;2The Dara$le o# !he -&s!ard Seed3@, de!er%ine how %an0
!i%es in !he 7yno$sis !he (arallel versions o# !his (erico(e will
$e laid o&!, and where !he0 are #o&nd. ;.or !he answer, a#!er
0o& have #i*&red i! o&! #or 0o&rsel#, see !he end o# !he cha(!er'
Answer 5.@
?.).2 @a*i%atin% in the Synopsis
I# we wan! !o #ind !he 7yno$sis !rea!%en! o# a (ar!ic&lar
(erico(e in +&ke ;sa0, +k 8'5JL:?@, we can &se !hree di##eren!
wa0s !o loca!e i!. ;5@ <e can #ollow !he $old)!0(e re#erences
down !he +&ke col&%n o# inde, 5 &n!il we co%e !o +&ke 8'5JL
:? in $old !0(e. Tr0 i!G which n&%$er (erico(e is i! and on
wha! (a*e will we #ind !he !e,!I ;See answer >, $elow.@ ;>@ Or
we can &se inde, >, 2Inde, o# New Tes!a%en! Dassa*es3 ;((.
:KJLJ5 in !he En*lish edi!ion@. Tr0 i! #or +&ke 8'5JL:?. Cere,
!oo, !he $old !0(e#ace indica!es in)order re#erences. The
re#erences #or !he o&!)o#)order (arallels are no! e,(lici!l0 lis!ed
in inde, >, $&! !he (erico(e and (a*e n&%$ers #or !he% are.
No!e !ha! (erico(e 5:6 !rea!s !he (arallels !o +&ke 8'5JL:?
#ro% !he (ers(ec!ive o# !he o!her Gos(els order, !ha! is, where
-a!!hew and -ark are !he 2leadin*3 Gos(els. The s%aller,
(lain)!0(e verse n&%$ers lis!ed !here in inde, > are secondar0
(arallelsG we will co%e $ack !o !he% in a %o%en!.
:@ The !hird wa0 !o #ind !he in)order !rea!%en! o# +&ke
8'5JL:? !akes &s !o !he %ain $od0 o# !he 7yno$sis. T&rn !o
(a*e >?O ;which I selec!ed $0 o(enin* !he $ook a! rando%G i#
0o& are &sin* !he Greek 7yno$sis, !&rn ins!ead !o (. :>:@.
Across !he ver0 !o( o# !he (a*e, in !he header, we #ind !hree
sec!ions. In !he 2*&!!er,3 on !he le#!, we see 2Qno. >8?S3 ;!he
Greek 7yno$sis &ses !he Ger%an a$$revia!ion nr. in (lace o#
!he En*lish no.@G !his !ells &s !he n&%$er o# !he (erico(e
!rea!ed on !ha! (a*e ;in !his case, !he (erico(e ac!&all0 s!ar!s
on !he (recedin* (a*e@. On !he #ar ri*h!, a! !he o&!er %ar*in, is
!he (a*e n&%$er, >?O ;or :>:@, which *o! 0o& here. This
%eans !ha! we can &se ei!her !he (a*e n&%$er or !he (erico(e
n&%$er !o #ind o&r wa0 aro&nd in !he $od0 o# !he $ook,
(rovided we know wha! !he0 are, as in %0 !ellin* 0o& !o !&rn !o
(a*e >?O. ;No!e !ha! on (a*e >?J and o!her even)n&%$ered
(a*es, !he (a*e and (erico(e n&%$ers are s!ill a! !he o&!er
%ar*in and in !he 2*&!!er,3 res(ec!ivel0G $&! %ar*in and *&!!er
are reversed as !o le#! and ri*h!.@ T&rn now !o (erico(e ;no!
$a/eK@ 578, &sin* 4&s! !he (a*e headers. <ha! $a/e do 0o& end
&( onI ;See answer :, $elow.@
Cowever, i# we know onl0 !he $i$lical re#erence o# !he
(erico(e, s&ch as +&ke 8'5JL:?, we can loca!e i! $0 &sin* !he
cen!er (or!ion o# !he (a*e header, where we #ind a re#erence
#or each o# !he #o&r Gos(els. These re#erences occ&r in ei!her
$old or (lain !0(e#ace, and !here will alwa0s $e a! leas! one
Gos(el re#erence in $old. <ha! do we have in !he header #or
(a*e 5O? ;(. >JO in !he Greek 7yno$sis@I ;See answer 8.@ <ha!
!his %eans is !ha! on an0 (ar!ic&lar (a*e, !he header will
indica!e in $old !0(e which Gos(el or Gos(els (rovide !he
2lead3 !e,!;s@ #or !his (erico(e. In !he case o# (a*e 5O? ;or (.
>JO@, +&kes order alone is !he 2lead.3 The (lain !0(e#ace #or
!he o!her !hree Gos(el re#erences in !he header on !his (a*eB
and *e! !hisBindica!es !he ast $eri%o$e treate! as a ea!in/
text 1or ea%+ o1 t+ose Gos$es. I! is not !ellin* &s !ha! !hese
!e,!s are !rea!ed on t+is (a*e as o&!)o#)order (arallels. This
%eans !ha! we can ri##le $ackward or #orward !hro&*h !he
$ook, wa!chin* !he cen!er (a*e headers, &n!il we #ind !he
desired (assa*e lis!ed !here in $old. Tr0 i! #or #indin* +&ke
8'5JL:? in $old. The (rocess sho&ld !ake 0o& !o (a*es :5L::
;((. 87LK? in !he Greek 7yno$sis@. So i# we know !he $i$lical
(assa*e we wan! !o s!&d0 in !he 7yno$sis, we have !hree !ools
!o &se in order !o loca!e i!' !he !wo inde,es and !he (a*e
headers.
?.).3 Secondary "arallels
In !he ne,! sec!ion, we will see wha! !he 7yno$sis can show &s
a$o&! !he vario&s Gos(el wri!ers edi!orial ac!ivi!ies. .irs!,
however, !here are a co&(le %ore !hin*s !o o$serve a$o&! i!s
desi*n. In !he (rocess o# e,(lorin* !he la0o&! o# !he 7yno$sis,
we no!iced !e,! and re#erences (rin!ed no! 4&s! in (lain !0(e,
$&! even in re!2%e! (lain !0(e. Honsider (erico(e >87, #or
e,a%(le. This (erico(e re(resen!s Johns s!or0 o# how Jes&s
heals a %an $orn $lind ;Jn 6'5L85@. .or !his Johannine
(erico(e, and #or !he several o!her Johannine (erico(es
(rin!ed in !he i%%edia!e vicini!0 ;((. >?JL58 QGreek, ((. :>5L
::S@, !here are ver0 #ew (arallels in !he o!her !hree Gos(els. In
#ac!, #or (erico(es >:7LK?, !he lead !e,!s are all #ro% Johns
Gos(el, and !here are no (ri%ar0 (arallels #or an0 o# !he%.
Cowever, #or !wo o# !he% in !he En*lish 7yno$sis ;nos. >8?
and >87@ and #or #o&r o# !he% in !he Greek 7yno$sis ;addin*
nos. >85 and >8O@, s%all)(rin! re#erences are (rovided a! !he
head o# !he -a!!hew, -ark and +&ke col&%nsG #&r!her down
!hese col&%ns, also in s%all (rin!, we #ind !he !e,!s
corres(ondin* !o !hose re#erences. In #ac!, in (erico(e >87
!here is even an addi!ional s%all)(rin! !e,! #ro% John. These
addi!ional !e,!s are se%on!ary (arallels. Tho&*h no! direc!l0
(arallel !o !he lead !e,!, !he0 are in so%e wa0 re%iniscen! o# i!
and !here#ore, in !he edi!ors o(inion, wor!h0 o# no!e. O#!en,
!hese secondar0 (arallels will swi!ch on a li*h! $&l$ in o&r
heads as we !hink a$o&! !he %eanin* o# !he lead !e,!. Take a
%o%en! !o read over !he lead !e,! o# (erico(e >87, and !hen
read !he vario&s secondar0 (arallels !ha! Aland has s&((lied,
no! onl0 #ro% !he !hree S0no(!ics, $&! #ro% elsewhere in John
as well. Cow do !hese secondar0 (arallels s&**es! we %i*h!
read and &nders!and !he %essa*e o# John 6I
No!e also !ha! wherever !here has 4&s! $een, or will now $e,
a $reak in a lead Gos(els se1&ence, each lead (erico(e !e,! is
s&((lied wi!h !he 7yno$sis 2address3 #or !he (revio&s andNor
!he ne,! lead !e,! #ro% !ha! Gos(el. Dri%ar0 (arallels (&lled
o2t o# se1&ence are also s&((lied wi!h !he 2addresses3 where
!he0 occ&r in se1&ence. As an e,a%(le, !&rn !o (erico(es 5J
and 5O. .inall0, a! !he end o# %os! (erico(es and a! !he $o!!o%
o# vir!&all0 ever0 (a*e in !he %ain $od0 o# !he En*lish
7yno$sis, we #ind !wo se!s o# no!es. The &((er one ;where
!here are !wo@ (rovides al!erna!ive !ransla!ions in o!her
En*lish)lan*&a*e versions o# !he !e,!. The lower one ;a*ain,
where !here are !wo@ (rovides o!her in#or%a!ion, s&ch as
al!erna!ive readin*s $ased on vario&s ancien! %an&scri(!s, as
well as (o!en!iall0 in!eres!in* cross)re#erences !o o!her $i$lical
!e,!s. In !he Greek 7yno$sis, !hese %ar*inal no!es (rovide
!e,!)cri!ical da!a #or each Gos(el ;descri$ed in cha(!er !wo,
a$ove@ as well as a weal!h o# cross)re#erences !o 1&o!a!ions,
all&sions and o!her (arallels #ro% o&!side !he Gos(els.
?.).! "eterAs 4other>in>La,
<e %a0 &se -a!!hew 7'58L5K, !he healin* o# De!ers %o!her)
in)law, as an e,a%(le o# wha! !he 7yno$sis can !ell &s. Usin*
!his (ar!ic&lar !e,! i%(lies, #irs!, !ha! we are askin* here a$o&!
-a!!hews %essa*e, no! a$o&! -arks, +&kes or Johns. <e
will !here#ore !&rn !o !he (lace in !he 7yno$sis where
-a!!hews version o# !his s!or0 a((ears as !he 2lead3 !e,!.
Usin* inde, 5, inde, > or !he (a*e headers ;as descri$ed a$ove
in O.K.>@ $rin*s &s !o (erico(e 7O ;En*lish, (. OKG Greek, (. 55O@.
<e can see i%%edia!el0 #ro% !he la0o&! o# (erico(e 7O !ha!
-ark and +&ke (lace versions o# !his sa%e s!or0 rela!ivel0
earlier in !heir res(ec!ive Gos(els ;$o!h !rea!ed as (erico(e :O
in !he 7yno$sis@ and !ha! John does no! record !his even! a! all.
Never!heless, !he versions #ro% -ark and +&ke a((ear here in
(erico(e 7O, 2o&! o# order,3 so as !o (rovide eas0 access !o
!he% as (arallels !o -a!!hews version. ;The reverse is !r&e a!
(erico(e :O.@
.&r!her a!!en!ion !o inde, 5 reveals !ha! !he %ain di##erence
in arran*e%en! $e!ween -a!!hew and -ark a! !his (oin!
;viewed #ro% !he (ers(ec!ive o# !he !wo)doc&%en! h0(o!hesis@
is !ha! -a!!hew (os!(ones !his healin* s!or0 &n!il al%os!
i%%edia!el0 a#!er Jes&s delivers !he Ser%on on !he -o&n!.
Once -a!!hews Jes&s co%es down #ro% !he %o&n!ain ;-!
7'5@, his #irs! enco&n!ers are wi!h (ersons who% -arks Jes&s
%ee!s in -ark 5, na%el0 !he %o!her)in)law o# Si%on ;-k
5'>6L:5@ and !he le(er ;-k 5'8?L8K@. In !he (rocess o#
2selec!in*3 !hese !wo s!ories #ro% -ark 5, -a!!hew reverses
!heir order and deselec!s ;o%i!s@ !wo o!her !e,!s -ark incl&des
$e!ween !he%. -a!!hew !hen $rin*s in a s!or0 ;(erha(s #ro%
XG c#. +k O'5L5?@ a$o&! !he healin* o# !he son ;or servan!' i@
o# a Ro%an cen!&rion and inser!s i! $e!ween !he !wo he *e!s
#ro% -ark. The ne! e##ec! is, in (ar!, !ha! !he Ser%on on !he
-o&n! $eco%es a kind o# (ro*ra%%a!ic %ani#es!o #or
-a!!hews Gos(el ;as !he NaAare!h ser%on does #or +&kes
Gos(el@, and !hese !hree need0 (ersons re(resen! !he #irs!
(eo(le Jes&s %ee!s in his ac!ive healin* %inis!r0 in Galilee.
<i!h !hese (reli%inar0 o$serva!ions on !he see%tion and
arran/e&ent o# !he %o!her)in)law (erico(e ;all availa$le !o &s
!hro&*h inde, 5@, we can !&rn o&r a!!en!ion !o !he a!a$tation
o# i!s in!ernal wordin*. .or !his (&r(ose i! is al%os! essen!ial
!o ado(! so%e s0s!e% o# vis&all0 hi*hli*h!in* !he a*ree%en!s
and discre(ancies $e!ween !wo (arallel Gos(el acco&n!s. I! is
easies! !o do !his direc!l0 on !he (a*es o# !he !ool i!sel#, a !ool
in!ended #or o&r 2se. The #ac! !ha! Alands Greek 7yno$sis is
(ar!ic&larl0 e,(ensive, in con!ras! !o !he En*lish)onl0 edi!ion,
%a0 %ake so%e &sers rel&c!an! !o 2%ark &(3 !heir co(ies in
!his wa0. In !ha! case, &sers sho&ld a! leas! %ake (ho!oco(ies
o# relevan! (a*es and %ark t+e& &(. B&! %arkin* &( even !he
Greek edi!ion is no worse !han &nderlinin* !e,! or wri!in*
%ar*inal no!es in an e,(ensive new Bi$le. Once 0o& *e! (as!
%akin* !he #irs! %ark, !he s!r&**le is over, like *e!!in* !he #irs!
scra!ch on a $rand new car.
The (ar!ic&lar s0s!e% we ado(! #or hi*hli*h!in* !he
co%(arisons is no! i%(or!an!, so lon* as i! ena$les &s !o see
clearl0 how !he !wo acco&n!s co%(are and con!ras!. I! sho&ld
hi*hli*h! ;a@ !e,! in ver$a!i% a*ree%en! $e!ween !he !wo
(arallel acco&n!s, ;$@ !e,! nearl0 in ver$a!i% a*ree%en! $&!
ada(!ed !o so%e de*ree, ;c@ !e,! ke(! in!ac! $&! rearran*ed, ;d@
!e,! o%i!!ed #ro% !he (arallel, and ;e@ !e,! added. So%e
hi*hli*h!in* s0s!e%s &se co%$ina!ions o# solid, dashed and
do!!ed &nderlinin* ;and i!s a$sence@ #or !his (&r(oseG o!hers
&se con!ras!in* colors. One (o!en!iall0 con#&sin* #ac!or is
wor!h %en!ionin* here, however. <he!her we o(era!e #ro% !he
!wo)doc&%en! h0(o!hesis or #ro% !he !wo)Gos(el h0(o!hesis,
we will need !o kee( se(ara!e how -a!!hew and +&ke
individ&all0 rela!e !o -ark. In a (erico(e re(resen!in* !he
!ri(le !radi!ion, #or e,a%(le, where all !hree S0no(!ic Gos(els
(reserve !he (erico(e in rela!ivel0 !he sa%e loca!ion ;as in
(erico(e 58J, !he .eedin* o# !he .ive Tho&sand@, !he %arkin*)
&( o# -a!!hew and -ark %a0 in!er#ere wi!h !he %arkin*)&( o#
-ark and +&ke. See #i*&re O.> #or a *ra(hic de(ic!ion o#
%arkin* &( -a!!hew and -ark a! (erico(e 7O.
In #i*&re O.>, solid lines &nderscore %a!erial which
-a!!hew ;on !he !wo)doc&%en! h0(o!hesis@ has !aken over
ver$a!i% #ro% -ark. Broken lines &nderscore wha! -a!!hew
$orrows #ro% -ark, $&! wi!h cer!ain ada(!a!ions, &s&all0
*ra%%a!ical. In one ins!ance an addi!ional line, do!!ed,
indica!es !ha! -a!!hew has %oved a (iece o# !e,! #ro% !he s(o!
i! occ&(ies in -ark !o one %ore con*enial !o his own (&r(oses.
;-arks q 2raised3 in v. :5 is conver!ed !o (assive and
%oved !o #ollow u 2#ever3 in -! 7'5KG !h&s i! is
&nderscored $0 "ot+ a $roken line and a do!!ed line.@ Te,!
wi!ho&! &nderscorin* is ei!her o%i!!ed $0 -a!!hew #ro%
-arks !e,! or added $0 -a!!hew !o !he s!or0. Si%ilar
&nderscorin*s anal0Ae !he En*lish versionG $&! no!ice !ha! !he
%ovin* o# !e,! ;re1&irin* a do!!ed line@ is no lon*er o$serva$le.
l
cOu o 1q0
l O ci u c(O
qO i 5
i u
i
i `Au 1iuu i
1u.
!0
O 0
qq
i uu
i
c O 5 ii
uu, i O u (
.
!1
i Ou q

q _o ,
5K
i
ei
o u, i qOq
i qi
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i _ i ei
o u, i qi
i.
And
when Jes&s en!ered De!ers
ho&se,
And i%%edia!el0 he le#! !he
s0na*o*&e, and en!ered !he ho&se o#
Si%on and Andrew, wi!h Ja%es and
John.
he saw his %o!her)in)law
l0in* sick wi!h a #everG
:?
Now Si%ons %o!her)in)law la0 sick
wi!h a #ever, and i%%edia!el0 !he0
!old hi% o# her.
5K
he !o&ched her hand,
and !he #ever le#! her, and
she rose and served hi%.
:5
And he ca%e and !ook her $0 !he
hand and li#!ed her &(,
and !he #ever le#! herG and she served
!he%.
!igure +#(# Syno*tic 7ie9 of Mt 6."4/": ,left colu)n1 an3
MA ".(D/5" ,rig$t colu)n1> 9it$ re3action-critical
)arAings# ,Corres*on3s to Alan3> Synopsis> *erico*e no#
6+B Englis$. ;SV#1
.ro% !he hi*hli*h!ed !e,! o# (erico(e 7O ;&sin* !his
&nderscorin* s0s!e%@, we can 1&ickl0 (ick o&! wha! -a!!hew
has o%i!!ed #ro% -ark and wha! he has inser!ed #ro%
elsewhere. Ce o%i!s %en!ion o# !he s0na*o*&e and o# Andrew,
Ja%es and John. Ce also does no! sa0 !ha! an0one drew Jes&s
a!!en!ion !o !he wo%an l0in* sick in !he ho&se or !ha! Jes&s
seiAed her $0 !he hand and raised her &(. Ins!ead, -a!!hew
!ells &s !ha! on en!erin* !he ho&se o# De!er ;-ark calls hi%
2Si%on3@, Jes&s saw !he wo%an, who was l0in* down and
#everish. And ins!ead o# *ras(in* her hand and raisin* her &(
;as -ark has i!@, Jes&s si%(l0 to2%+e! her hand and she rose
&(, a((aren!l0 on her own s!ren*!h. .ro% $o!h versions we
learn !ha! !he #ever le#! her and she $e*an !o serve, $&! whereas
in -ark she $e*an !o serve t+e&, -a!!hew re(or!s !ha! she
$e*an !o serve +i&, Jes&s onl0.
<ha!, i# an0!hin*, do all !hese redac!ional chan*es s&**es!
!o &s a$o&! -a!!hews in!en!ionsI .or one !hin*, -a!!hew does
here wha! he also does wi!h -arks %a!erial in %an0 o!her
(laces' he s!ri(s awa0 in#or%a!ion !ha! he a((aren!l0 re*ards
as irrelevan! !o !he s!or0 a! hand. Since Andrew, Ja%es and
John have no role !o (la0 in !his sceneBas #ar as -a!!hew is
concerned an0wa0Bo&! !he0 *o. -&ch %ore in!eres!in*,
however, is !he wa0 -a!!hew has rearran*ed !he ele%en!s o#
!he s!or0 so !ha! !he0 #or% a seven)(ar! chias%. As he en!ers
!he ho&se,
A. ,es2s sees t+e wo&an.
B. She is yin/ !own.
H. She is 1everis+.
D. Jes&s to2%+es her hand.
H[. The 1ever leaves her.
B[. She /ets 2$.
A[. @+e wo&an serves ,es2s.
All !hese ele%en!s are (resen! in -arks version o# !he
s!or0, $&! no! in !his chias!ic order. In #ac!, -a!!hew has
ada(!ed !he %a!erial as well as havin* rearran*ed i!. Jes&s sees
!he wo%an, ra!her !han $ein* !old a$o&! her. Ce to2%+es her
hand ;q@ ra!her !han seiAin* i!. Once %ore on her #ee!, she
serves +i& alone ;(@, ra!her !han all o# !he% ;i@.
The o$vio&s ne,! 1&es!ion is !o ask wh0 -a!!hew has
ada(!ed !he s!or0 in !his wa0. <ha! is he &( !oI This 1&es!ion
leads &s in!o !he s&$4ec! o# !he ne,! cha(!er, !o which we now
!&rn.
+ns,ers
5. Two (laces' (erico(es 5>7 and >?6, ((. 556 and 577 ;((. 575
and >68 in !he Greek 7yno$sis@
>. Derico(e ::, (. :5 ;(. 87 in !he Greek 7yno$sis@
:. Derico(e 5O? ;(. >JO in !he Greek 7yno$sis@
8. Onl0 +&ke in $old
*
NARRATIVES II
Thickenin* !he Dlo!
B2t t+e an/e sai! to t+e wo&en,
MDo not "e a1rai!P I -now t+at yo2 are oo-in/
1or ,es2s w+o was %r2%i1ie!.O
;.@@H'W 29#5
The (recedin* cha(!er ended wi!h an &n#inished !ask. I! is one
!hin*Ba *ood !hin*B!o anal0Ae wha! an a&!hor s&ch as
-a!!hew has done wi!h his so&rces. I! is ano!her !hin* !o
discern wha! !ha! a&!hor wan!s !o sa0 $0 %eans o# wha! he has
done wi!h his so&rces. -os! o# &s are 1&i!e &sed !o !his (rocess
in ever0da0 li#e. -0 wi#e %a0 sa0 !o %e, 2I!s $een so%e !i%e
since !he *ar$a*e was !aken o&!.3 To !his ra!her $anal $i! o#
in#or%a!ion, I co&ld res(ond wi!h !hanks #or her kee(in* %e
&selessl0 &()!o)da!e on !he s!a!&s o# vario&s do%es!ic
condi!ions. O# co&rse, !ha! wo&ld hardl0 !ake in!o
considera!ion !he 1&es!ion w+y she wo&ld $o!her !o !ell %e
!his a! all. In rea ever0da0 li#e, I will hear !he s&$!e,! o# her
anno&nce%en!' so%e!hin* like, 2Take o&! !he *ar$a*e now/3
Cer %ore indirec! wa0 o# iss&in* !his vir!&al co%%and %a0
re#lec! a s!in*in*, sarcas!ic wi! or a desire !o res(ec! !he di*ni!0
o# %0 (erson, or so%e!hin* else al!o*e!her. +e!s consider !his
d0na%ic wi!h re*ard !o Gos(el !e,!s.
On !he s&r#ace o# !hin*s, -a!!hew has a! leas! !old &s in
7'58L5K !ha! Jes&s healed De!ers %o!her)in)law o# a #ever, as
we saw a$ove in sec!ion O.K.8. This 2si%(le3 #ac! is wor!h
knowin* #or i!s own sake. I! is 1&i!e (ossi$le !ha! !he s!or0
circ&la!ed as a de!ached anecdo!e d&rin* !he earlies! (eriod o#
!he ch&rchs e,is!ence, (erha(s in !he #or% -ark *ives i! in his
Gos(elBand (erha(s in Ara%aic. The 1&es!ion $e#ore &s,
however, is wh0 -a!!hew wishes !o re!ell !he s!or0 in !he new
wa0 we o$served earlier. Ass&%in* he had -arks version !o *o
$0, wh0 does he s!ri( vario&s de!ails #ro% i!, rearran*e i! as a
chias%, and %ake cer!ain chan*es in voca$&lar0 and
(rono&nsI <h0 does he (lace i! where he doesI
The answer !o 1&es!ions like !hese canno! $e #o&nd $0
res!ric!in* o&r a!!en!ion !o !he s!or0 i!sel#. The overall
coherence o# -a!!hews Gos(el and o# !he vario&s (ar!s and
s&$(ar!s %akin* i! &( ;!hin*s we disc&ssed in cha(!ers !hree
and #o&r/@ re1&ire &s !o ass&%e !ha! an0 *iven s%aller
narra!ive &ni! has or*anic !ies !o i!s lar*er li!erar0 con!e,!.
-a!!hewBor an0 o# !he o!her wri!ers o# New Tes!a%en!
narra!iveBhas (&rs&ed a narra!ive strate/y in !ellin* his s!or0,
and he has (rovided cl&es #or readin* !he s!or0 !he wa0 he
wan!s &s !o read i!. <he!her we correc!l0 in!er(re! !hese cl&es
when we ca!ch !he% ;or whe!her we ca!ch !he% a! allBor
whe!her we 2ca!ch3 wha! isn! reall0 !here/@ is ano!her
1&es!ion, $&! we are $o&nd !o %ake an a!!e%(! i# we wish !o
honor -a!!hew and his $ook. Even i# we *e! i! wron*, God
*ives &s *race !o kee( workin* a! i!. I! is !r&l0 &n#or!&na!e
when we, as !eachers o# !he ch&rch, re#&se !o !r0 #or 1ear o#
$ein* wron* or #or #ear o# #indin* so%e!hin* we wo&ld ra!her
no! #ind. In !his re*ard, i! is wor!h recallin* !he an*els words
!o !he wo%en arrivin* a! !he !o%$, seekin* !he +ord in all !he
wron* (laces' 2Do no! $e a#raidG I know !ha! 0o& are lookin*
#or Jes&s who was cr&ci#ied3 ;-! >7'K@.
I#, !hen, we cas! o&r ne! a $i! %ore $roadl0 over -a!!hews
lar*er (lan, we no!ice !wo !hin*s a$o&! !his %o!her)in)law !e,!.
.irs!, i! is !he !hird in a row o# !hree healin* s!ories ;-! 7'5L
5K@, direc!l0 #ollowin* !he Ser%on on !he -o&n!. The second
!hin* we no!ice is !ha! a s&%%ar0 (assa*e i%%edia!el0 #ollows
i! in verses 5JL5O, descri$in* in *eneral !er%s #&r!her healin*s
Jes&s (er#or%ed !ha! evenin*. ;<e will re!&rn !o !he s&$4ec! o#
s&%%ar0 (assa*es la!er in !his cha(!er.@ .ollowin* !he
s&%%ar0 (assa*e, -a!!hew re(or!s several 2non)healin*3
even!s. <i!h !he Ser%on on one side and a series o#
nonhealin* s!ories on !he o!her, o&r a!!en!ion is !h&s drawn !o
!he !ri(le healin*s and s&%%ar0 in 7'5L5O.
Anal0sis o# !he #irs! o# !hese healin* s!ories, !he one a$o&!
!he le(er ;-! 7'>L8@, reveals !ha! i! !oo is sha(ed as a chias%
;in #ac! -arks version also has i! !his wa0@'
A. A e$er co%es !o Jes&s.
B. Ce sa0s, 2+ord i# yo2 wi, 0o& can &a-e &e %ean.
H. Jes&s s!re!ches o&! his +an! and to2%+es hi%.
B[. Jes&s sa0s, 2I wiP "e %ean.3
A[. The e$rosy leaves hi%.
Th&s, !he %iddle %e%$er o# -a!!hews chias% in !he s!or0
o# !he healin* o# !he le(er is !he s!a!e%en! !ha! Jes&s
2s!re!ched o&! his hand and !o&ched ;q@ hi%.3 S!rikin*, !o
sa0 !he leas!, is !he (arallel !o !he s!or0 o# De!ers %o!her)in)
law, where ;as we saw in sec!ion O.K.8@ -a!!hew deli$era!el0
rearran*es and rewords -arks version in order !o (&! Jes&s
to2%+in/ o1 t+e wo&anCs +an! a! !he cen!er o# a newl0 #or%ed
chias%. <e !hen no!ice !ha! !he cen!er s!or0, re*ardin* !he
healin* o# !he cen!&rions servan! ;-! 7'KL5:@, is $0 #ar !he
lon*es! o# !he !hree and !ha! i!s (oin! is, in (ar!, Jes&s a$ili!0
!o heal #ro% a#ar, wit+o2t to2%+in/K <hen we consider !he
!hree (ersons Jes&s enco&n!ers here, we reco*niAe !ha!,
accordin* !o Jewish c&s!o%, all !hree are cere%oniall0
&n!o&cha$le and !ha! !hese are !he #irs! 2need03 (eo(le
-a!!hews Jes&s direc!l0 deals wi!h a! !he co%%ence%en! o#
his (&$lic healin* %inis!r0. .ac!orin* !ha! idea in!o -a!!hews
%essa*e as a whole, we *li%(se one as(ec! o# wha! i! %eans !o
-a!!hew !ha! God has re!&rned in E%%an&el, Jes&s o#
NaAare!h, !o 2$e wi!h3 his (eo(le. The s!or0 also hel(s &s !o see
4&s! who Jes&s 2(eo(le3 reall0 are. Ce !o&ches !he
&n!o&cha$les #or no o!her reason !han si%(l0 !o !o&ch !he%.
In #ac!, $0 !o&chin* !he% +e (ro$a$l0 2con!a%ina!es3 t+e&
wi!h his own cleanness in !he sa%e wa0 !heir &ncleanness was
!ho&*h! !o con!a%ina!e !he ri!&all0 clean.
There is %&ch %ore o# !he sa%e sor! !o consider even in
!his shor! (assa*e, $&! !his %&ch %akes i! clear !ha! a New
Tes!a%en! s!or0!eller e%$eds a (or!ion o# his %essa*e in !he
ver0 wa0 he !ells !he s!or0. None o# !hese #ive narra!ive
doc&%en!s ;!he #o&r Gos(els and Ac!s@ has $een s!r&n*
!o*e!her a! rando%. The0 are all well desi*ned and well
e,ec&!ed, and !he0 re(a0 &s a h&ndred#old #or o&r e##or!s !o
&nders!and !he% on !heir own !er%s. 9e! we can !ake i! #or
*ran!ed !ha! wha! %ade sense in !his res(ec! !o a #irs!)cen!&r0
Jewish wri!er will no! necessaril0 $e wha! a !wen!0)#irs!)
cen!&r0 <es!ern reader e,(ec!s !o #ind. Dri%aril0 #or !his
reason, we canno! overe%(hasiAe !he #ac! !ha! o&r #irs!
e,e*e!ical res(onsi$ili!0 !o New Tes!a%en! narra!ive is !o le! i!
$e wha!ever i! is, ra!her !han !o seek in i! onl0 wha! we e,(ec!
!o #ind !here. Jes&s is no lon*er in !he !o%$G we will #ind hi%
onl0 where he reall0 is.
<i!h !his (reli%inar0 acknowled*%en! o# !he na!&re o#
$i$lical narra!ive, we %a0 now !&rn !o s(eci#ic s&$!0(es and
!echni1&es !ha! !he a&!hors &se !o weave !heir lar*er s!ories
!o*e!her. <e will consider ;5@ narra!ive !e,!s wi!h (lo!,
charac!er and se!!in*G ;>@ !0(e)scenes and (arallel acco&n!sG
;:@ Old Tes!a%en! ci!a!ions and all&sionsG ;8@ e,!ended
s(eeches and shor!er P and ;K@ s&%%ar0 (assa*es.
*.1 STORIES WITH PLOT, CHARACTER AND
SETTING
-an0 e,cellen! $ooks and dic!ionar0 ar!icles on !he s&$4ec! o#
Jes&s (ara$les *ive advice on hearin* !he% and readin* !he%
as !heir Gos(el a&!hors a((aren!l0 in!ended. A! !he sa%e !i%e,
recen! decades have seen a s&r*e o# in!eres! in !he wa0 any
s!or0 is !old, (ara$le or o!herwise. The disci(line o# 2narra!ive
cri!icis%3Bwi!h i!s in!eres! in charac!er, se!!in*, (lo!, (oin! o#
view, i%(lied a&!hor and i%(lied reader, narra!or and
2narra!ee3Bhas $ro&*h! #r&i!#&l new insi*h! !o !he readin* o#
$i$lical s!ories. Gran!ed cer!ain dis!inc!ions $e!ween (ara$olic
s!ories and re(or!s o# ac!&al even!s, s&ch !ha! we can &s&all0
!ell !he% a(ar!, !here are never!heless si*ni#ican! si%ilari!ies
$e!ween !he% as ca!e*ories. Inso#ar as a (ara$le is a s!or0 wi!h
a lesson, i! is si%ilar !o an0 s!or0 in !he Gos(els or Ac!s. No
acco&n! o# an0 even! in $i$lical narra!ive, we %a0 ass&%e, is
!old si%(l0 !o record wha! ha((ened. Th&s, %&ch o# wha! we
look #or in (ara$les ;(oin!, invi!a!ion, challen*e, warnin*@ we
will also #ind in an0 Gos(el s!or0.
B.1.1 "ara.les and #*ents
No! all (ara$les are s!ories, o# co&rse. The Old Tes!a%en!
Ce$rew word , #re1&en!l0 !ransla!ed in !he Se(!&a*in! as
2(ara$le,3 a((lies !o a wide varie!0 o# #i*&ra!ive
lan*&a*e, no! 4&s! !o narra!ives. Drover$s, %e!a(hors and
si%iles, son*s, (i!h0 a(horis%s and riddles all #all wi!hin !he
*eneral ca!e*or0 o# 2(ara$le.3 <e will !ake &( so%e o# !hese
%ore s(ecialiAed !0(es $elow. Cere, however, we res!ric! o&r
a!!en!ion !o (ara$les in s!or0 #or%. +&kes Gos(el con!ains
so%e o# !he %os! #a%o&s o# !he New Tes!a%en! s!or0 (ara$les.
The *ood Sa%ari!an ;+k 5?'>6L:O@, !he (rodi*al son ;+k
5K'55L:>@, and !he Dharisee and !he (&$lican ;+k 57'6L58@ are
well)known e,a%(les. +ike all *ood s!ories, !hese !ales, !ho&*h
shor!, have cas!, se!!in* and (lo!. <e wan! !o know wha!
%essa*es Jes&s ;or +&ke@ conve0s $0 !he wa0 !he charac!ers in
!hese li!!le s!ories in!erac! wi!h each o!her and wi!h !heir
se!!in*s, and $0 !he wa0 !he (lo!s &n#old. Cow %an0 charac!ers
are !hereI Is one or %ore o# !he% cen!ral !o !he ac!ionI Are
an0 o# !he% (eri(heral, even e,(enda$leI Cow do !he0 rela!e
!o each o!herI Do !he0 s(eakI I# so, wha! do !he0 sa0, and how
%&ch, and when, and !o who%I Is !here an i%(lied con!ras! or
a co%(arisonI Is one charac!er %ore 2a((roved3 $0 !he
s!or0!eller !han ano!her isI
One cr&cial considera!ion wi!h res(ec! !o a&!hor a((roval
;which is si%ilar !o a&!hors (oin! o# view@ is whe!her !he
a&!hor a((roves o# wha! !he a&dience wo&ld a((rove o#. .or
e,a%(le, +&kes Jes&s clearl0 (resen!s !he Sa%ari!an !raveler
as !he 2*ood *&03 in his (ara$le, and he (or!ra0s !he (ries! and
!he +evi!e in less !han #la!!erin* !er%s. +&ke in#or%s &s !ha!
Jes&s !old !his s!or0 !o a Jewish le*al e,(er!, a %an who
do&$!less wo&ld have re*arded an0 Sa%ari!an as #&ll0
co%(ro%ised in !he e0es o# Jewish law. Tha! #ac! is a cr&cial
ass&%(!ion #or !he lar*er s!or0 in which !he (ara$le occ&rs.
This (ara$le is no! a lesson a$o&! how !o $e nice !o o&r
nei*h$ors $&! a dis!&r$in* reassess%en! o# 4&s! who is
1&ali#ied !o 2inheri! e!ernal li#e3 ;+k 5?'>K@' even o&r ene%ies
are. In !his wa0, +&ke reveals his ;and Jes&s@ 2(oin! o# view3 as
1&i!e di##eren! #ro% !ha! o# a !0(ical Jewish scri$e.
Or consider a con!ras!ive (ara$le. In !he s!or0 o# !he &n4&s!
4&d*e ;+k 57'5L7@ !he con!ras! !ha! Jes&s se!s &( is no! one
$e!ween a (ersis!en! widow and !he ne*li*en! 4&d*e she
ho&ndsG ins!ead he con!ras!s !ha! hear!less 4&d*e wi!h God,
who needs no ho&ndin* a! all. Th&s, !he (ara$le is no! a$o&!
cons!an!l0 $e**in* God !o do wha! we wan! hi% !o do, $&!
a$o&! 1&ie! and (ersis!en! con#idence in a God who !r&l0 cares
#or his own, 2ni-e t+at ot+er L2!/e. This, in #ac!, is e,ac!l0
wha! +&ke sa0s !he (ara$le is a$o&! in his in!rod&c!ion !o i!
;+k 57'5@. Seein* !he s!or0 in !his li*h! re%oves !he o((ressive
$&rden i! %i*h! o!herwise a((ear !o la0 on o&r sho&lders, as i#
i! were enco&ra*in* &s !o $ad*er God &n!il, like a $elea*&ered
%o!her, he caves in.
Johns Gos(el is devoid o# (ara$les in !he &s&al sense,
!ho&*h he has (len!0 o# (ara$olic %e!a(hors' !he +a%$ o# God
;Jn 5'>6@, !he vine and !he $ranches ;Jn 5K'5L7@, !he *ood
she(herd and his shee( ;Jn 5?'5L57@, and o!hers. None!heless,
we do see !he (ara$olic s!or0 (rinci(le a! work in his narra!ion
o# ac!&al even!s in Jes&s li#e. In John :'5L>5 !he devo&!
Dharisee Nicode%&s co%es !o Jes&s a! ni*h!, clandes!inel0 $&!
in o$vio&s sinceri!0. Des(i!e $ein* a !eacher o# !he (eo(le ;Jn
:'5?@, however, Nicode%&s canno! 1&i!e 2*e!3 wha! Jes&s !ells
hi%. Then, a#!er a shor! in!erval dedica!ed !o John !he
Ba(!is!s !es!i%on0 ;Jn :'>>L:J@, !he Evan*elis! !akes &s wi!h
Jes&s in!o Sa%aria. There, in $road da0li*h! !his !i%e ;Jn 8'J@,
Jes&s %ee!s a Sa%ari!an wo%an, des(ised $0 !he Jews and
#&ll0 conscio&s o# i! ;Jn :'6@. Cer $old, al%os! 2i%(ro(er3
#lir!a!io&sness con!ras!s s!ron*l0 wi!h !he serio&s !heolo*ical
concerns o# Nicode%&s. 9e!, also in con!ras! !o !ha! an,io&s
!eacher o# Israel, !his 2con!a%ina!ed3 wo%an 2*e!s i!,3 and she
*e!s i! eno&*h !o evan*eliAe her own villa*e. Tellin* !he !wo
acco&n!s al%os! $ack)!o)$ack like !his is (ar! o# Johns
narra!ive s!ra!e*0G we need !o consider i! care#&ll0 when we
read his s!or0.
Even !his is no! !he end o# i!. ;<h0 sho&ld i! $eI@ The #irs!
hal# o# Johns Gos(el rela!es a series o# seven or ei*h! 2si*ns3
;qi@ (er#or%ed $0 Jes&s, a#!er each o# which John
2&n(acks3 i!s si*ni#icance !hro&*h !he s&$se1&en! even!s o# his
lar*er s!or0. Jes&s !&rnin* o# wa!er in!o wine a! !he weddin* in
Hana ;Jn >'5L55@ is !he #irs! o# !he si*ns, and !he second is !he
healin* o# an o##icials son in Ha(erna&% ;Jn 8'8JLK8G c#. -!
7'KL5:@. The (aired s!ories o# Nicode%&s and !he Sa%ari!an
wo%an a((ear $e!ween !hese #irs! !wo si*ns, as i# in (ar!ial
e,(lana!ion o# !he #irs! one. As s&ch, !he0 co%(le%en! Jes&s
cleansin* o# !he !e%(le ;Jn >'58L>>@, which !he0 closel0
#ollow. Taken in !his con!e,!, !he s!ories o# Nicode%&s and !he
Sa%ari!an wo%an ill&s!ra!e !ha! Jes&s has !rans#or%ed !he
wa!er o# !radi!ional second)!e%(le J&dais% in!o !he wine o#
!he .a!hers *lor0 re!&rned. This 2new wine3 o# Jes&s &(se!s
ever0!hin*, #ro% !e%(le (rac!ices !o !radi!ional s!andards o#
acce(!a$ili!0 in !he kin*do% o# God. This %a0 well $e wha!
John %eans in John 5'58 ;RS"@' 2And !he <ord $eca%e #lesh
and dwel! a%on* &s, #&ll o# *race and !r&!hG we have $eheld his
*lor0, *lor0 as o# !he onl0 Son #ro% !he .a!her.3 In Jes&s, !he
lon* a$sen! Shekinah Glor0BGods hol0 (resenceBhas
re!&rned !o his !a$ernacle, !o his !e%(le, wi!h 2cleansin*3
conse1&ences #or his (eo(le. In !his re*ard, !here is a !he%a!ic
si%ilari!0 !o -a!!hews in!eres! in Gods (resence 2wi!h &s3 in
Jes&s, E%%an&el.
B.1.2 Whose Story Is It0 +ny,ayC
<e have $een i*norin* #or !he %o%en! a (ro$le% raised in
cha(!er seven re*ardin* !he (ec&liar na!&re o# !he Gos(els as
;we %i*h! sa0@ s!ories !old a$o&! a s!or0!eller. -&ch o# wha!
we have in !he Gos(els is !he s!or0 o# Jes&s !ellin* a s!or0. The
(ara$les are *ood e,a%(les o# !his (heno%enon. The sa%e
!wo)level d0na%ic occ&rs wi!h +&kes acco&n! o# !he s(eeches
o# De!er and Da&l in Ac!s. I! (oses a delica!e (ro$le% #or &s.
D&! $l&n!l0, !he iss&e is whe!her wha! Jes&s ori*inall0 in!ended
$0 !he &se o# !he (ara$le o# !he Good Sa%ari!an, #or ins!ance,
%a!ches wha! +&ke in!ends $0 i!. Do +&ke and Jes&s &se !he
(ara$le in !he sa%e wa0, wi!h !he sa%e in!ended res&l!sI -ore
(recisel0, does Jes&s ori*inal &se o# !he (ara$le %a!ch +&kes
(&r(ose in tein/ t+e story o1 ,es2s tein/ t+at $ara"eN One
o# %0 #or%er (ro#essors ;R. D. -e0e@ has ar*&ed !ha! +&ke
deli$era!el0 (laced !his acco&n! direc!l0 ahead o# !he s!or0 o#
-ar!has #r&s!ra!ion over her sis!er -ar0s #ail&re !o hel( o&!
in !he ki!chen ;+k 5?':7L8>@. +&ke did so in order !o $alance a
#oc&s on social ac!ion ;!he e,a%(le o# !he *ood Sa%ari!an@
wi!h !he call #or 1&ie! con!e%(la!ion ;-ar0s e,a%(le@.
<he!her !his re(resen!s !he ri*h! wa0 !o read +&kes narra!ive
or no! ;I s&s(ec! i! is no!@, i! le*i!i%a!el0 addresses !he
(o!en!ial di##erence $e!ween Jes&s ori*inal (&r(oses and
+&kes ;or !hose o# an0 o# !he o!her Evan*elis!s@.
This dile%%a ;Jes&s or +&keI@ is closel0 connec!ed wi!h
!he 1&es!ion o# !he rela!ionshi( $e!ween !he Jes&s o# his!or0
and !he Jes&s ;or !he Jes&ses@ o# !he Gos(els. A*ain, (&!
$l&n!l0, we wan! !o know how closel0 !he Jes&s we %ee! in an0
one o# !he #o&r Gos(els rese%$les !he Jes&s we %ee! in an0 o#
!he o!her !hree, or how an0 or all o# !hose #o&r (or!rai!s o#
Jes&s rese%$le !he Jes&s who walked !he roads o# Dales!ine in
!he #irs! cen!&r0. Takin* !his iss&e one s!e( #&r!her, we %a0
also wan! !o ask how closel0 an0 o# !hese de(ic!ions rese%$les
!he Hhris! o# #ai!h ;Jes&s as Hhris!ians, in vario&s concre!e
his!orical)c&l!&ral se!!in*s, have vis&aliAed and worshi(ed
hi%@. The !hree)di%ensional dile%%a e%$odied in !his
con&ndr&% has evolved in!o an enor%o&sl0 co%(le, scholarl0
disc&ssion, which we canno! rehearse here.
5
.or now, i! is eno&*h !o $e aware o# !he (ro$le%. The
rela!ionshi( $e!ween Jes&s as he was in his!or0 and Jes&s as
(or!ra0ed in an0 o# !he #o&r Gos(els is (arallel !o !he
rela!ionshi( $e!ween Jes&s as (or!ra0ed in !he Gos(els and !he
Hhris! o# o&r #ai!h. In !his sense, !he Jes&s we %ee! in !he
Gos(el o# John is !he Hhris! o# Johns #ai!h. <e %a0 con#ess
;ri*h!l0, I $elieve@ !ha! !he Col0 S(iri! s&(erin!ended !he
co%(osi!ion o# !he Gos(els, so !ha! !he0 are !r&s!wor!h0
in!er(re!a!ions o# !he 2ac!&al3 li#e and deeds o# Jes&s. I! is o#
&!%os! i%(or!ance, !here#ore, !ha! we learn all we can a$o&!
Jes&s and his c&l!&re as !he0 ac!&all0 e,is!ed !o*e!her.
Never!heless, in !he end, we are co%%i!!ed !o hearin* !he #o&r
in!er(re!a!ions o# his (erson and his li#e as !he0 have co%e
down !o &s in !he canonical Gos(els. <e need !o s!rive !oward
#ai!h#&l in!er(re!a!ions o# !hose Gos(el acco&n!s as we +ave
t+e& and !o s!r&c!&re o&r &nders!andin* o# Jes&s accordin*l0,
ad4&s!in* o&r own 2Hhris! o# #ai!h3 as necessar0. This can $e a
(ain#&l (rocess when we are !here$0 co%(elled !o
acknowled*e !ha! so%e !reas&red &nders!andin* o# Jes&s
charac!er has no Gos(el s&((or!.
5

N. T. <ri*h!s li!!le $ook @+e 3+aen/e o1 ,es2s# *e!is%overin/ W+o
,es2s Was an! Is ;Downers Grove, Ill.' In!er"arsi!0 Dress, 5666@ in!rod&ces
!he iss&e clearl0 and s&ccinc!l0. The $ook s&%%ariAes !he ar*&%en!s (&!
#or!h in !he #irs! !wo, %assive vol&%es o# <ri*h!s %&l!ivol&%e %a*n&%
o(&s, Hhris!ian Ori*ins and !he X&es!ion o# God' @+e 0ew @esta&ent an!
t+e Peo$e o1 Go! ;Dhiladel(hia' .or!ress, 566>@ and ,es2s an! t+e Vi%tory
o1 Go! ;Dhiladel(hia' .or!ress, 566J@.
B.1.3 +lle%ory and +lle%ori5ation
Occasionall0 a Gos(el (resen!s Jes&s as !ellin* a (ara$le !o
which he adds his own in!er(re!a!ion #or !he $ene#i! o# his
disci(les. One o# !he %ore #a%o&s o# !hese is !he (ara$le o# !he
sower ;-k 8'5L>?, wi!h (arallels in -! 5: and +k 7@. The
e,(lana!ion o# !he (ara$le ;-k 8'5:L>?@ (rovides an
alle*orical in!er(re!a!ion o# vario&s ele%en!s wi!hin !he
(ara$le' !he sower, !he seed, !he #o&r di##eren! kinds o# soil, !he
$irds and so on. In o!her words, !his (ara$le is a le*i!i%a!e
$i$lical alle*or0. The #ac! !ha! !he assi*n%en! o# e1&ivalen!s is
no! nea! and lo*ical does no! de!rac! #ro% !he alle*orical
na!&re o# !he in!er(re!a!ion. Da&l also &ses alle*or0G in !he
le!!er !o !he Gala!ians, #or e,a%(le, he e%(lo0s an alle*or0 !o
%ake a (oin! a$o&! #reedo% #ro% !he law ;Gal 8'>5L:5G
es(eciall0 v. >8@.
These $i$lical e,a%(les o# alle*or0 have enco&ra*ed
in!er(re!ers down !hro&*h !he a*es !o !r0 !heir own hand a!
alle*orical in!er(re!a!ion o# Scri(!&re. A cele$ra!ed e,a%(le,
o#!en ci!ed in $ooks like !his one, is A&*&s!ines handlin* o# !he
(ara$le o# !he *ood Sa%ari!an.
>
Ce views !he wa0laid vic!i% as
re(resen!in* Ada%, !he !hieves as Sa!an and his an*els, !he
(ries! and +evi!e as !he Old Tes!a%en!, !he Sa%ari!an as
Jes&s, !he inn as !he ch&rch, !he innkee(er as Da&l and so on.
A&*&s!ines a((roach (rovides an e,a%(le o# ae/oriQation,
!he !rans#or%a!ion o# wha! is no! an alle*or0 in!o an alle*or0.
>

De!er Ho!!erell and -a, T&rner ;Lin/2isti%s an! Bi"i%a
Inter$retation QDowners Grove, Ill.' In!er"arsi!0 Dress, 5676S, (. :55@ la0 i!
o&! in #&ll. The ori*inal is in A&*&s!ines W2aestiones 'van/eior2& >.56.
S&ch an in!er(re!a!ion #ails !o ask how Jes&s ori*inal a&dience
;!he Jewish law0er in !his case@ co&ld have $een e,(ec!ed !o
*ras( !he %essa*e. ;2Da&lI Da&l w+oN3@
The !r&!h is !ha! $0 %eans o# alle*oriAa!ion, in!er(re!ers o#
(ara$lesBor o# an0 s!or0Bcan %ake a !e,! %ean wha!ever !he0
wish i! !o %ean. Honse1&en!l0, d&rin* !he las! cen!&r0, !he
lon*)s!andin* a((roach was !o insis! !ha! each (ara$le had one
Band onl0 oneB%ain (oin! !o %akeG alle*ories were
s0s!e%a!icall0 e,cl&ded #ro% considera!ion. This is (a!en!l0 a
case o# overkill, however, since !here are, as we have 4&s! seen,
e,a%(les o# le*i!i%a!e alle*ories in !he New Tes!a%en!,
alle*ories crea!ed and &sed $0 Jes&s and !he New Tes!a%en!
a&!hors !he%selves. O# co&rse, in Gala!ians 8, Da&l ae/oriQes
!he s!or0 o# Ca*ar and Sarah, $&! !hen, he was Da&l. Cis
(rac!ice does no! license &s !o i%i!a!e his %e!hods. As
in!er(re!ers, we will $e wise no! !o !rea! a !e,! alle*oricall0
&nless !here is *ood reason !o do so, s&ch as when Jes&s ;or
Da&l@ does. In *eneral, 4&dicio&s e,e*esis o# s!ories and
(ara$les will avoid ae/oriQin/ !he%. Unless we are dealin*
wi!h a *en&ine $i$lical alle*or0 or wi!h o!her kinds o#
o$vio&sl0 2%&l!ivalen!3 !e,!s, we sho&ld seek ins!ead !o
&nders!and a s!or0s (ri%ar0 !hesis and how i! #i!s in!o !he
lar*er sco(e o# !he $ook in which we #ind i!.
B.1.! Su&&in% :p for Stories
The chie# (oin! !o !ake ho%e #ro% all o# !his is !ha! !he s!ories
o# !he Gos(els and Ac!s, whe!her in !he #or% o# (ara$les or
narra!ed even!s, are !o $e &nders!ood as !old in a (ar!ic&lar
wa0, in a (ar!ic&lar con!e,!, #or a (ar!ic&lar reason. As a
co%%&ni!0 o# $elievers, we have !he (rivile*e and
res(onsi$ili!0 !o read !hese s!ories in s&ch a wa0 !ha! we 2see3
wha! !he a&!hors have (&! !here #or &s. <e %a0 wish !ha! a
wri!er had $een %ore e,(lici! a$o&! his %essa*eG we %a0
wonder whe!her we have &nders!ood i! correc!l0 or no!. B&!
!he s&$!l0 i%(lici! na!&re o# !he Evan*elis!s (resen!a!ions
%akes !he discover0 (rocess all !he %ore enrichin*, even
!hrillin*B#ar %ore so !han when !he !r&!h is handed !o &s in
#la! (ro(osi!ions, like crackers on a (la!e. In !his, !he Gos(els
re#lec! Gods (eda*o*0. The ancien!, *lo$al, S(iri!)direc!ed
co%%&ni!0 conversa!ion ens&res no! onl0 !ha! !here will
alwa0s $e so%eone !o challen*e o&r concl&sions, $&! also !ha!
!here will alwa0s $e so%eones concl&sions !o challen*eBGods
s!ra!e*0 #or co&rse correc!ion. <e need each o!her in !his !ask.
*.2 TYPE"SCENES AND PARALLEL ACCOUNTS
As N. T. <ri*h! has said,
:
an0one who wa!ches !elevision news
(ro*ra%s realiAes !ha!, !oda0, (eo(le like !he (residen! o# !he
Uni!ed S!a!es can %ake (olic0 s!a!e%en!s #ro% vir!&all0
an0where and e,(ec! !he% !o $e $roadcas! !o !he en!ire na!ion
Beven !he worldBal%os! ins!an!l0. Jes&s did no! have !ha!
sor! o# sa%e)da0 na!ional covera*e o# his s(eeches and ac!s o#
healin*. Th&s no! onl0 can we ass&%e !ha! Jes&s re(ea!ed his
s!ories or (er#or%ed his %iracles %ore !han once and in
vario&s (laces, we sho&ld ac!&all0 ass&%e !ha! he did so
h&ndreds o# !i%es. This insi*h! %akes i! a $i! less e##ec!ive
when a Gos(el scholar s&(ercilio&sl0 cri!iciAes a Gos(el wri!er
:

<ri*h!, 0ew @esta&ent an! t+e Peo$e o1 Go!, ((. 8>>L>:.
#or naivel0 (reservin* wha! !he scholar re*ards as %&l!i(le
acco&n!s o# a sin*le even!. <e %a0 in #ac! $e dealin* wi!h
%&l!i(le even!s in s&ch cases. Se!!in* aside !he le*i!i%a!e
his!orical 1&es!ion o# whe!her re(or!ed even!s are sin*le or
%&l!i(le, we s!ill need !o consider !he li!erar0, inter$retive
e##ec! o# re(e!i!io&s narra!ives. <e can divide !he% in!o
(arallel acco&n!s and !0(e)scenes.
B.2.1 "arallel +ccounts
Honsider !wo e,a%(les, $e*innin* wi!h Jes&s %irac&lo&s
#eedin*s o# !he crowds. All #o&r Gos(els (reserve !he s!or0 o#
Jes&s #eedin* !he #ive !ho&sand %en ;-k J':>L88 and
(arallelsG -a!!hew adds 2$esides wo%en and children,3 -!
58'>5@. The 2(ro$le%3 arises when $o!h -ark and -a!!hew a
li!!le la!er on re(or! a si%ilar inciden! involvin* 1o2r !ho&sand
(eo(le ;-k 7'5L5?G -a!!hew a*ain insis!s !here were ac!&all0
%ore (eo(le !here, i# one were !o co&n! !he wo%en and
children, !ooG -! 5K':7@. Ad%i!!edl0, n&%ero&s (oin!s o#
con!ac! e,is! $e!ween !he !wo #eedin* s!ories as !old $0 each
Evan*elis!. In $o!h his acco&n!s, -ark %en!ions Jes&s
co%(assion on !he crowds, !he disci(les (er(le,i!0, !he
1&es!ion o# how %an0 loaves, !he sea!in* o# !he crowds, !he
$lessin* and $reakin* o# !he $read, !he dis!ri$&!ion o# #ood $0
!he disci(les, !he ea!in* and $ein* sa!is#ied, !he *a!herin* &( o#
scra(s in!o $aske!s, !he n&%$er o# $aske!s #illed and !he
n&%$er o# (ar!ici(an!sBand all in !he sa%e order. I! is no
s&r(rise !ha! so%e scholars ass&%e !ha! -arkB#ollowed $0
-a!!hew ;$&! no! +&ke@Bhas $een #ooled in!o !hinkin* !ha!
!here were !wo se(ara!e even!s here, when in #ac! !here was
onl0 one.
9e! !o %ake s&ch an ass&%(!ion is !oo eas0G i! i*nores !he
evidence !ha! -ark and -a!!hew are o!herwise e,ceedin*l0
skill#&l s!or0!ellers. The inter$retive 1&es!ion !o ask ins!ead is
wh0 -ark and -a!!hew wo&ld have each (reserved !hese !wo
s!ories and (laced !he% so close !o*e!her. The answer %a0 well
lie in !he se!!in* each s!or0 is *iven in !he !e,!, $o!h li!eraril0
and *eo*ra(hicall0. In $o!h -ark and -a!!hew, !he #eedin* o#
!he #ive !ho&sand a((aren!l0 !akes (lace on Jewish soil. The
even! s0%$oliAes !he re!&rn o# God !o his (eo(le. ;Re%inders
o# !he %anna in !he wilderness are ri#e in !he acco&n!'
%&l!i(lica!ion o# $read, #&ll sa!is#ac!ion o# !he ea!ers, *a!herin*
!he scra(s in $aske!s.@ B&! in -arks Gos(el, 4&s! $e#ore !he
#eedin* o# !he 1o2r !ho&sand, we #ind Jes&s and his #ollowers
re!&rnin* #ro% !he Gen!ile areas o# T0re and Sidon and
con!in&in* down !he eas!ern side o# !he Sea o# Galilee in!o !he
e1&all0 Gen!ile !erri!or0 o# !he Deca(olis ;-k O':5@. I! is here
in !he Deca(olis, eviden!l0, !ha! !his second 2#eedin*3 !akes
(lace. ;This #ac!, $0 !he wa0, (oin!s &( !he i%(or!ance o# $ein*
#a%iliar wi!h and (a0in* a!!en!ion !o !he (oli!ical *eo*ra(h0 o#
Dales!ine in Jes&s da0, as !he Gos(els re#lec! i!.@ Al!ho&*h
-a!!hew o%i!s re#erence !o !he Deca(olis in his (arallel !o
-ark here, his version o# !he #eedin* o# !he #o&r !ho&sand
co%es hard on !he heels o# Jes&s enco&n!er wi!h !he (a*an
Hanaani!e wo%an in !he dis!ric! o# T0re and Sidon.
<ha! we have in !hese !wo s!ories, !hen, is si%ilar !o wha!
+&ke *ives &s in his !wo acco&n!s o# !he Den!ecos! e,(erience'
one in Jer&sale% #or !he Jewish ch&rch ;Ac!s >@ and a second
one a! Horneli&ss ho&se in Haesarea #or !he Gen!ile ch&rch
;Ac!s 5?@. In #ac!, +&ke *oes !o considera$le li!erar0 len*!hs !o
e%(hasiAe !he Gentie na!&re o# Horneli&ss ho&sehold and
De!ers ini!ial o$4ec!ions !o dealin* wi!h !he% ;Ac!s 6@.
Si%ilarl0, $o!h -ark and -a!!hew (reserve a Jewish and,
la!er, a Gen!ile %anna)in)!he)wilderness e,(erience. The
kin*do% o# God and his -essiah have e1&all0 salvi#ic
si*ni#icance #or all %e%$ers o# !he h&%an race.
<e can also no!e in Ac!s !he (arallel acco&n!s o# a la%e
%an healed. Bo!h De!er in !he Jer&sale% !e%(le ;Ac!s :'5L
8'>>@ and Da&l in (a*an +0s!ra ;Ac!s 58'7L>:@ enco&n!er %en
$orn la%e and raise !he% !o !heir #ee!. In !heir res(ec!ive
si!&a!ions, $o!h De!er and Da&l %&s! i%%edia!el0 deal wi!h
awes!ricken crowds and !heir hos!ile reac!ions. In !he
descri(!ions o# !he !wo la%e %en and !he circ&%s!ances o#
!heir healin*s, !here are several as!onishin* (arallels, %ore
eviden! in Greek !han in En*lish !ransla!ion. Takin* in!o
considera!ion !he a((aren!l0 in!en!ional charac!er o# !hese
(arallels, we %a0 concl&de !ha! +&ke %eans !o de(ic! De!er
and Da&l as o# e1&al s!a!&re and a&!hori!0. Ce (resen!s De!er
as !he God)sanc!ioned a(os!le !o !he Jewish ch&rch, and Da&l
$eco%es !he a(os!le !o !he Gen!ile ch&rch, sanc!ioned $0 God
in a si%ilar wa0. E1&ali!0 $e!ween De!er and Da&l in !his
re*ard is crea!ivel0 (or!ra0ed in li!erar0 !er%s !hro&*h !hese
!wo (arallel healin* acco&n!s.
B.2.2 Type>Scenes
"is&aliAe a #aceless %an wi!h a $lack ha!, !he se!!in* s&n
$ehind hi%. Ce $&rs!s !hro&*h !he swin*in* doors o# a saloon
in a <es!ern B)%ovie. Cow %an0 !i%es have we seen !hisI Or
(ic!&re John <a0ne, Hlin! Eas!wood or Gar0 Hoo(er, s!ridin*
o&! in!o !he d&s!0 %iddle o# -ain S!ree! #or a classic #ace)o##
wi!h so%e snarlin* des(erado. Cow %an0 !i%es have we seen
t+atN <e call !hese !0(e)scenes. The0 are like s0%$ols, alwa0s
carr0in* !he sa%e si*ni#icance #or wha!ever s!or0 !he0 occ&r in.
The0 dis(la0 e,(ec!ed #ea!&res, like !he o%ino&s cl&nk o# $oo!s
on a wooden #loor, !he clink o# s(&rs and !he h&shed dread
#allin* over !he (oker)(la0in* (a!rons in !he saloon. -a0$e !he
$arkee(er dro(s $ehind !he co&n!er, and we *e! a close)&( o# a
sho! *lass rollin* slowl0 in a lon* se%icircle across !he #loor.
I%a*ine wha! !he scene wo&ld i%(l0 i# Black)Ca! $&rs!s in!o
!he saloon, $oo!s cl&nkin* and s(&rs clinkin*, and no one even
looks &( !o see who i! is. <e wo&ld have !o e,(ec! Don =no!!s
(erha(s, or one o# !he @+ree .&i/os. I! wo&ld chan*e !he
whole !enor o# !he #il%.
Coll0wood did no! invent !0(e)scenes. Honsider wha!
ha((ens in Genesis 5K'5LJG E,od&s :'5L8'5OG Josh&a 5'5L55G
Jere%iah 5'5L5?G EAekiel 5'5L:'5KG Isaiah JG and Es!her :'5L
K'>. All o# !hese (assa*es descri$e Gods ini!ial call and
co%%issionin* o# an individ&al !o serve hi% in so%e wa0,
o#!en as a %o&!h(iece. Hare#&l anal0sis o# !hese !e,!s reveals a
(ec&liar (a!!ern ;e,(ec!ed #ea!&res@ co%%on !o all o# !he%.
Each e,hi$i!s an in!rod&c!or0 re%ark, a divine con#ron!a!ion,
an o$4ec!ion o# so%e kind raised $0 !he addressee, !he
co%%ission and a con#ir%a!or0 si*n. These #ive li!erar0 #or%s,
as we can see #ro% e,a%inin* !hese seven scenes, do no! need
!o !ake e,ac!l0 !he sa%e sha(e or #all in !he sa%e rela!ive order
in each case, $&! !he0 all a((ear none!heless. .i*&re 7.5
dis(la0s an anal0sis o# !hese !e,!s. The sa%e (a!!ern is
discerni$le in !he s!or0 o# !he ann&ncia!ion !o -ar0 in +&ke
5'>JL:7. The concl&sion !o draw is !ha! #or so%e c&l!&rall0
$ased reason, Jewish !radi!ion liked !o &se !his (ar!ic&lar !0(e)
scene #or%a! #or rela!in* a divine call.
+&ke %akes &se o# !he divine)call !0(e)scene when he
descri$es !he Da%asc&s Road e,(erience o# Sa&lNDa&l in Ac!s
6. <e can anal0Ae !he s!or0 as #ollows ;cons&l! 0o&r Bi$le as
0o& work !hro&*h !his (ara*ra(h@' in!rod&c!ion, Ac!s 6'5L:aG
divine con#ron!a!ion, Ac!s 6':$L8G Da&ls o$4ec!ion, Ac!s 6'KaG
divine co%%ission, Ac!s 6'K$LJ, 5?L57G con#ir%a!or0 si*n,
Ac!s 6'6, 57L56. In !his li!erar0 wa0, +&ke connec!s Sa&lNDa&l
wi!h !he *rea! (ro(he!s o# !he Old Tes!a%en!, !here$0
incl&din* hi% in !he line o# Gods chosen s(okes(ersons. Onl0
in !his case !here is a re%arka$le shi#!. Cere !he divine
con#ron!er is no! God, $&! !he Risen Jes&s, who iden!i#ies
hi%sel# wi!h !he $elievers Sa&l is (ersec&!in*. .&r!her%ore,
Sa&l is co%%issioned !o $rin* !he na%e o# Jes&s 2$e#ore
Gen!iles and kin*s, and Qsecondaril0IS $e#ore !he (eo(le o#
Israel3 ;Ac!s 6'5K@. The &se o# !he !0(e)scene o# (ro(he!ic call
(laces !his (ar!ic&lar call !o *o !o !he Gen!iles on $ehal# o#
Jes&s o# NaAare!h s1&arel0 wi!hin !he !radi!ion o# Old
Tes!a%en! (ro(hec0. A((aren!l0 !o %ake s&re !he readers *e!
!he (oin!, as well as !o drive ho%e !he le*i!i%ac0 o# Da&ls
a(os!olic role, +&ke re(ea!s !his ver0 s!or0 two &ore ti&es
;Ac!s >>'8L5JG >J'6L57@.
!=;M
Gen
":
E8 5> 4 -os$ "
-er
"
EGeA "/5 Is 0
Est$er
5/:
In!rod&c!ion 5a :'5 5a 5L: 5'5a 5a :'5L8'O
Divine
Hon#ron!a!ion
5$ :'>LJ 5$L6 8LK 5$L>7a
5$L
8
8'5LKI
Addressees
O$4ec!ion
>L8
:'55, 5:G 8'5,
5?, 5:
;i%(lied@ KL6 J
5'>7$
;i%(lied
>'JL7@
K 8'5?L55
Ho%%ission 8 :'OL5?
;see
Hon#ron!a!ion@
6L
5?
>'5L:'55
7L
5:
8'7
Hon#ir%a!or0
Si*n
K
:'5>, 58L
>>G 8'>L6,
55L5>, 58L
5O
5?L55 OL7 :'5>L5K
IJL
O
K'> ;c#.
8'5?L55,
5J@
!igure 6#"# Ty*e-scenes for *ro*$etic calls
A ver0 in!eres!in* sideli*h! on !his Da&line call)scene in
Ac!s 6 is !he si%ilar 2co%%issionin*3 o# Ananias e%$edded
wi!hin !he sa%e (assa*e' in!rod&c!ion, Ac!s 6'5?aG
con#ron!a!ion, Ac!s 6'5?$L5>G Ananias o$4ec!ion, Ac!s 6'5:L
58G his co%%issionin*, Ac!s 6'55L5>, 5KL5JG !he con#ir%a!or0
si*n, Ac!s 6'5OL56. This (rovides nea! rea##ir%a!ion woven
ri*h! in!o !he %ids! o# Da&ls s!or0. No one a! all #a%iliar wi!h
Old Tes!a%en! li!erar0 #or%s co&ld (ossi$l0 %is!ake +&kes
in!en!ions re*ardin* Da&ls s!a!&s in !he *rea! (arade o# Gods
hol0 (ro(he!s, nor !he i%(lied iden!i#ica!ion o# Jes&s o#
NaAare!h as !he divine co%%issioner.
In a si%ilar wa0, scenes o# $e!ro!hal, in!erc&l!&ral
enco&n!ers and even divine)h&%an enco&n!ers o#!en !ake
(lace a! a co%%&ni!0 well. The cases o# Isaac and Re$ekah
;!hro&*h A$raha%s %edia!or, Gen >8@, Jaco$ and Rachel
;Gen >6@, and -oses and Zi((orah ;E, >'5KL>>@ (rovide
o$vio&s e,a%(les.
Reco*ni!ion o# !he 2%ee!in*)a!)!he)well3 !0(e)scene !hrows
li*h! on Jes&s %ee!in* wi!h !he Sa%ari!an wo%an in John 8.
Tha! %ee!in* re(resen!s !he divine)h&%an enco&n!er, an
e(i(han0 in #ac!. I! also re(resen!s !he clash o# c&l!&res
;Jewish)Sa%ari!anG %ale)#e%aleG %oral)i%%oral@, and i!
re(resen!s !he wooin* o# a 2$ride.3 B&! here !he ho(e#&l
$ride*roo% re4ec!s !he #lir!in* o# !he wo%an and, like
A$raha%s servan!, invi!es her !o $e!ro!hal wi!h !he One ;like
A$raha%@ who sen! hi%' !he 2.a!her who seeks3 !hose who
will worshi( hi% in s(iri! and in !r&!h. O# co&rse, like Re$ekah,
Rachel and Zi((orah, !his Sa%ari!an wo%an r&ns 2ho%e3 and
!ells all a$o&! i!, and !he ho%e #olk co%e o&! !o invi!e Jes&s !o
s!a0. On !he o!her hand, reco*ni!ion o# !his narra!ive ar!is!r0
does no! need !o i%(l0 do&$! a$o&! !he his!orici!0 o# !he
narra!ed even!. I! si%(l0 acknowled*es t+e way in which !he
wri!er has !old !he s!or0, $0 choice, and s!rives !o 2read3 wha!
is i%(lied $enea!h !he s&r#ace !hro&*h !ha! ver0 wa0 o# !ellin*
i!.
*.3 OLD TESTAMENT CITATIONS AND ALLUSIONS
The &se o# !0(e)scenes in New Tes!a%en! narra!ive is one #or%
o# all&sion !o Old Tes!a%en! !e,!s. +ess s!0liAed #or%s o# s&ch
all&sions incl&de !he wa0 a Gos(el wri!er %a0 weave selec!ed
Old Tes!a%en! echoes in!o his narra!ives. Bo!h -ark and
-a!!hew, #or e,a%(le, co%%en! on John !he Ba(!is!s die! and
clo!hin* in a wa0 !ha! $rin*s > =in*s 5'7 !o %ind, a! leas! #or
as!&!e readers wi!h concordances in !heir heads. ;.or !he res!
o# &s, %ar*inal cross)re#erences co%e in e,!re%el0 hand0 in
cases like !his.@ In > =in*s 5, e%issaries sen! $0 Sa%arias =in*
AhaAiah !o in1&ire o# !he *od Baal re!&rn wi!h dis!&r$in* news.
A s!ran*e %an %e! !he% on !he road, !he0 sa0, and sen! !he%
$ack wi!h a sarcas!ic %essa*e #or !he kin*. The0 descri$e !he
%an as hair0 and wearin* a lea!her $el!. -&ch anno0ed,
AhaAiah res(onds, 2I! is Eli4ah !he Tish$i!e.3 <hen -a!!hew
descri$es John !he Ba(!is! as wearin* 2clo!hin* o# ca%els hair
wi!h a lea!her $el! aro&nd his wais!3 ;-! :'8@, readers #a%iliar
wi!h !he Old Tes!a%en! s!or0 will &nders!and who John is, or
ra!her, wha! his role is. Ce is 2Eli4ah !he Tish$i!e,3 !he
#orer&nner o# Israels re!&rnin* God ;c#. -al :'5G 8'K@.
-a!!hew is (ar!ic&larl0 ade(! a! !his sor! o# !hin*. Echoes o#
A$raha% and !he $ir!h o# Isaac (e((er !he !e,! o# -a!!hew
5'57L>K, s&**es!in* !ha! Jes&s, !he new$orn son o# David, is
4&s! as %&ch !he new$orn son o# A$raha% ;c#. -! 5'5@ and !h&s
!he (a!hwa0 o# Gods $lessin* &(on all !he na!ions. In -a!!hew
>, n&%ero&s all&sions !o !he e,od&s #ro% E*0(! ;e.*., E*0(!
i!sel#, !he dea!h o# !he $a$ies, #li*h! #ro% one 2who seeks !he
childs li#e3@ (&! readers in a #ra%e o# %ind !o see Jes&s in !he
li*h! o# -oses. This (ri%es !he% !o &nders!and his work as
!ha! o# $rin*in* a$o&! a new e,od&s. Echoes o# -oses #inal
s(eech in De&!erono%0 a((ear in !he s!or0 o# Jes&s
!e%(!a!ion in !he wilderness ;-! 8'5L55G c#. De&! 7':G J'5J, 5:@,
s&**es!in* !ha! !he co%%ence%en! o# Jes&s (&$lic %inis!r0 is
so%ehow (arallel !o Israels en!r0 in!o !he (ro%ised land !o
(ossess i!. .ra*%en!s o# Gods words o# enco&ra*e%en! !o
Josh&a ;Josh 5@ show &( in !he Grea! Ho%%ission ;-! >7'56L
>?@, leavin* readers !o s&((ose !ha! !he call !o (ossess !he
2land3 has now $een (laced &(on !he ch&rch ;!he new Israel@,
and !ha! !he (ro%ised land is ac!&all0 !he en!ire world.
8
I%(lied in an a&!hors &se o# !his !echni1&e is his
con#idence in !he readers a$ili!0 !o de!ec! !he echoes and
all&sions. This con#idence is in (ar! wha! narra!ive cri!ics
%ean $0 !he (hrase 2i%(lied reader3G a !e,!s i%(lied reader
will 2*e!3 ever0 all&sion, *ras( ever0 inn&endo. O# co&rse,
!here is no s&ch (erson, even a%on* narra!ive cri!ics. The idea
o# s&ch a (erson is %erel0 !he co&n!er(ar! !o !he 2i%(lied
a2t+or.3 Since we canno! *e! in!o !he head o# !he a%t2a
$i$lical a&!hor, we in#er his in!en!ions #ro% wha! !he !e,!
i%(lies a$o&! !he%, and (res!o/ !he i&$ie! a&!hor
%a!erialiAes $e#ore &s. The (oin! o# *oin* !o all !his !ro&$le is
!he reco*ni!ionBonce a*ainB!ha! in one sense !he !e,! is wha!
we have. The idea o# !he i%(lied reader is relevan! in !he
(resen! connec!ion, however, $eca&se i! serves !o reass&re &s
!wen!0)#irs!)cen!&r0 e,e*e!es !ha! we will not $e likel0 !o ca!ch
ever0!hin* !here is !o ca!ch. In %0 own case, #or e,a%(le, i!
was onl0 when I no!iced !he cross)re#erence !o > =in*s 5'7 in
!he %ar*in o# %0 Greek New Tes!a%en! $eside -a!!hew :'8
;and looked i! &(/@, !ha! I $e*an !o %ake !he connec!ion
$e!ween John !he Ba(!is!s 2ense%$le3 and !ha! o# his
(redecessor Eli4ah !he Tish$i!e. I do no! have a concordance in
8

.or !his las! (oin!, see <ri*h!, 0ew @esta&ent an! t+e Peo$e o1
Go!, ((. :77L76.
%0 head. I# -a!!hew had dressed John in a $l&e 4&%(s&i! and
*iven hi% a whi!e ha!, $lack %ask, silver $&lle!s and a whi!e
horse, I wo&ld have had no !ro&$le wi!h !he all&sion' 2Tha!
%an was !he +one Ran*er/3
K
I did no! *row &( drenched in !he
Old Tes!a%en! !e,!s, however, nor have %os! o# !hose who
lis!en !o o&r ser%ons.
<e can (ro$a$l0 !ake i! #or *ran!ed, however, !ha! %an0 o#
!he #irs! readers o# !he Gos(els were as #a%iliar wi!h !he
Se(!&a*in! ;or !he Ce$rew Scri(!&res@ as %an0 o# %0
*enera!ion are wi!h !he l0rics o# Bea!les !&nes or lines #ro%
@+e Prin%ess Bri!e ;2Cello. -0 na%e is Ini*o -on!o0a. 9o&
killed %0 #a!her. Dre(are !o die/3@. The novels o# Hhai% Do!ok
J
;no! !o %en!ion !he research o# Scandinavian scholars like
Bir*er Gerhardsson@
O
(oin! !o !he (rodi*io&s #ea!s o# %e%or0
(er#or%ed $0 $o!h ancien! and %odern Jews ;as is also !he
case #or %an0 o!her c&l!&res@. .or !hose o# &s who have no!
co%%i!!ed *rea! s!re!ches o# Old Tes!a%en! !e,! !o %e%or0
;le! alone *rea! s!re!ches o# Se(!&a*in! !e,!@, de!ec!in* echoes
o# !ha! %a!erial in !he Gos(els and !he res! o# !he New
Tes!a%en! will $e challen*in* indeed. <e are no! hel(less,
howeverG we have access !o concordances !o assis! &s. An
elec!ronic concordance !o !he Se(!&a*in!, #or e,a%(le, hel(s &s
!o see !ha! !he Greek !e,! o# -a!!hew 5'>5 is a nearl0 ver$a!i%
K

Readers 0o&n*er !han I a% %a0 iden!i#0 %ore easil0 a %an wra((ed
in a scallo(ed $lack ca(e, wearin* head*ear wi!h (oin!0 $lack ears on !o(
and drivin* a 4e!)(ro(elled 2$a!%o$ile.3
J
E.*., Hhai% Do!ok, @+e Pro&ise ;Greenwich, Honn.' .awce!!, 56J6@.
O

E.*., Bir*er Gerhardsson, @+e *eia"iity o1 t+e Gos$e @ra!ition
;Dea$od0, -ass.' Cendrickson, >??5@.
1&o!a!ion o# Genesis 5O'56, linkin* !he $ir!h o# Jes&s !o !he
$ir!h o# Isaac. I! also s&**es!s !he val&e o# sco&rin* -a!!hew
5'57L>K #or o!her links !o !he s!or0 o# A$raha%G !he0 are
ac!&all0 !here in #orce. Honsider, #or e,a%(le, !he wa0 in which
$o!h A$raha% and Jose(h are addressed in a vision or a
drea%, $o!h are !old no! !o $e a#raid, $o!h are desi*na!ed as
2ri*h!eo&s,3 and so on.
This hi*hli*h!s ano!her #ea!&re o# !he &se o# !he Old
Tes!a%en! in !he New. +ackin* !he hand0 cha(!er and verse
divisions we &se !oda0, !he New Tes!a%en! wri!ers had !o
e%(lo0 o!her %eans #or ci!in* !e,!s. In %an0 cases, !he
1&o!a!ion o# a shor! !e,! is a((aren!l0 in!ended !o draw !he
readers a!!en!ion !o !he lar*er con!e,! in which !ha! s%aller
(iece occ&rs. -a!!hew ;so%ewha! loosel0@ 1&o!es Jere%iah
:5'5K ;:7'5K in !he +TT@, #or e,a%(le, as !he de(ressin* cli%a,
!o his acco&n! o# !he sla&*h!er o# !he innocen!s ;-! >'57@. 9e! i#
we read !he lar*er con!e,! o# Jere%iah :5, we discover !ha! !his
en!ire cha(!er is &($ea!, a !horo&*hl0 o(!i%is!ic e,(ec!a!ion o#
Israels re!&rn #ro% her e,ile in Ba$0lon. In #ac!, !hro&*ho&!
!he en!ire r&n o# !he disco&rse in Jere%iah :5, verse 5K is !he
onl0 !r&l0 disco&ra*in* no!e. O$servin* !his #ac! raises a! leas!
!wo 1&es!ions #or e,e*e!es' ;5@ <ha! role does !his lar*er
!he%e o# re!&rn #ro% e,ile (la0 a! !his (oin! in -a!!hews
s!or0I ;>@ <h0 does he selec! !his (ar!ic&larl0 &nha((0 !e,! !o
%ake !he connec!ionI <res!lin* wi!h 1&es!ions like !hese,
which arise na!&rall0 #ro% !he !e,! as -a!!hew a((aren!l0
desi*ned i!, can lead !o s&r(risin* insi*h!s in!o !he (ers(ec!ive
#ro% which -a!!hew ;or an0 o!her wri!er@ (resen!s his
%a!erial. The #ac! !ha! s&ch 1&es!ions arise nat2ray 1ro& t+e
text hel(s !o reass&re &s !ha!, !ho&*h we %a0 $e *e!!in* i!
wron* so%ehow, a! leas! we are !r0in* !o $e !r&e !o !he !e,! as
we have i!. 2Do no! $e a#raidG I know !ha! 0o& are lookin* #or
Jes&s who was cr&ci#ied3G !ha! is !he *oal o# e,e*esis.
*.4 SPEECHES AND
An0one who has ever looked a! or &sed a 2red)le!!er3 edi!ion o#
!he New Tes!a%en! is aware !ha! re(or!s o# wha! Jes&s sa0s, as
o((osed !o wha! he does, occ&(0 a heav0 (ercen!a*e o# !he
Gos(el !e,!. Add !o !ha! !he re(or!s o# wha! o!her charac!ers
sa0 in !he New Tes!a%en! narra!ives, and we soon realiAe !ha!
a varie!0 o# &!!erances ; 2sa0in*s3G in !he sin*&lar, @
and e,!ended s(eeches %akes &( a ver0 i%(or!an! s&$!0(e o#
narra!ive %a!erial. So%ewha! ar!i#iciall0, we can divide s&ch
!e,!s in!o (recisel0 !hese !wo ca!e*ories' shor!er and
e,!ended s(eeches. B&! $e#ore %akin* a #ew re%arks on
in!er(re!in* !hese !e,!s, we need !o view !he% wi!hin !heir
con!e,!.
Honsider once %ore +&kes (ara$le o# !he &n4&s! 4&d*e ;+k
57'5L7@. In i! we hear !he 4&d*e *r&%$lin* !o hi%sel# a$o&! !he
(ersis!en! widow' 2Tho&*h I have no #ear o# God and no
res(ec! #or an0one, 0e! $eca&se !his widow kee(s $o!herin*
%e, I will *ran! her 4&s!ice, so !ha! she %a0 no! wear %e o&! $0
con!in&all0 co%in*3 ;+k 57'8LK@. O# co&rse, i! is Jes&s who
ac!&all0 s(eaks !hese words as he !ells !he s!or0G !he 4&d*e
hi%sel# is no! reall0 !here. The 4&d*es s(eech is a s(eech
wi!hin a s!or0. B&! even !ha! (ara$olic s!or0 a$o&! !he 4&d*e,
!old $0 Jes&s, is rela!ed !o &s !he readers as (ar! o# a %&ch
lar*er s!or0 a$o&! Jes&s, !old $0 +&ke. In o!her words, wha! we
have in +&ke 57'8LK is a s(eech se! wi!hin a s!or0, which i!sel#
is (ar! o# a lon*er s(eech se! wi!hin a lar*er s!or0. Several
o$serva!ions si*ni#ican! #or e,e*esis can $e %ade on !he $asis
o# !his li!erar0 (heno%enon. Unless we ado(! so%e!hin* like
!he (ers(ec!ive re(resen!ed in !he #ollowin* o$serva!ions, we
are in dan*er o# %is&sin* and a$&sin* Gos(el s(eeches, shor!
or lon*.
.or one !hin*, so%e s!ories %ake !heir (oin! in a s(eech,
while so%e s(eeches %ake !heir (oin! wi!h a s!or0. A s(eech
can %ake i!s (oin! ei!her $0 ar*&%en!a!ion ;like le!!ers do@ or
$0 !ellin* a s!or0 ;like Gos(els do@, or $o!h. Si%ilarl0, so%e
le!!ers %ake a (oin! $0 !ellin* a s!or0 ;Gal 5L>@, and so%e
s!ories %ake a (oin! !hro&*h an ar*&%en! ;-! >>'>:L::@. In a
sense, an0!hin* is (ossi$le. Second, and in %ore or less !he
sa%e vein, (ara$les !0(icall0 have a (ar!ic&lar (oin! !o %ake
and o#!en s&% &( !ha! (oin!, or lesson, in a (i!h0 re%ark %ade
$0 one o# !he charac!ers or $0 !he !eller o# !he (ara$le ;&s&all0
Jes&s@. The acco&n! o# a real even!, however, can #&nc!ion !he
sa%e wa0 a (ara$le does in !his re*ard, as in !he case o# Jes&s
enco&n!er wi!h !he cen!&rion ;-! 7'KL5:@. The conversa!ion
$e!ween Jes&s and !he cen!&rion occ&(ies !he hear! o# !he
s!or0 and in #ac! assis!s !he reader !o see 4&s! wha! -a!!hew
%eans !o !each $0 rehearsin* !he scene' !he #ai!h o# an
2&n!o&cha$le3 Gen!ile is as acce(!a$le !o God as an0one elses
#ai!h is. Third, !he e%$eddin* o# !he &n4&s! 4&d*es solilo1&0
wi!hin !he (ara$le !old $0 Jes&s ;+k 57'8LK@ and !he
e%$eddin* o# !his (ara$le wi!hin +&kes 2!ravel narra!ive3
i%(l0 +&kes ar!is!r0. +&ke has decided no! onl0 which s!ories
a$o&! Jes&s !o &se in his Gos(el ;selec!ion@ $&! has chosen
where !o (lace !he% ;arran*e%en!@ and how !o !ell !he%
;ada(!a!ion@.
The &(sho! o# !hese !hree o$serva!ions is !ha! even in !he
case o# conversa!ions, s(eeches and !he sa0in*s o# Jes&s, we
%annot i/nore t+e ar/er %ontexts in w+i%+ we 1in! t+e&. I!
%akes no e,e*e!ical sense !o 1&o!e !he (o(&lar e,hor!a!ion
Jes&s &ses in John :'O ;=J"@' 29e %&s! $e $orn a*ain3 ;or
2anew3 QRS"S, or 2#ro% a$ove3 QNRS"S@, i# we do no!
si%&l!aneo&sl0 connec! i! wi!h !he res! o# his %idni*h!
re%arks !o Nicode%&s ;Jn :'5L>5@. <e do no! have e,e*e!ical
license !o a((l0 i! however we like si%(l0 $eca&se Jes&s
hi%sel# &!!ered i!. I!s %eanin* is de!er%ined $0 i!s lar*er
con!e,!.
B.!.1 Shorter
<i!h !hese (reli%inaries, we can !&rn !o a $rie# look a! !he
shor!er sa0in*s, %os! o# !he% s(oken $0 Jes&s. Hlassical #or%)
cri!ical !rea!%en!s o# Gos(el %a!erial ca!e*oriAed !hese !e,!s
accordin* !o a classi#ica!ion %ore s&i!ed !o Greco)Ro%an
li!era!&re !han !o an0!hin* !ha! Jes&s and his a&diences wo&ld
have reco*niAed. In !he Old Tes!a%en!, as we have alread0
seen, !he Ce$rew !er% a((lied !o a wide varie!0 o# !hese
#i*&ra!ive s(eeches, incl&din* no! onl0 s!or0)#or% (ara$les $&!
also ver0 $rie# sa0in*s. The lon* chain o# (ara$les in -a!!hew
5:, #or e,a%(le, incl&des 1&ick si%iles o# !he #or%, 2The
kin*do% o# heaven is like R.3 Tho&*h !he0 are no! 2s!ories,3
!he0 are indeed (ara$lesG !he0 lead &s !o ask in wha! res(ec!
!he kin*do% o# heaven is like a $i! o# 0eas!, or like a *rain o#
%&s!ard seed. In so%e cases, !he answer will $e !ha! i! is no!
like a %&s!ard seed a! all, $&! i! o(era!es like !he li#e c0cle o#
!he %&s!ard (lan!. Even !ho&*h !he !e,! %a0 li!erall0 sa0 !ha!
!he kin*do% o# heaven is i-e a &er%+ant searchin* #or #ine
(earls, we realiAe !ha! i! is ac!&all0 !he 2one (earl o# *rea!
val&e3 !ha! !he kin*do% is like. The %en!ion o# !he %erchan! is
si%(l0 !he (oin! o# en!r0 #or !he (ara$leG !he %erchan! hi%sel#
is in #ac! !he one overco%e $0 !he kin*do% ;-! 5:'8K@. In o!her
words, we sho&ld no! insis! !ha! !hese #or%&la!ions $e worded
as (recisel0 as we %i*h! wan! !he% !o $e. <e are dealin* wi!h
evoca!ive li!era!&re, no! wi!h le*al doc&%en!s.
.re1&en!l0, a s!or0 will end in a shor! sa0in*, s&%%in* &(
!he (oin!. Jes&s de$a!e wi!h !he Dharisees over harves!in*
*rain on !he sa$$a!h ;-k >'>:L>7@ ends in his (rovokin*
declara!ion, 2The sa$$a!h was %ade #or h&%ankind, and no!
h&%ankind #or !he sa$$a!hG so !he Son o# -an is lord even o#
!he sa$$a!h3 ;-k >'>OL>7@. <e %a0 !ake !his !o $e -arks wa0
o# $o!h !ellin* his readers !he %eanin* o# !he enco&n!er and
(rovidin* !he% wi!h a real)li#e ill&s!ra!ion o# !he (rinci(le
e%$odied in !he . The s!or0 does no! 4&s!i#0 a
Saska!chewan whea! #ar%er in #irin* &( !he co%$ine on a
S&nda0 ;nor does i! (rohi$i! i!@G i! si%(l0 warns a*ains! $lind
o$edience !o #or%al !radi!ion in !he #ace o# $asic h&%an needG
i! re%inds &s o# Gods a$idin* soverei*n!0 over all his crea!ion.
There is %&ch %ore !ha! co&ld $e said a$o&! shor! sa0in*s
in !he Gos(el %a!erial, $&! wha! needs !o $e ke(! in %ind wi!h
!he% can $e s&%%ed &( as #ollows' ;5@ we %&s! read !he% in
con!e,!, and ;>@ we %&s! read !he% wi!h s0%(a!h0. <e %&s!
no! e,!rac! !he% #ro% !heir li!erar0 se!!in*s as i# !he0 are
so%ehow &niversall0 valid in wha!ever con!e,! we %a0 wish !o
&se !he%. <e %&s! no! insis! !ha! !he0 o(era!e like a s!rin* o#
co%(&!er lan*&a*e. The0 are crea!ive, d0na%ic, #l&id and
&n(redic!a$le. The0 de%and !ha! we !hink and !ha! we *ive
!he% !he chance !o inter$ret 2s.
B.!.2 #$tended Speeches
In addi!ion !o shor! sa0in*s, and even !o %edi&%)len*!h
sa0in*s like s!or0)(ara$les, $o!h !he Gos(els and !he $ook o#
Ac!s also con!ain a n&%$er o# e,!ended s(eeches. The Ser%on
on !he -o&n! ;-! KLO@ and i!s co&n!er(ar!, !he Ser%on on !he
Dlain ;+k J'5OL86@, are !wo o$vio&s e,a%(les. So are #o&r
o!her %a4or 2disco&rses3 in -a!!hew ;cha(s. 5?, 5:, 57, and
>:L>K@. The .arewell Disco&rse in Johns Gos(el ;cha(s. 58L
5O@ is e1&all0 well known. To !hese we %a0 add !he vario&s
s(eeches o# De!er, S!e(hen and Da&l sca!!ered !hro&*ho&! !he
$ook o# Ac!s. There are several !hin*s !o no!ice a$o&! readin*
!hese !e,!s.
One o# !hese is !ha! co%(arin* -a!!hews Ser%on on !he
-o&n! wi!h !he (arallel !e,!s #ro% -ark and ;es(eciall0@ +&ke
s!ron*l0 s&**es!s !ha! -a!!hew has woven !he Ser%on
!o*e!her #ro% %an0 individ&al (ieces. "er0 #ew o# !he
Ser%ons (ar!s a((ear in -ark, and !hose !ha! do a((ear !here
occ&r in rando% order $0 co%(arison. -&ch %ore o#
-a!!hews Ser%on rea((ears in +&ke, and +&ke arran*es !he
Ser%on on !he Dlain !o a *rea! de*ree in !he sa%e order as
-a!!hew has arran*ed !he Ser%on on !he -o&n!. ;This raises
!he 1&es!ion whe!her !hese ser%ons %i*h! !here#ore co%e
#ro% X.@ 9e! a *rea! deal o# -a!!hews Ser%on is a$sen! #ro%
+&kes Ser%on on !he Dlain, !ho&*h i! a((ears elsewhere,
2rando%l0,3 !hro&*ho&! +&ke. <e co&ld co*en!l0 ar*&e !ha!
Jes&s (reached !hese ser%ons, or (ar!s o# !he%, on vario&s
occasions, $&! $e#ore we decide whe!her we *ain an0!hin* $0
doin* so, we sho&ld consider a second (heno%enon.
+&ke !ells &s in Ac!s >? !ha! one evenin* Da&l !alked on in!o
!he ni*h! so lon* !ha! a 0o&n* %an nodded o## and #ell o&! o# a
window. Tho&*h we *ran! !ha! +&ke a!!ri$&!es Da&ls lon*)
windedness !o !he #ac! !ha! he in!ended !o leave !he ne,! da0,
we %a0 never!heless ass&%e !ha! Da&l was no! &s&all0 as
s&ccinc! a s(eaker as we %i*h! 4&d*e #ro% !he len*!h o# his
recorded s(eeches. -os! o# !hese, like !he Areo(a*&s address
;Ac!s 5O@ and his de#ense $e#ore A*ri((a ;Ac!s >J@, can $e read
alo&d in a %a!!er o# !wo or !hree %in&!es. Ac!s scholars o#!en
ci!e !he candid !es!i%on0 o# Th&c0dides ;c. 8J?L8?? B.H.@,
A!henian *eneral and a&!hor o# @+e Peo$onnesian War,
re*ardin* his !rea!%en! o# s(eeches in !ha! acco&n!. Ce ad%i!s
;5.>>@ !ha! he canno! (rovide ver$a!i% !ranscri(!s #or !he
s(eeches, $&! !ha! he s&%%ariAes !he *is! o# each ins!ead,
(&!!in* in!o !he %o&!hs o# !he s(eakers !he words !ha! see% !o
hi%, !he a&!hor, !o conve0 !heir $asic %essa*es ;and, we %i*h!
s&r%ise, !o s&i! his own (&r(oses@. The #air ass&%(!ion is !ha!
+&ke has done !he sa%e #or !he s(eeches o# his %ain
charac!ers.
Honsiderin* !hese #ac!ors, !hird, we #ind o&rselves once
a*ain #aced wi!h !he iss&es o# con!e,! and redac!ion. The
a&!hors o# !he Gos(els and Ac!s !ell !heir s!ories !o !he $es! o#
!heir a$ili!ies ;which are considera$le@, selec!in*, arran*in*
and ada(!in* !heir 2s(eech3 %a!erial in wa0s !ha! conve0 !he
!heolo*ical si*ni#icance o# !he s(eeches !he0 (reserve ;no less
!han o# !he even!s !he0 (or!ra0@. <e %a0 wish !o re*ard
-a!!hews version o# !he Ser%on as an acc&ra!e 2co&r!)
re(or!er s!0le3 !ranscri(! o# a (resen!a!ion, one dis!inc! #ro%
!he one (reserved in +&ke J. ;On !he (rinci(le %en!ioned
a$ove, !ha! Jes&s likel0 re(ea!ed his s(eechesBand deedsB
n&%ero&s !i%es !hro&*ho&! his %inis!r0, !his is en!irel0
(ossi$le.@ Al!erna!ivel0, we %a0 wish !o re*ard -a!!hew KLO as
!he a&!hors a!!e%(! !o (resen! Jes&s !heolo*icall0 as a new
-oses deliverin* a new 2law,3 doin* so $0 %odelin* Jes&s #ive
e,!ended disco&rses accordin* !o !he #ive $ooks o# !he
Den!a!e&ch. Ei!her wa0, we %&s! now in!er(re! !he !e,!s as we
+ave t+e&. The concerns !ha! *&ide !he anal0sis and
in!er(re!a!ion o# !hese s(eeches in !he Gos(els and Ac!s are
vir!&all0 !he sa%e as !hose o&!lined a$ove in cha(!er si,, which
*&ide res(onsi$le in!er(re!a!ion o# New Tes!a%en! le!!ers.
Hon!e,! and s!r&c!&re, rhe!oric and con!en!, as well as !he
2occasion,3 !he c&l!&re and !he a&dienceBincl&din* !he
ori*inal rea!in/ a&dienceB*&ide &s in how we sho&ld
&nders!and !hese s(eeches.
*.$ SUMMARY PASSAGES
In !he in!rod&c!ion !o !his cha(!er, we o$served !ha! -a!!hew
closes o## !he s!or0 o# De!ers %o!her)in)law wi!h a s&%%ar0
(assa*e ;-! 7'5JL5O@. In doin* so, he #ollows -ark ;-k 5':>L
:8@G +&ke does !he sa%e ;+k 8'8?L85@. The !er% s2&&ary
$assa/e re#ers !o a shor! !e,! charac!eriAed $0 a concen!ra!ion
o# *eneraliAin* s!a!e%en!s. Tha! is, ra!her !han !rea!in* Jes&s
ac!ivi!0 in connec!ion wi!h a s(eci#ic (erson or si!&a!ion, a
s&%%ar0 s!a!e%en! will %en!ion !he *eneral sor!s o# !hin*s he
did in a cer!ain vicini!0 or over a (eriod o# !i%e. O#!en,
i%(er#ec! !ense)#or%s (redo%ina!e a%on* !he ver$s, as i# !he
a&!hor were (ain!in* a !0(ical scene.
Honsider -ark 5':>L:8' 2Tha! evenin*, a! s&ndown, !he0
$ro&*h! !o hi% all who were sick or (ossessed wi!h de%ons.
And !he whole ci!0 was *a!hered aro&nd !he door. And he
c&red %an0 who were sick wi!h vario&s diseases, and cas! o&!
%an0 de%onsG and he wo&ld no! (er%i! !he de%ons !o s(eak,
$eca&se !he0 knew hi%.3 The !i%in* is s(eci#ic ;2!ha! evenin*,
a! s&ndown3@, $&! !he de!ails are *eneraliAed ;2!he03 $ro&*h!
!o hi% 2all3 who were sickG !he 2whole ci!03 was *a!heredG he
c&red 2%an03 who were sick wi!h 2vario&s3 diseases@. Several
o# !he ver$s are in !he i%(er#ec!' 2were $rin*in*3G q
cuqq 2was *a!hered3G q 2wo&ld Qno!S (er%i!G
p 2Qdid no!S know3 ;ac!&all0 a (l&(er#ec!, $&! &sed
2i%(er#ec!l03@. -a!!hews version e%(lo0s %ore aoris! ver$s,
$&! +&ke increases !he n&%$er o# i%(er#ec! ver$s in his
(arallel.
Te,!s like !his occ&r a! odd in!ervals !hro&*ho&! !he
S0no(!ic Gos(els and Ac!s. In one res(ec!, !he0 are ra!her
incons(ic&o&s co%(ared !o !he s(eci#ic and de!ailed s!ories
!he0 (&nc!&a!e. <e %a0 easil0 (ass !he% over as in!rinsicall0
less arres!in* and less in!eres!in*. The0 (la0 an i%(or!an! role
in !he Gos(els, never!heless. O!herwise we co&ld reasona$l0
ass&%e !he0 o&*h! !o have $een le#! o&! al!o*e!her. The0
#&nc!ion a li!!le like res! s!o(s alon* a hi*hwa0. Travelers (&ll
o## !he road, have a c&( o# co##ee and check !he %a(. The0 see
a! a *lance where !he0 have $een and !ake a 1&ick look a!
where !he0 are headed. -a0$e !here is a dis(la0 ill&s!ra!in* !he
vario&s a!!rac!ions and !0(ical wildli#e o# !he i%%edia!e area.
Re#reshed and reorien!ed, !he !ravelers hi! !he road a*ain,
headed !oward so%e dis!an! des!ina!ion.
S&%%ar0 (assa*es o##er readers !he sa%e sor! o# service,
and wise readers will (a0 a!!en!ion !o !he%. <e have $een
insis!in* all alon* !ha! each $i$lical narra!ive has i!s own
s!r&c!&re and desi*n and !ha! an0 one (or!ion o# i! #i!s wi!hin
!ha! or*aniAed con!e,!. I# !his is !r&e, !hen we can !ake i! #or
*ran!ed !ha! !he $i$lical a&!hors have $&il! in!o !heir narra!ives
vario&s si*n(os!s !o *&ide !heir readers. S&%%ar0 (assa*es
(rovide one ver0 i%(or!an! #or% o# s&ch si*n(os!s. ;O!hers
incl&de !he several s!r&c!&ral (a!!erns and re(e!i!ions,
con4&nc!ions, and o!her 2%arkers3 disc&ssed in cha(!er !hree,
es(eciall0 in sec!ion :.>.>.@ -a!!hew 8'5O and 5J'>5, #or
ins!ance, cons!i!&!e s&%%ar0 s!a!e%en!s o# wha! is a"o2t to
ha((en' 2.ro% !ha! !i%e, Jes&s $e*an !o (roclai%3 !he
kin*do% o# heaven, and la!er he 2$e*an !o show his disci(les3
!ha! he %&s! shor!l0 die in Jer&sale%. These !wo ;%a!chin*@
s!a!e%en!s (rovide &s orien!a!ion in -a!!hews overall s!or0G
!he0 hel( &s !o see how all !he (ar!s #i! !o*e!her in!o a coheren!
whole.
In !er%s o# *e!!in* a sense o# !he &ni!0 and direc!ion o# a
(ar!ic&lar Gos(el, or o# Ac!s, i! wo&ld $e a wor!h0 e,ercise !o
read i! !hro&*h, cover !o cover, iden!i#0in* and isola!in* i!s
vario&s s&%%ar0 s!a!e%en!s. <e co&ld !hen %ake a lis! o#
!he%, in !heir (ro(er order, and anal0Ae !he (ro*ression !he0
re(resen!. Tha! anal0sis o&*h! !o (rovide a si*ni#ican! (iece o#
evidence, drawn direc!l0 #ro% !he !e,! i!sel#, #or es!a$lishin*
!he a&!hors in!ended %essa*e. I! canno! $e overe%(hasiAed
how i%(or!an! i! is !o le! !he !e,! s(eak #or i!sel#G s&%%ar0
(assa*es (rovide one &se#&l %eans #or doin* !ha!.
Takin* !o hear! all !he advice o##ered in !his cha(!er %a0
!hrea!en !o overwhel% &s. The (oin! is no! !o overwhel%,
however, $&! !o %ake aware. Ade(!ness a! &sin* !he skills
i%(lied here *rows wi!h e,(erience. <e can onl0 $e*in where
we are and e,(eri%en!. One s&**es!ion #or !he (rocess is !o
&se colored (encils or hi*hli*h!ers !o %ark &( !he !e,! on a
(ho!oco(ied (a*e. Hoordina!in* colors #or vario&s 2si*n(os!s,3
!he%es, re(ea!ed voca$&lar0 and o!her (a!!erns can ca&se
s!r&c!&re and !e,!&re ;no (&n in!ended@ !o s(rin* o&! in $old
relie#. There is no 2ri*h!3 wa0 !o do !hisG we are #ree ;and
enco&ra*ed@ !o do o&r own e,(lora!ions and !o see wha! we
#ind. <hen we do #ind so%e!hin*, we are enco&ra*ed !o $rin*
i! !o !he !a$le o# !he Grand Honversa!ion. -eanwhile, we !&rn
now !o ano!her New Tes!a%en! *enre, !he s!ran*e world o#
a(ocal0(!ic li!era!&re.
+
APOCALYPSE
Al!erna!ive Ed&ca!ion
@+en I saw anot+er $ortent in +eaven, /reat an!
a&aQin/# seven an/es wit+ seven $a/2es,
w+i%+ are t+e ast, 1or wit+ t+e& t+e wrat+ o1
Go! is en!e!.
*'V'L.@IO0 15#1
.n! t+o2/+ 7t. ,o+n t+e 'van/eist saw &any
stran/e &onsters in +is vision,
+e saw no %reat2re so wi! as one o1 +is own
%o&&entators.
G. A. 3H'7@'*@O0, O*@HODORB
One S&nda0 %ornin* a#!er worshi(, I $e*an !o converse wi!h
an elderl0 sain! whose Norwe*ian)$orn (aren!s had
i%%i*ra!ed !o So&!h Dako!a in !he nine!een!h cen!&r0. I asked
her i# she had ever read Rblvaa*s Giants in t+e 'art+, since i!
(ain!s a vivid (ic!&re o# !he s!r&**les end&red $0 earl0
Scandinavian (ioneers on !he Grea! Dlains. She #i,ed %e wi!h a
look o# %i,ed sorrow and horror. 2I never read novels,3 she
said. 2I onl0 have !i%e #or s(iri!&all0 edi#0in* $ooks.3 Oh.
To %0 wa0 o# !hinkin*, one o# !he $es! so&rces o# s(iri!&al
edi#ica!ion is *ood #ic!ion. .or so%e reason I !end !o res(ond
dee(l0 !o s!ories, whe!her or no! !he0 are 2!r&e.3 I o#!en #ind
%0sel# !hinkin* o# !hin*s in !er%s o# a novel or shor! s!or0 I
have read or o# a %ovie I have seen. I vis&aliAe divine
re!ri$&!ion, #or ins!ance ;and (erha(s wron*l0/@, in !er%s o#
Nicholas Nickle$0s !hrashin* o# vicio&s school%as!er
<ack#ord S1&eers or o# !ha! o!her school%as!er who *e!s #ree
2$o,in* lessons3 in !he old Rodd0 -cDowell #il% How Green
Was ;y Vaey. I do no! wish !o $ela$or !his, es(eciall0 since I
have $een a school%as!er %0sel#. The (oin! is si%(l0 !ha! we
h&%an $ein*s have di##erin* learnin* s!0les. Th&s, even in
Scri(!&re, God a((aren!l0 a((roaches &s on a varie!0 o# levels
in!endin* !o reach &s in wha!ever wa0 we res(ond !o $es!.
This, I $elieve, is a &se#&l (ers(ec!ive !o !ake in considerin* !he
e,e*esis o# !ha! s!ran*e (iece o# work a! !he end o# !he New
Tes!a%en!. I! re(resen!s a kind o# al!erna!ive ed&ca!ion.
+.1 WHAT IS IT(
<e are !alkin* a$o&! !he $ook o# Revela!ion, or !he A(ocal0(se
o# John !he Theolo*ian, as %an0 ancien! %an&scri(!s !i!le i!
;and no! !o con#&se i! wi!h a noncanonical $ook &nder a ver0
si%ilar na%e@. I! is indeed a s!ran*e (iece o# work. A #riend o#
%ine !old %e a$o&! a %an who said !ha! he had read !he en!ire
New Tes!a%en! and had &nders!ood i! 4&s! #ine 2e,ce(! #or !ha!
$i! o# science #ic!ion a! !he end.3 To %odern readers,
Revela!ion !r&l0 is a da&n!in* and in!i%ida!in* $ook. In
(rinci(le, we have li!!le !ro&$le wi!h le!!ers, or wi!h s!ories or
ser%onsBeven (ro(he!ic ser%ons. B&! wha! is !his !ha! we
#ind in Revela!ionI I%a*es o# $eas!s and %ons!ers, *has!l0
horse%en on !he order o# Sa&rons NaA*&l, #ri*h!enin* eno&*h
!o %ake <ashin*!on Irvin*s headless i%(os!or la&*ha$le $0
co%(arison. <ha! is !his hoard o# h&%an)headed loc&s!s or
!his harlo! sea!ed on seven hillsI
There has $een no shor!a*e o# s(ec&la!ion a$o&! !hese
!hin*s. I so%e!i%es (ic!&re &s, scholars and la0 readers alike,
(ickin* a! Revela!ion as !he Israeli!es (icked a! !he $read #ro%
heaven on !he %ornin* i! #irs! a((eared like dew in !he deser!
;E, 5J'5K@. 2<ha! is i!I3 !he0 asked. ;annaN This is a *ood
!hin* !o do, o# co&rse. An0 !i%e we enco&n!er so%e!hin*
(&AAlin* in Scri(!&re, i! is a *ood !hin* !o !r0 !o #i*&re i! o&!.
B&! doin* so re1&ires a willin*ness !o draw wha!ever
concl&sions a care#&l considera!ion o# all availa$le evidence
%i*h! lead &s !o. No! !ha! we are each individ&all0 res(onsi$le
!o e,a%ine all !ha! evidence/ Ra!her, we are (ar! o# !he Grand
Theolo*ical Honversa!ion, (ar! o# a s!&d0in* co%%&ni!0. <e
work to/et+er in !he *rand (ro4ec! o# &nders!andin* !he
ancien! !e,!s, and !his i%(lies !ha! we lis!en !o each o!her and
cri!icall0 eval&a!e each o!hers o(inions wi!h care, s0%(a!h0
and *race.
<e can ass&%e #irs! o# all !ha! Revela!ion was no! inten!e!
!o $e da&n!in* or in!i%ida!in* readin* #or i!s #irs! addressees.
As wi!h an0 o!her $i$lical $ook, i# we wan! !o &nders!and !his
one, we need !o $e*in $0 reca(!&rin* i!s ori*inal se!!in* as well
as we can. B&! !his can $e a li!!le !rick0. So%e enor%o&sl0
(o(&lar views on Revela!ion risk *ivin* li!!le or no a!!en!ion !o
!he circ&%s!ances o&! o# which !he $ook arose in !he #irs!
(lace. -an0 (eo(le are !a&*h! !o re*ard !he $ook o# Revela!ion
as Gods de!ailed, chronolo*icall0 se1&enced $l&e(rin! #or !heir
own ra!her i%%edia!e #&!&re. <i!ho&! ever !r0in* !o
&nders!and !he $ook #or !he%selves, !he0 devo!edl0 #ollow
vario&s e,(osi!ions o# i! sensa!ionaliAed in hi*hl0 i%a*ina!ive
;and l&cra!ive@ novels and #il%s. These color#&l 2!akes3 on
Revela!ion are $ased, o# co&rse, on !he le*i!i%a!e ass&%(!ion
!ha! !he en!ire Bi$le, Revela!ion incl&ded, is s!ill relevan!
!oda0. I! is an ass&%(!ion I also %ake in !his (resen! !e,!$ook.
Ironicall0 ;in %0 own e,(erience an0wa0@, so%e who have
never (ersonall0 s!&died or (erha(s even read Revela!ion, $&!
who are in!i%a!el0 #a%iliar wi!h (o(&lariAed in!er(re!a!ions o#
i!, con#iden!l0 re4ec! al!erna!ive in!er(re!a!ions. The0
so%e!i%es even i%(&*n !he ver0 Hhris!iani!0 o# !hose who
(ro(ose al!erna!ive in!er(re!a!ions. On !he o!her hand, I
%0sel# a% *&il!0 o# ass&%in* !ha! !he view o# !hin*s I
s&$scri$e !o is !he onl0 2in!elli*en!3 one. There is no *rea!er
#ool !han a !heolo*ical #ool.
Hlearl0, i# we are !o $ene#i! #ro% !his $ook as a (or!ion o#
Hhris!ian Scri(!&re and !o rise a$ove s!ri#e and division over i!,
we %&s! le! i! s(eak #or i!sel#. And i# we are !o le! i! s(eak #or
i!sel#, we %&s! read i! in !he sa%e !e,!)and)con!e,!)sensi!ive
wa0 we &se in readin* all o!her New Tes!a%en! $ooks. <e will
na!&rall0 need hel( in !his, $&! we sho&ld no! $e so #ear#&l o#
!he (ec&liar s!ran*eness o# !he $ook o# Revela!ion !ha! we le!
o!hers do a o# o&r !hinkin* a$o&! i! #or &s. This cha(!er, !hen,
!akes &( !he !ask o# readin* New Tes!a%en! a(ocal0(!ic
li!era!&re, Revela!ion in (ar!ic&lar, on i!s own !er%s. <i!h
!ha!, we co%e $ack !o !he &anna 1&es!ion' 2<ha! is i!I3
D.1.1 The 3oo of 8e*elation in Its Genre
In vol&%e !hree o# !he 3a&"ri!/e History o1 ,2!ais&,
Hhris!o(her Rowland draws o&r a!!en!ion !o a (er!inen! !e,! in
!he -ishnah ;!he collec!ion o# Jewish ra$$inic !eachin*
co%(iled in !he earl0 !hird cen!&r0 A.D.@.
5
Trac!a!e &.
>.5 reads in (ar!'
The #or$idden de*rees %a0 no! $e e,(o&nded $e#ore !hree (ersons,
nor !he S!or0 o# Hrea!ion $e#ore !wo, nor !he Qcha(!er o# !heS Hhario!
$e#ore one alone, &nless he is a Sa*e !ha! &nders!ands o# his own
knowled*e. <hosoever *ives his %ind !o #o&r !hin*s i! were $e!!er
#or hi% i# he had no! co%e in!o !he worldBwha! is a$oveI wha! is
$enea!hI wha! was $e#ore!i%eI and wha! will $e herea#!erI And
whosoever !akes no !ho&*h! #or !he hono&r o# his -aker, i! were
$e!!er #or hi% i# he had no! co%e in!o !he world.
The an*s! &nderl0in* !his (assa*e is a((aren!l0 $orn o#
reverence #or !he inscr&!a$le !hin*s o# God, !hin*s $e0ond
nor%al h&%an ken. The Genesis acco&n! o# crea!ion and
EAekiels %0s!ical ;hol0 chario!@ e,(erience,
descri$ed in !he #irs! cha(!er o# his (ro(hec0, #or e,a%(le,
#ascina!in* !ho&*h !he0 %a0 $e, invi!e h&$ris in !hose who are
&n1&ali#ied !o (ierce !he veil han*in* $e!ween !his world and
Gods world. I! is $e!!er, sa0 !he ra$$is, !o honor o&r -aker $0
leavin* s&ch !hin*s alone.
ALL INIANS M2ST ANCE
All Indians %&s! dance, ever0where, kee( on dancin*. Dre!!0
5

H. H. Rowland, 2A(ocal0(!ic' The Disclos&re o# Ceavenl0 =nowled*e,3
in @+e 3a&"ri!/e History o1 ,2!ais&P ed. <. Cor$&r0 e! al. ;Ha%$rid*e'
Ha%$rid*e Universi!0 Dress, 5666@, :'O78.
soon in ne,! s(rin* Grea! S(iri! co%e. Ce $rin* $ack all *a%e
o# ever0 kind. The *a%e $e !hick ever0where. All dead Indians
co%e $ack and live a*ain. Old $lind Indian see a*ain and *e!
0o&n* and have #ine !i%e. <hen Grea! S(iri! co%es !his wa0,
!hen all !he Indians *o !o %o&n!ains, hi*h &( awa0 #ro%
whi!es. <hi!es can! h&r! Indians !hen. Then while Indians wa0
&( hi*h $i* #lood co%es like wa!er and all whi!e (eo(le die, *e!
drowned. A#!er !ha!, wa!er *o awa0 and !hen no$od0 $&!
Indians ever0where and *a%e all kinds !hick. Then %edicine
%an !ell Indians !o send word !o all Indians !o kee( &( dancin*
and !he *ood !i%e will co%e. Indians who don! dance, who
don! $elieve in !his word, will *row li!!le, 4&s! a$o&! a #oo!
hi*h, and s!a0 !ha! wa0. So%e o# !he% will $e !&rned in!o wood
and $&rned in #ire.
<O"O=A, TCE DAIUTE GCOST DANHE -ESSIAC ;57K8IL56:>@
;1&o!ed in Sher%an Ale,ie, @+e Lone *an/er an! @onto
4ist1i/+t in Heaven QNew 9ork' A!lan!ic -on!hl0 Dress, 566:S,
(. 5?8@
<ha! is es(eciall0 in!eres!in* here, however, is !he lis! o#
#o&r s&$4ec!s !he ra$$is re*arded as o## li%i!s #or s!&d0' !hin*s
2a$ove3 and 2$enea!h,3 and !hin*s 2$e#ore!i%e3 and
2herea#!er.3 <e will co%e $ack !o !his in a %o%en!. .or now
we can no!e !ha! Rowland and o!hers consider !his re%ark a
re#erence !o !he %an0 Jewish ;and (ro$a$l0 Hhris!ian@
a(ocal0(ses in circ&la!ion d&rin* !he !hree or #o&r cen!&ries
s!raddlin* !he !&rn o# !he era. The $ook o# Revela!ion is ony
one o1 a ar/e n2&"er o# si%ilar works #ro% !his (eriod.
To*e!her, !hese %an0 li!erar0 (iecesBincl&din* Revela!ionB
#or% a *enre, so%ewha! loosel0 de#ined, one !ha! scholars
!oda0 (re#er !o call !he *enre o# 2a(ocal0(se.3 ;The !er%
a$o%ay$ti%, &sed as a no&n, was o#!en a((lied !o !his *enre &(
&n!il !he la!er decades o# !he !wen!ie!h cen!&r0. In
co%%en!aries and o!her works, 0o& %a0 well r&n in!o !he
word a$o%ay$ti% &sed !his wa0' 2Jewish a(ocal0(!ic,3 #or
ins!ance. Tha! &sa*e is less co%%on !oda0.@
So%e o# !he %ore #a%o&s o# !hese o!her a(ocal0(ses
incl&de (or!ions o# $i$lical $ooks' Daniel O, Zechariah 5L7 and,
di##eren!l0, 6L58, -ark 5: and i!s (arallels, are all e,a%(les.
A(ocal0(ses #ro% o&!side !he $o&ndaries o# canonical
Scri(!&re incl&de 4 'Qra, 2 and < Bar2%+, lar*e sec!ions o# !he
vario&s Boo-s o1 'no%+, @+e 7+e$+er! o1 Her&as, @+e
@esta&ent o1 ."ra+a&, @+e .$o%ay$se o1 ."ra+a&, @+e
.$o%ay$se o1 ,a&es and %an0, %an0 o!hers. A(ocal0(ses are
no! li%i!ed !o J&dais% and Hhris!iani!0G scholars have s!&died
Dersian, Ba$0lonian, Ro%an and o!her ancien! -edi!erranean
e,a%(les as well. Nor are !he0 li%i!ed !o !he ancien! world.
-edieval e,a%(les have $een iden!i#ied ;Dan!es Divine
3o&e!y has a(ocal0(!ic ele%en!s@, and even !oda0 we have
o&r own versions o# !he *enre. The (o(&lariAed in!er(re!a!ion
o# Revela!ion in !he +e#! Behind series o# $ooks and #il%s i!sel#
e%$odies a con!e%(orar0 a(ocal0(!ic view(oin!. Tha! series
and o!her (&$lica!ions like i! clai% !o (rovide an acc&ra!e
(or!ra0al o# wha! Revela!ion (redic!sG $&! inso#ar as !he0
%isre(resen! !he %essa*e o# Revela!ion ;i1 !he0 do, o# co&rse@
!he0 cons!i!&!e a new a(ocal0(se #or !he !wen!0)#irs! cen!&r0.
The side$ar on (a*e 57> (resen!s an e,a%(le o# a nine!een!h)
cen!&r0 Na!ive A%erican a(ocal0(se. B&! wha! is i! !ha! %akes
!hese a(ocal0(ses reco*niAa$le as a(ocal0(sesI
D.1.2 (haracteristics of an +pocalypse1 The Shape of
the Genre
Ho%in* !o a consens&s on !his 1&es!ion has no! (roven eas0G i!
re%ains el&sive !oda0. This is wh0 we said a$ove !ha! !he *enre
o# a(ocal0(se is 2loosel0 de#ined.3 I%a*ine a !ho&sand wooden
$locks o# %an0 kinds, colors, siAes, sha(es, dacor and on and
on. 9o&r 4o$ is !o sor! !he% in!o classes o# si%ilar $locks. 9o&
s!ar! o&! wi!h colorB$l&e, #or e,a%(le. B&! 0o& no!ice !ha!
a%on* !he solid $l&e ones !here are o!her $l&e $locks wi!h red
(olka do!s and s!ill o!hers wi!h *reen (olka do!s. No %a!!er.
9o& (&! all !hose $l&e $locks, wi!h or wi!ho&! (olka do!s, in!o
ca!e*or0 one. Ne,! 0o& #ind all !he s%aller $locks and divide
!he% #ro% !he lar*er $locks. B&! wai! a %in&!e. So%e o# !he
$l&e $locks, alread0 in ca!e*or0 one, are s%all and so%e o#
!he% are lar*e. So 0o& (&ll !he lar*e ones o&! and (&! !he%
wi!h !he o!her lar*er $locks in!o ca!e*or0 !wo. B&! !ha! de#ea!s
0o&r cri!erion #or ca!e*or0 one.
I! is so%e!hin* like !his wi!h decidin* wha! %akes an
a(ocal0(se. Given, sa0, !en li!erar0 anal0s!s, we will likel0 have
!en di##eren! $&! (ar!iall0 overla((in* lis!s o# doc&%en!s
(ro(osed #or !he dis!inc!ion o# #i!!in* in!o !he ca!e*or0 ;or
*enre@ o# a(ocal0(se. Each o# !he !en anal0s!s will have a
(ar!ic&lar se! o# cri!eria #or decidin* which doc&%en!s do and
which doc&%en!s do no! 1&ali#0 as a(ocal0(ses. One anal0s!
will co&n! as essen!ial a cri!erion !ha! ano!her anal0s! se!s
aside as nonessen!ial. No %a!!er which wa0 !he c&!s are %ade,
so%eones #avori!e a(ocal0(se ;i# i! is an a(ocal0(se@ #alls o##
!he lis!. There is circ&lari!0 in !his (rocess' #ro% a *iven
selec!ion o# doc&%en!s we develo( a lis! o# cri!eriaG #ro% !ha!
lis! o# cri!eria we decide which doc&%en!s $elon* in !he
selec!ion. Never!heless, in s(i!e o# !he #l&idi!0 o# !he (resen!
s!a!e o# !he disc&ssion, we can o(era!e #or now wi!h !he
#ollowin* o#!)1&o!ed de#ini!ion o# a(ocal0(se. I! e%er*ed #ro%
a 56O6 s0%(osi&% #acili!a!ed $0 John J. Hollins, !he res&l!s o#
which were (&$lished &nder !he !i!le .$o%ay$se# @+e
;or$+oo/y o1 a Genre. This de#ini!ion has #o&nd wides(read
s&((or!, since i! s&ccinc!l0 s&%s &( !he essen!ial ele%en!s o#
%os!, i# no! necessaril0 all, a(ocal0(ses.
2A(ocal0(se3 is a *enre o# revela!or0 li!era!&re wi!h a narra!ive
#ra%ework, in which a revela!ion is %edia!ed $0 an o!herworldl0
$ein* !o a h&%an reci(ien!, disclosin* a !ranscenden! reali!0 which
is $o!h !e%(oral, inso#ar as i! envisa*es escha!olo*ical salva!ion, and
s(a!ial, inso#ar as i! involves ano!her, s&(erna!&ral world.
>
This de#ini!ion o# Jewish a(ocal0(se has #ive %ain
ele%en!s, all o# which also charac!eriAe !he $ook o# Revela!ion.
In !he #irs! (lace, a(ocal0(!ic li!era!&re is reveatory
iterat2re. I! is no! li!era!&re in !he sense o# a his!or0 o# Ro%e,
an en!er!ainin* shor! s!or0, a le!!er o# reco%%enda!ion or a
Gos(el acco&n!. Ins!ead, i! is li!era!&re desi*ned !o reveal
cer!ain secre! in#or%a!ion (revio&sl0 concealed. The revela!ion
o# !his secre! in#or%a!ion co%es onl0 !o a selec! a&dience,
>

J. J. Hollins, 2In!rod&c!ion' Towards !he -or(holo*0 o# a Genre,3 in
.$o%ay$se# @+e ;or$+oo/y o1 a Genre, Se%eia 58 ;Hhico, Hali#.'
Scholars, 56O6@, (. 6.
however, no! !o h&%ani!0 in *eneral. I! !h&s (res&((osesBand
rein#orcesBan inner circle o# !he (rivile*ed #ew. Second, !he
in#or%a!ion an a(ocal0(se reveals is se! wi!hin a narrative
1ra&ewor-P !he revela!ion is conve0ed in a se1&ence o# even!s.
There is a (ro!a*onis! o# sor!s !o who% vario&s !hin*s ha((en
;John in !he case o# Revela!ionG Dan!e hi%sel# in @+e In1erno@G
!he s!or0 o# !he seers a%aAin* e,(erience, and o#!en !he
s!r&c!&re o# wha! is revealed in !ha! e,(erience ;!he acco&n! o#
!hin*s 0e! !o co%e, #or e,a%(le@ (ro*resses #ro% s!a*e !o
s!a*e, like a (lo!.
The !hird and #o&r!h ele%en!s involve !he ac!ors' !here is
an ot+erwor!y &e!iator o# !he revela!ion and !here is !he
+2&an re%i$ient, !he seer. Ordinaril0, in Jewish a(ocal0(ses,
!he h&%an reci(ien! is one o# !he ill&s!rio&s heroes o# Israels
reli*io&s (as!' Ada%, A$raha%, Enoch, EAra or Bar&ch, #or
e,a%(le. This i%(lies so%e!hin* !ha! Hollinss de#ini!ion does
no! %en!ion' !ha! !he !0(ical a(ocal0(se is $se2!ony&o2s,
!ha! is, #alsel0 ;or $e!!er' #ic!i!io&sl0I@ a!!ri$&!ed !o a #a%o&s
(erson #ro% an!i1&i!0 lon* dead a! !he !i%e o# wri!in*. In
Revela!ion, !he reci(ien! is John, a venera!ed leader o# !he
Asian ch&rches a! !he end o# !he #irs! cen!&r0. -os! o#
Hhris!endo%, incl&din* %an0 scholars, re*ards !his 2John3 o#
Revela!ion ;whoever he is@ as s(eakin* #or hi%sel# and !h&s do
no! consider his a(ocal0(se (se&don0%o&s like o!her
a(ocal0(ses. <he!her he is in #ac! John !he son o# Ze$edee or
ano!her o# !wo or !hree (ersons who were na%ed John and
a##ilia!ed wi!h !he ancien! E(hesian ch&rch is harder !o sa0.
The o!her s!andard #i*&re in an a(ocal0(se, an o!herworldl0
*&ide and %edia!or o# !he revela!ion, is o#!en an an*el sen! $0
God !o e,(lain ever0!hin* !o !he h&%an seer. In Revela!ion, o#
co&rse, one o# !he %edia!ors is iden!i#ied in !he ver0 #irs!
cha(!er as !he 2livin* one3 who died and is alive #orever and
ever ;Rev 5'57@, !ha! is, he is !he Risen +ord hi%sel#. B&! he is
no less 2o!herworldl03 #or !ha!. 2One o# !he elders3 encirclin*
!he !hrone o# God serves John as ano!her %edia!or ;Rev K'K@,
as does an an*el who shows &( #ro% !i%e !o !i%e ;Rev 5'5G
5?'6G 5O'OG 56'6G c#. >>'J, 5J@.
The #i#!h ele%en! in !he Se%eia de#ini!ion re*ards !he
con!en!' a(ocal0(ses reveal trans%en!ent reaity. This reali!0
can $e (resen!ed #ro% one o# !wo (ers(ec!ives, so%e!i%es
#ro% $o!h. I! %a0 $e a te&$ora reali!0. The seer %a0 $e
ins!r&c!ed in !he (ro*ress o# Israels #&!&re a%on* !he world o#
na!ionsG #ro% !he (ers(ec!ive o# !he readers o# s&ch an
a(ocal0(se, !his (ro(hesied #&!&re will ac!&all0 cons!i!&!e
Israels (as!. Tha! #&!&re his!orical (ro*ression is !0(icall0
2(eriodiAed,3 divided in!o s&ccessive e(ochs, o#!en accordin* !o
!he world)do%ina!ion o# s&ch c&rren! and co%in* (owers as
Ass0ria, Ba$0lon, Dersia, Greece or Ro%e. The $ook o# Daniel
is a *ood e,a%(le o# !his !0(e o# a(ocal0(se. The an*elic
%edia!or ;in Daniels case, a heavenl0 2a!!endan!,3 Dan O'5?,
5J@ hel(s !he seer !o &nders!and how !he (ower o# God (revails
!hro&*ho&! !he co&rse o# his!or0. A(ocal0(!ic %edia!ors ass&re
!he seers !ha! i! will con!in&e !o $e so &n!il Gods will #or his
(eo(le is reasser!edBo#!en (er%anen!l0, and &s&all0 wi!h ;and
!hro&*h@ Israels vindica!ion and eleva!ion.
B&! !he revealed !ranscenden! reali!0 %a0 also $e (resen!ed
#ro% a s$atia (ers(ec!ive. The seer %a0 $e led on a 4o&rne0
o&! o# ear!h and in!o !he heavenl0 a$ode o# God, or he %a0 $e
!aken $elow !he ear!h in!o !he ne!herworld, like Dan!e. The
$ook o# 2 'no%+ ;also known as !he 7avoni% .$o%ay$se o1
'no%+@, cha(!ers 5LJ7, (rovides a *ood e,a%(le o# an 2ascen!3
a(ocal0(se, in which Enoch !ravels !he seven heavens. Ei!her
wa0, !he seers an*elic *&ide in!er(re!s #or hi% !he si*ni#icance
o# wha! !he seer sees !here. So%e a(ocal0(ses co%$ine !he
!e%(oral and !he s(a!ial !0(es. The Revela!ion o# John is one
o# !he%G in addi!ion !o hearin* 2wha! %&s! soon !ake (lace3
;Rev 5'5G >>'J@, John is $o!h !aken &( in!o !he !hrone roo% o#
heaven ;Rev 8'5@ and, la!er, (er%i!!ed a *li%(se in!o !he
$o!!o%less (i! ;e.*., Rev 6'5@. <e %a0 now recall !he o$4ec!ion
raised in !he -ishnah a*ains! &n1&ali#ied (ersons (r0in* in!o
!he di%ensions !ranscendin* !his world, whe!her s(a!ial
;a$ove or $elow@ or !e%(oral ;$e#orehand or herea#!er@.
These #ive ele%en!s, accordin* !o !he Se%eia de#ini!ion,
cons!i!&!e !he essence o# a Jewish a(ocal0(se. Al!ho&*h !here
is roo% #or (len!0 o# varia!ion a%on* a(ocal0(ses ;we can !ell
!he% a(ar!, a#!er all@, %os! o# !he% have !hese #ive
charac!eris!ics in co%%on. B&! wha! else can we sa0 a$o&!
!he%I <e can a((roach !ha! 1&es!ion #ro% !he an*les o#
#&nc!ion and %e!hod in a(ocal0(!ic li!era!&re.
D.1.3 The Function and 4ethod of +pocalypses
S&$se1&en! !inkerin* wi!h !he Se%eia de#ini!ion has (rod&ced
s!a!e%en!s o# !he (&r(ose or #&nc!ion o# a(ocal0(ses. One o#
!hese s&**es!s !ha! a(ocal0(!ic li!era!&re is 2in!ended !o
in!er(re! (resen! ear!hl0 circ&%s!ances in li*h! o# !he
s&(erna!&ral world and o# !he #&!&re, and !o in#l&ence $o!h !he
&nders!andin* and !he $ehavior o# !he a&dience $0 %eans o#
divine a&!hori!0.3
:
B&! a((aren!l0 no! all a(ocal0(ses have !he
sa%e #&nc!ionG so%e are %ore &r*en! !han !he word in12en%e,
&sed a$ove, %i*h! s&**es!. Ja%es "ander=a% wo&ld !here#ore
like !o s&$s!i!&!e !he word ex+ort, or a! leas! en%o2ra/e, #or !he
word in12en%e. Beca&se o# !his and $eca&se !he (ro(osed
2#&nc!ion3 e,!ension co&ld $e a((lied 4&s! as easil0 !o !he
de#ini!ion o# o!her reli*io&s li!era!&re ;Da&ls le!!ers, #or
e,a%(le@, i! has %e! wi!h less a((roval !han !he ori*inal
de#ini!ion $0 i!sel#.
8
"ander=a%s !wo hesi!a!ions a$o&! !he
added (&r(ose s!a!e%en! are cer!ainl0 &nders!anda$le, !o a
(oin! an0wa0. Even i# we %a0 consider !he% a $i! over$lown,
!he0 do hel( &s !o !hink a$o&! !his (ar!ic&lar as(ec! o#
a(ocal0(!ic li!era!&re. +e! &s $e*in wi!h i!s #&nc!ion, or
(&r(ose, and !hen !ake &( i!s %e!hod.
:

A. 9ar$ro Hollins, 2In!rod&c!ion' Earl0 Hhris!ian A(ocal0(!icis%,3 in
'ary 3+ristian .$o%ay$ti%is&# Genre an! 7o%ia 7ettin/, Se%eia :J
;Deca!&r, Ga.' Scholars, 567J@, (. O.
8

J. "ander=a%, 2A(ocal0(!ic +i!era!&re,3 in @+e 3a&"ri!/e
3o&$anion to Bi"i%a Inter$retation, ed. J. Bar!on, Ha%$rid*e
Ho%(anions !o Reli*ion ;Ha%$rid*e' Ha%$rid*e Universi!0 Dress, 5667@, (.
:55.
Function. Dar! o# !he #&nc!ion or (&r(ose o# an
a(ocal0(se, accordin* !o !he addi!ional Se%eia s!a!e%en!,
1&o!ed a$ove, is 2!o in#l&ence $o!h !he &nders!andin* and !he
$ehavior o# !he a&dience $0 %eans o# divine a&!hori!0.3 This
does indeed a((l0 as well !o o!her kinds o# reli*io&s li!era!&re,
as "ander=a% clai%s, %akin* i! less !han e##ec!ive as a
dis!in*&ishin* %ark o# a(ocal0(ses. B&! !ha! #ac! needs !o $e
re*arded as a (ro$le% onl0 i# we wish !o &se i! !o dis!in*&ish
a(ocal0(ses #ro% o!her reli*io&s li!era!&re. 9e! i# i! is in so%e
sense a !r&e s!a!e%en! o# (&r(ose #or a(ocal0(ses, !hen i!
si%(l0 de%ons!ra!es !ha! a(ocal0(ses have !he sa%e
#&nda%en!al (&r(ose and #&nc!ion as do Da&ls le!!ers, Old
Tes!a%en! (ro(hec0 or !he S0no(!ic Gos(els. All o# !hese
*enres ai%, we co&ld sa0, !o *&ide !heir readers in!o a #ai!h#&l
and !ho&*h!#&l o$edience !o God in !he %ids! o# wha!ever
circ&%s!ances !he0 #ace. I! is !r&e !ha! !he a&diences o# so%e
a(ocal0(ses #ind !he%selves in (oli!icall0 %ore des(era!e
s!rai!s !han Da&ls Horin!hian readers do. These circ&%s!ances
%a0 involve dis!ress #ro% c&rren! (ersec&!ion ;as wi!h !he
$ooks o# Daniel and Revela!ion@ or #ro% on*oin* !heolo*ical
a*on0 over Gods in4&s!ice in !he wake o# !he even!s like !hose
o# A.D. O? ;as wi!h 4 'Qra@. The dan*er o# assi%ila!ion !o !he
c&l!&re o# 2!his world3 %a0 (rovide !he %o!iva!in* #orce
$ehind an a(ocal0(seG !he le!!ers !o !he seven ch&rches o# Asia
;Rev >L:@ are #illed wi!h warnin*s a*ains! s&cc&%$in* !o !his
sor! o# !hin*.
No! all a(ocal0(ses dis(la0 s&ch &r*enc0, !ho&*hG so%e
!ha! (or!ra0 o!herworldl0 4o&rne0s %a0 $e less in!eres!ed in
$earin* &( readers s&$4ec!ed !o (oli!ical o((ression or !he
!e%(!a!ion !o assi%ila!e, and %ore in!eres!ed in si%(l0
sa!is#0in* na!&ral c&riosi!0 a$o&! !hin*s $e0ond h&%an ken
;@+e @esta&ent o1 .!a& %a0 $e one o# !hese@. On !he o!her
hand, i! is en!irel0 (ossi$le !ha! severe (oli!ical (ersec&!ion
(la0s 4&s! as lar*e a role #or !he readers o# -a!!hews Gos(el or
5 De!er as i! does #or !he readers o# Revela!ion. -a!!hews s!or0
o# !he !rans#i*&ra!ion, #or e,a%(le, %a0 $e ai%ed a!
enco&ra*in* Jewish Hhris!ian readers no! !o a$andon !heir
alle*iance !o Jes&s #or a re!&rn !o !he c&l!&ral sa#e!0 o# -oses
;-! 5O'5L7@. All $i$lical *enres in #ac! deal wi!h !heir
a&diences circ&%s!an!ial crises $0 a((ealin* !o !he a&!hori!0
o# God in so%e wa0 and $0 in!er(re!in* !he readers world in
!er%s o# Gods world. The0 do !his in order !o (rovide !heir
readers wi!h a clear)headed view o# wha! reall0 co&n!s in li#e, a
lon* !heolo*ical (ers(ec!ive #ro% which !o ac!. The $ook o#
Revela!ion is no di##eren! #ro% !he res! o# !he $i$lical li!era!&re
in !his re*ard.
K
Tha! kind o# !heolo*ical (ers(ec!ive, whe!her i! is #ra%ed in
!er%s o# s(a!ial !ranscendence ;!he reali!0 o# !ha! o!her world@
or !e%(oral !ranscendence ;!he inevi!a$ili!0 o# !he co%in*
escha!olo*ical 4&d*%en!@, is in!ended !o *ive %onte&$orary
readers !he wherewi!hal #or %akin* *odl0 choices and
ado(!in* *odl0 (rinci(les, even i# i! %eans !he0 die. Tha! is !o
sa0, !he #oc&s o# $i$lical li!era!&reBin all o# i!s vario&s *enresB
is on t+e $resent. I!s #ore%os! concern is #or !he wel#are o# i!s
K

<e can 4&s! as co*en!l0 ar*&e !ha! a(ocal0(!ic !hinkin* (ervades all o#
!he New Tes!a%en! and is no! res!ric!ed !o Revela!ion. H#. -. E. Borin*,
*eveation, In!er(re!a!ion ;+o&isville' John =no,, 5676@, (. 88.
ori*inal readers. Even a(ocal0(!ic li!era!&re is (ri%aril0
concerned a$o&! !hose #or who% !he a&!hors #irs! wro!e.
Tho&*h i! #re1&en!l0 a((eals !o !he #&!&re, i! does so wi!h !he
ori*inal readershi( in %ind. In !his i! is 4&s! like Da&ls le!!er !o
Ro%e or !he Gos(el o# -ark. <e who in!er(re! !he $ook o#
Revela!ion !oda0 need !o kee( !his (oin! #ir%l0 in %ind i# we
wish !o $e #ai!h#&l !o !he !e,!. I# o&r e,e*esis res&l!s in
so%e!hin* irrelevan! !o !he ori*inal readers, i! is a&!o%a!icall0
s&s(ec! #or !ha! ver0 reason. -a!!hew was concerned a$o&!
$elievers in ;(erha(s@ An!ioch o# S0riaG Da&l a$o&! $elievers in
Ro%e, Horin!h and elsewhereG John !he Seer a$o&! $elievers in
!he Ro%an (rovince o# Asia. I# !his is so, !hen !he di##erence
"ander=a% is ri*h!l0 lookin* #or will no! $e so %&ch in !he
#&nc!ion o# an a(ocal0(se as in i!s %e!hod o# revealin* !he
s&(erna!&ral world and !he #&!&re.
4ethod. The Gos(els reveal !he !ranscenden! world $0
%eans o# narra!ive, in !he #or% o# !he (erson o# Jes&s o#
NaAare!h. In !he s!ories o# his words and deeds, !he Gos(el
wri!ers de%ons!ra!e !ha! !he kin*do% o# God has co%e
2a%on*3 h&%an $ein*s in Jes&s hi%sel# ;e.*., +k 5O'>5@. In a
si%ilar wa0, !he $ook o# Ac!s ;+&ke, vol&%e !wo@ carries o&!
!he sa%e !he%e, $&! now !ha! !ranscenden! Dresence is
%ani#es! in !he ac!ivi!0 o# !he Col0 S(iri! and his handiwork,
!he ch&rch. The le!!ers and ser%ons o# !he New Tes!a%en!
re(resen! a %ore rhe!oricall0 $ased %e!hod. Ar*&%en! and
asser!ion es!a$lish !he !heolo*ical #o&nda!ion on which a
wri!er like Da&l or !he a&!hor o# !he le!!er !o !he Ce$rews
(roceeds !o la0 o&! an e!hical (ro*ra%, &s&all0 in !he con!e,!
o# so%e (ar!ic&lar (ro$le%.
An a(ocal0(se, however, a((eals !o !he i%a*ina!ion.
J
I!
ai%s a! !he sa%e *oal as a Gos(el or an e(is!le does, $&! ra!her
!han &sin* re(or!s o# Jes&s ear!hl0 words and deeds or
rhe!orical ar*&%en!a!ion, i! e%(lo0s heavenl0 4o&rne0s and
crea!ive in!er(re!a!ions o# his!or0 (ro4ec!ed in!o !he #&!&re.
These 4o&rne0s and (redic!ions are #re1&en!l0 co&ched in !he
i%a*er0 o# #an!as!ic %e!a(hor and s0%$olis%. Ra!her !han
J

As J. J. Hollins ar*&es in @+e .$o%ay$ti% I&a/ination# .n
Intro!2%tion to ,ewis+ .$o%ay$ti% Literat2re, >nd ed. ;Grand Ra(ids'
Eerd%ans, 5677@. The e%(hasis !his cha(!er la0s on !he &se o# i%a*ina!ion
as a %e!hod o# co%%&nica!in* a vision is no! %ean! !o i%(l0 !ha! !he vision
John saw was no! real. Ins!ead, wha! is %ean! is !ha! !he $ook o# Revela!ion
is no! likel0 a ver$a!i% !ranscri(! o# Johns e,(erience, $&! a li!erar0
co%(osi!ion %akin* #&ll &se o# !he *enre !o which i! $elon*s. .or %0 (ar!, I
have no do&$! !ha! !he $ook (reserves a #ai!h#&l renderin* o# !he con!en!
and $&rden o# wha! John !he Seer saw.
s!rai*h!#orward re#erences !o known (eo(le, (laces and even!s,
we hear ins!ead o# hideo&s $eas!s, $lood!hirs!0 harlo!s and
colossal $a!!les $e!ween !he #orces o# evil and !he ar%ies o#
God. In (lace o# s!r&c!&red lo*ical ar*&%en!s, we are !rea!ed
ins!ead !o la0er &(on la0er o# heavenl0 real%s, !o secre!
n&%$ers, *rea! (or!en!s in !he skies, ca!acl0s%ic ear!h1&akes
and *ian! #ire$alls crashin* in!o !he sea, !&rnin* i! !o $lood.
One likel0 reason #or !his wa0 o# co%%&nica!in* is !he
si%(le #ac! !ha! wha! !he a&!hor o# an a(ocal0(se &s&all0 wan!s
!o de(ic! concerns a reali!0 l0in* $e0ond h&%an e,(erienceG i!
canno! $e conve0ed wit+o2t reco&rse !o i%a*ina!ion. Da&l
hi%sel# si%(l0 re#&ses !o a!!e%(! a descri(!ion o# wha! he
e,(erienced in !he 2!hird heaven,3 e,c&sin* hi%sel# $0
clai%in* !ha! he is no! (er%i!!ed !o sa0 an0!hin* %ore a$o&! i!
;> Hor 5>'8@. A(ocal0(!ic wri!ers, however, have no s&ch
scr&(les. The0 descri$e !he indescri$a$le and e,(ress !he
ine,(ressi$le. Ano!her reason #or !he heav0 &se o# %e!a(hor
and s0%$olis% %a0 have $een !he need !o conceal #ro% s!a!e
a&!hori!ies wha! !hose a&!hori!ies wo&ld s&rel0 have re*arded
as sedi!io&s !eachin*. John dis*&ises !he $old (redic!ion o# !he
Ro%an E%(ires des!r&c!ion in !he *ar$ o# Old Tes!a%en!
(ro(hecies o# !he down#all and desola!ion o# Ba$0lon and
o!her ci!ies, incl&din* Jer&sale% ;co%(are Rev 57'> wi!h Is
>5'6G :8'55L5KG Jer K?':6@. Never!heless, i! is hard !o see how
an as!&!e Ro%an reader wo&ld no! have reco*niAed !he e%(ire
s0%$oliAed in !he harlo! sea!ed on t+e seven +is ;Rev 5O'6@.
-&ch o# !he i%a*ina!ive i%a*er0 &sed in a(ocal0(ses is
drawn #ro% a *rea! reservoir o# s!andard #or%s. To *ive 4&s! a
#ew e,a%(les, Johns color#&l de(ic!ion o# !he Risen Ones
voice as so&ndin* like 2!he so&nd o# %an0 wa!ers3 ;Rev 5'5KG
58'>@ corres(onds !o !he descri(!ion o# !he 2#&ll, reso&ndin*
voice3 !ha! 2EAra3 hears anno&ncin* !he end o# !he world. To
EAra i!s so&nd was also like !he so&nd o# %an0 wa!ers ;4 'Qra
J'5O@. The an*el Iaoel, sen! $0 God !o 2A$raha%3 !o reveal !he
!r&!h a$o&! God, is (or!ra0ed as havin* a $od0 2like sa((hire,3
and 2!he as(ec! o# his #ace was like chr0soli!e, and !he hair o#
his head like snow3 ;.$o%ay$se o1 ."ra+a& 55'>G c#. Rev
5'58@. "er0 #re1&en!l0 !he !ree o# li#e a((ears ;e.*., 1 'no%+
>8'8L>K'OG 4 'Qra 7'K>G .$o%ay$se o1 'iLa+ K'J@, which we
%ee! as well in Revela!ion >'OG >>'>, 58, 56.
I%a*es o# $eas!s, $ears, o,en, lions, ea*les and leo(ardsB
o#!en $oas!in* seven heads, !en horns, si, win*s, diade%s and
e0es #ron! and $ackBco%%onl0 re(resen! !he *rea!
do%ina!in* na!ions o# his!or0 or !he livin* crea!&res
s&rro&ndin* !he !hrone o# God ;e.*., Dan OG EAek 5'5?G 5?'58G 4
'Qra 55G c#. Rev 8'OG 5:'5L>@. <ha! we are here descri$in* as a
reservoir o# s!andard #or%s and i%a*es is no! all !ha! di##eren!
#ro% wha! (oli!ical car!oonis!s have a! !heir dis(osal !oda0.
Dar!0 (oli!ics in !he Uni!ed S!a!es o# A%erica #re1&en!l0
a((ear in !he sha(e o# ele(han!s and donke0s. D&rin* !he Hold
<ar, a $ear wi!h a sickle and ha%%er (ain!ed on his #lank
si*ni#ied !he Sovie! Union. The %0s!er0 !ha! cloaks Revela!ion
;and o!her a(ocal0(ses@ arises (ar!l0 #ro% o&r lack o#
#a%iliari!0 wi!h !ha! ancien! reservoir o# i%a*es.
The (anora%ic his!or0 o# !he Old Tes!a%en! (rovides !he
so&rce #or %an0 o# !hese i%a*es. .ro% crea!ion and !he #lood,
!hro&*h !he e,od&s, !he con1&es!, !he %onarch0 and !he #all o#
Jer&sale% a! !he hands o# !he Ba$0lonians, a(ocal0(!ic
li!era!&re %ines !he (a*es o# Col0 <ri! #or !he voca$&lar0 o# i!s
i%a*ina!ive vernac&lar. The $ook o# Revela!ion is no e,ce(!ion
in !his. Br&ce -. -e!A*er has calc&la!ed !ha! over !wo)!hirds o#
!he verses in Revela!ion all&de !o !he Old Tes!a%en! in so%e
wa0.
O
In addi!ion !o !he %en!ion o# !he !ree o# li#e ;Rev >'OG
>>'>@, we hear o# hidden 2%anna3 ;Rev >'5O@, !he !ri$es o#
Israel ;Rev O'8L7@, a scroll swee! in !he %o&!h and $i!!er in !he
s!o%ach ;Rev 5?'6G c#. EAek :'5L:@, $las(he%ies a!!ri$&!in* !o
!he #irs! $eas! wha! $elon*s !o God alone ;Rev 5:'8 Q2<ho is
like !he $eas! and who can #i*h! a*ains! i!I3SG c#. E, 5K'55G Ds
55:'K@, #ire called down #ro% heaven ;Rev 5:'5:G c#. 5 =in*s
57':7@, (la*&es o# 4&d*%en! ;Rev 5JG c#. E, OL5>@, and %an0
o!her e,a%(les. S&ch all&sions a$o&nd, as a 1&ick review o#
!he %ar*inal re#erences and i!aliciAed !e,!s in NA
>O
will show.
The (oin! o# wha! we have $een rehearsin* 4&s! now is !ha!
Revela!ion (resen!s &s wi!h !he sa%e sor! o# i%a*er0 as we
enco&n!er in a whole hos! o# ancien! Jewish a(ocal0(ses. I# we
are !o &nders!and !his $ook, we %&s! allow i! !o $e one o# !he%
and !o learn #ro% !he% so%e!hin* o# i!s na!&re. Onl0 !hen will
we $e a$le !o !rea! i! on i!s own !er%s. B&! $e#ore we !&rn !o a
#ew e,a%(les o# in!er(re!in* New Tes!a%en! a(ocal0(!ic
li!era!&re, we need !o consider one %ore #ea!&re o# !he *enre'
O

@+e 0ew Ox1or! .nnotate! Bi"e wit+ t+e
.$o%ry$+a5De2tero%anoni%a Boo-s, New Revised S!andard "ersion, ed.
B. -. -e!A*er and R. E. -&r(h0 ;New 9ork' O,#ord Universi!0 Dress, 5665,
5668@, (. :J8 NT.
!he na!&re o# i!s view o# !he #&!&re. <e need !o address !he
rela!ionshi( $e!ween escha!olo*0 and a(ocal0(!icis%.
D.1.! +pocalyptic #schatolo%y
<e have &sed !he !er% es%+atoo/i%a ;or es%+atoo/y@ a #ew
!i%es alread0 in !his cha(!er, $&! wha! does i! %eanI .or%ed
#ro% !he Greek ad4ec!ive _ ; @ 2las!,3 i! is !0(icall0
de#ined ;$0 We"sterCs 0ew Wor! 3oe/e Di%tionary, #or
e,a%(le@
7
as 2!he $ranch o# !heolo*0, or doc!rines, dealin*
wi!h dea!h, res&rrec!ion, 4&d*%en!, i%%or!ali!0, e!c.3 Tha! is,
escha!olo*0 deals wi!h !he 2las! !hin*s,3 incl&din* !he &l!i%a!e
#a!e o# !he world as we know i!. B&! !his is no! necessaril0 !he
sa%e !hin* as ei!her 2!he #&!&re3 or a(ocal0(!icis%. Since
!er%s like !hese, and !he conce(!s l0in* $ehind !he%, are easil0
con#&sed, i! is well wor!h %akin* !he %odes! e##or! !o cons&l! a
*ood $i$lical dic!ionar0 #or an orien!a!ion. Honsider i! an
i%(or!an! ele%en! o# !he e,e*e!ical !ask.
6
David A&ne calls a!!en!ion !o !he di##erence $e!ween
(ro(he!ic escha!olo*0 and a(ocal0(!ic escha!olo*0.
5?
Dro(he!ic
escha!olo*0 is #&nda%en!all0 o(!i%is!ic, e,(ec!in* !ha! !he
(ro%ised #&!&re resol&!ion !o a (resen! crisis will arise o&! o#
!he (resen! co&rse o# his!or0G i! looks #orward, #or e,a%(le, !o
!he renewal o# Israels s!a!&s as a leadin* world (ower &nder a
%essianic kin* like David. A(ocal0(!ic escha!olo*0, on !he
7

2Escha!olo*03 in We"sterCs 0ew Wor! 3oe/e Di%tionary, :rd ed.
;New 9ork' -ac%illan, 566J@.
6

Ar!icles in Di%tionary o1 0ew @esta&ent Ba%-/ro2n! TD0@BU, ed.
Hrai* A. Evans and S!anle0 E. Dor!er ;Downers Grove, Ill.' In!er"arsi!0
Dress, >???@, #or ins!ance, draw several hel(#&l dis!inc!ions.
5
?
D. E. A&ne e! al., 2A(ocal0(!icis%,3 D0@B, ((. 8KLK7G see (. 8O.
o!her hand, is #&nda%en!all0 (essi%is!ic. I! looks #or a
ca!acl0s%ic invasion o# !he #&!&re in!o !he (resen!, des!ro0in*
or radicall0 al!erin* !he (resen! world and re(lacin* i! wi!h a
new crea!ion. In a so%ewha! si%ilar wa0, John Hollins
dis!in*&ishes #o&r kinds o# $i$lical escha!olo*0.
55
Poiti%a
escha!olo*0 e,(ec!s a #inal kin* and kin*do% in !his (resen!
worldG one da0, Israels %essiah will re!&rn !o se! her #ree #ro%
#orei*n do%ina!ion. Doli!ical escha!olo*0 is %ore in!eres!ed in
!he cor(ora!e #a!e o# !he lar*er *ro&( ;Israel, J&dais%, !he
ch&rch@ !han in !ha! o# an individ&al (erson. *eaiQe!
escha!olo*0, !oo, is %ore #oc&sed on !his (resen! world as !he
scene o# salva!ionG i! shows &( in !he Gos(el o# John ;e.*., Jn
K'>8@, as well as in X&%ran li!era!&re and Gnos!icis%. B&! i! is
ver0 o#!en in!eres!ed in !he #a!e o# !he individ&al ra!her !han
!ha! o# !he *ro&(. 3os&i% escha!olo*0 and $ersona
escha!olo*0, in !heir !&rn, are orien!ed !oward !he li#e $e0ond
!his one. Dersonal escha!olo*0 concerns !he na!&re o# li#e a#!er
dea!h #or !he individ&al. <here does !he so&l *o !o dwell
;ass&%in* i! s&rvives@I <ha! is !he na!&re o# res&rrec!ion or o#
!he 4&d*%en! o# individ&alsI <hile (ersonal escha!olo*0 does
no! necessaril0 en!ail a new crea!ion, cos%ic escha!olo*0 %os!
de#ini!el0 does. I! (res&%es !ha! #ollowin* !he divine,
ca!acl0s%ic des!r&c!ion o# !his (resen! world and !he #inal
4&d*%en!, God will re)crea!e !he heavens and !he ear!h #or !he
dwellin* (lace o# his redee%ed (eo(le.
I# we ali*n 2a(ocal0(!ic escha!olo*03 wi!h !he (ersonal and
cos%ic varie!ies, in !ha! !he0 involve 4&d*%en! a#!er dea!h and
5
5
J. J. Hollins, 2Escha!olo*ies o# +a!e An!i1&i!0,3 D0@B, ((. ::?L:O.
a radical end !o !he world as we know i!, !hen we will have !o
ad%i! !ha! so%e doc&%en!s we %i*h! o!herwise ca!e*oriAe as
a(ocal0(ses are no! reall0 escha!olo*ical. The0 show li!!le or no
real in!eres! in descri$in* !he #inal 4&d*%en! or !he end o# !he
world. @+ir! Bar2%+ ;also known as @+e Gree- .$o%ay$se o1
Bar2%+@ and (ossi$l0 !he @esta&ent o1 ."ra+a& #all in!o !his
ca!e*or0. O# co&rse, !his dile%%a (res&((oses de#inin* !he
ca!e*ories o# $o!h a(ocal0(se and escha!olo*0, which !akes &s
$ack !o o&r (ro$le% wi!h !he wooden $locks. S!ill, !he
i%(or!ance o# $ein* aler! !o !hese dis!inc!ions, however we
de#ine !he%, is, once a*ain, !ha! i! hel(s &s !o allow Revela!ion
and o!her New Tes!a%en! a(ocal0(!ic li!era!&re !o $e wha!ever
i! ac!&all0 is.
+.2 READING THE APOCALYPSE NOW: AVOIDING
THE EXTREMES
Derha(s !he !o&*hes! 1&es!ion #acin* readers o# Revela!ion
!oda0 is whe!her !his doc&%en! le*i!i%a!el0 s(eaks !o !heir
own *enera!ion and c&l!&re, and i# i! does, how i! does. I a%
convinced !ha! al!ho&*h we %&s! reco*niAe !he (ri%ac0 o# !he
ori*inal circ&%s!ances l0in* $ehind Revela!ion, !he $ooks
relevance is no %ore restri%te! !o i!s ancien! a&dience !han !he
relevance o# Da&ls le!!ers or o# !he Gos(els is res!ric!ed !o
!heirs. <e no lon*er #ace !he #&r0 o# Ro%an e%(erors who
insis! !ha! all !heir s&$4ec!s worshi( !he% as *ods, on (ain o#
dea!h. B&! even in !he <es!, we have (len!0 o# o((or!&ni!0 !o
$e!ra0 o&r co%%i!%en! !o God in Hhris! $0 s&cc&%$in* !o !he
(ress&res o# c&l!&ral con#or%i!0. And in o!her (ar!s o# !he
world, no less !oda0 !han a! an0 o!her (eriod o# Hhris!ian
his!or0, (eo(le %&s! choose $e!ween ;a@ (oli!ical or reli*io&s
con#or%i!0, in de#iance o# !heir #ai!h in Jes&s Hhris!, and ;$@
dea!h #or re%ainin* #ai!h#&ll0 co%%i!!ed !o hi%. There is no
s&re reason wh0 challen*es o# !his kind %i*h! no! so%eda0
en*&l# !he <es! as well. In a wa0, we are livin* on $orrowed
!i%e.
The #&nda%en!al %essa*e o# Revela!ion is as (ower#&ll0
e##ec!ive #or &s !oda0 as i! (res&%a$l0 was #or !he ch&rches o#
ancien! Asia !wo %illennia a*o. Tha! %essa*e is !ha! !here
e,is!s ano!her world $e0ond !his oneBGods worldBand !ha! a
!i%e o# divine 4&d*%en! is co%in* !o vindica!e Gods (eo(le
a*ains! !hose who o((ress !he%. .or &s as Hhris!ians and
e,e*e!es, however, i! is e,!re%el0 i%(or!an! how we de#ine
who Gods o((ressed (eo(le are, and who !heir o((ressors are.
O&r &nders!andin* %&s! con#or% no! !o c&rren! #ashion,
(oli!ical or reli*io&s, $&! !o !he val&es e,(ressed in Revela!ion,
as well in !he res! o# Scri(!&re. The de(ic!ion in Revela!ion 5OL
57 o# !he *rea! whore and her 4&d*%en! so&nds dis!&r$in*l0
like $&siness as &s&al in <es!ern Hhris!endo%. So%e o# &s
;older/@ Nor!h A%erican readers o# Revela!ion re%e%$er a da0
no! so lon* a*o when !he now de#&nc! Sovie! Union was
e,(ec!ed !o (la0 !he role o# leadin* !he #orces o# evil a*ains!
God and his ar%ies a! Ar%a*eddon. Since 5676, we %a0 s%ile
a! !ha! readin*, havin* learned a lesson a$o&! $ein* care#&l.
B&! we %&s! $e corres(ondin*l0 care#&l no! !o e1&a!e !he
ar%ies o# God in an0 wa0 wi!h !he <es!Bwhe!her wi!h Grea!
Bri!ain, Hanada, !he Uni!ed S!a!es ;or 2A%erica3@ or an0 o!her
E&ro(ean co&n!r0. No %a!!er how we %a0 wish, as de%ocra!ic
<es!ern na!ions, !o co%(are o&rselves wi!h o!her na!ions in
!er%s o# h&%an ri*h!s, we have s&ch an enor%o&s cons&%ers
a((e!i!e !ha! we can 4&s! as easil0 see o&rselves in !er%s o# !he
*rea! whore o# Revela!ion 5O. <he!her !ha! readin* ac!&all0 #i!s
or no! is an e,e*e!ical and her%ene&!ical 1&es!ion, $&! !he
(ossi$ili!0 !ha! i! does #i! sho&ld *ive &s (a&se as we !hink
a$o&! ;and (reach/@ !his !e,!.
Derha(s !he *rea!es! dan*er !o avoid in readin* Revela!ion
#or !he $ene#i! o# con!e%(orar0 a&diencesBa(ar! #ro%
ass&%in* i!s irrelevance or i!s i%(ene!ra$ili!0Bis !he
!e%(!a!ion !o seek !he $ooks %essa*e as i# i! were e%$edded
in !he s0%$ols and %e!a(hors !he%selves, ra!her !han in !he
reali!ies !he0 (oin! !o. <e %&s! avoid !he e,!re%es o#
&nnecessar0 #ear and in!i%ida!ion, or si%(le dis%issal, on !he
one hand, and o# inordina!e #ascina!ion and &nd&e s(ec&la!ion
on !he o!her hand. .or ra!her !han (resen!in* i!s %essa*e in
!he #or% o# #ac!&al narra!ive or o# rhe!orical ar*&%en!,
a(ocal0(!ic li!era!&re (ain!s a %ood ins!ead. I! s!i%&la!es !he
i%a*ina!ion !hro&*h !he &se o# (ri%ordial i%a*er0 and $i$lical
all&sion, and !hro&*h a s!andard li$rar0 o# si*ns, charac!ers
and li!erar0 (ic!o*ra%s. I! crea!ivel0 co%$ines !hese raw
%a!erials in wa0s !ha! con4&re &( a sense o# !he indescri$a$le,
!he ine,(ressi$le, a sense o# !he !r&!h a$o&! God and his
&l!i%a!e con!rol over !he a##airs o# h&%ani!0. O&! o# !his sense
o# Gods inal!era$le (lans #or 4&d*%en! and renewal co%es !he
inward con#idence needed !o re%ain #ai!h#&l !o hi% in all
circ&%s!ances, however severe. .or !his reason, s!rivin* !o
a!!ach s(eci#ic corres(ondences !o !he de!ails o# Revela!ions
%an0 s0%$olic and %e!a(horical (or!ra0alsBes(eciall0 when
!he corres(ondin* en!i!ies e,is! onl0 in !he !wen!ie!h or
!wen!0)#irs! cen!&riesB%akes o# an a(ocal0(se like Revela!ion
so%e!hin* i! was likel0 never in!ended !o $e. <ha! co&ld i!
(ossi$l0 have %ean! !o !he $ro!hers and sis!ers in Der*a%&%,
who wi!nessed !he %ar!0rdo% o# !heir #riend An!i(as ;Rev
>'5:@, !ha! so%eda0 a horde o# C&e0 or A(ache a!!ack
helico(!ers wo&ld !ake (ar! in !he *rea! $a!!le a! !he end o# !he
a*eI 9e! !ha! is how so%e la!e !wen!ie!h)cen!&r0 in!er(re!ers
&nders!ood !he clo&d o# loc&s!s in Revela!ion 6':, O. The0 %a0
$e ri*h! none!heless, $&! i! is a !o(ic well wor!h disc&ssin*.
The $o!!o% line wi!h Revela!ion and o!her $i$lical
a(ocal0(!ic li!era!&re is !hree#old. .or one !hin*, we %&s!
insis! on i!s relevance' i! is no! so re%o!el0 anchored in !he
(as! !ha! i! has no!hin* !o sa0 !o &s !oda0G 0e! nei!her is i! so
en*rossed in !he coded (redic!ion o# %odern (heno%ena !ha!
i! had no relevance #or i!s #irs!)cen!&r0 readers. Second, we
%&s! $e willin* !o lis!en !o i! and work wi!h i!, even i# a! #irs!
i!s $iAarre na!&re see%s i%(er%ea$le !o o&r &nders!andin*.
Al!ho&*h !here is %&ch a$o&! ancien! a(ocal0(ses !ha! el&des
&s now, !here is $0 !he sa%e !oken %&ch we have learned. <e
%a0 indeed #eel !2y in!i%ida!ed $0 wha!, #or now, re%ains
$e0ond o&r reach. B&! !he !ools #or in#or%in* o&rselves a$o&!
!hose ancien! se!!in*s and a$o&! !he %eans and %e!hods o#
a(ocal0(!ic li!era!&re lie read0 #or &s !o (ick &( and (&! !o &se.
And !hird, we %&s! (er%i! !his li!era!&re !o $e wha! i! is,
hearin* i! on i!s own !er%s and s!ead#as!l0 resis!in* !he
!e%(!a!ion !o %ake o# i! so%e!hin* i! is no!. <e sho&ld s!rive
!o avoid s(ec&la!ive in!er(re!a!ions !ha! %ake concre!e
connec!ions $e!ween !he ancien! s0%$ols and con!e%(orar0
(ersons, na!ions or o!her ar!i#ac!s irrelevan! !o !he ancien!
readers. Cow %i*h! !hese reco%%enda!ions look i# we a((l0
!he% !o !he New Tes!a%en!I
+.3 A LOOK AT SOME NEW TESTAMENT
APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
<e can now !ake several a(ocal0(!ic !e,!s #ro% !he New
Tes!a%en! in order !o see how so%e o# !hese *&idelines (la0
o&! in (rac!ice. The !e,!s we will &se are > Horin!hians 5>G 5
and > ThessaloniansG -a!!hew >:L>KG and Revela!ion 5:.
D.3.1 2 (orinthians 12
<e can $e*in wi!h an a(ocal0(!ic !e,! !ha! never *o! o## !he
*ro&nd, so !o s(eak. In !he %ids! o# a (assiona!e sel#)de#ense
a*ains! his de!rac!ors in Horin!h, Da&l all&des !o so%e!hin* he
had e,(erienced #o&r!een 0ears earlier, in which he was
2ca&*h! &( !o !he !hird heaven3 ;> Hor 5>'5L8@. There, in
2Daradise,3 he heard !hin*s 2no %or!al is (er%i!!ed !o re(ea!.3
This e,(erience so&nds like 4&s! !he sor! o# 24o&rne03 an
a(ocal0(!ic wri!er %i*h! have !aken. Da&l, however, does no!
a!!e%(! !o reveal !he secre!s o# Gods world !ha! he (res&%a$l0
heard !here, as a 4o&rne0)a(ocal0(se wo&ld do. Ce onl0
rel&c!an!l0 re#ers !o !he even! a! all as a %eans o#
de%ons!ra!in* !ha! he does have so%e!hin* !o $oas! a$o&!,
even i# his o((onen!s den0 i! and even i# he has $een *iven a
!horn in !he #lesh all !hese 0ears !o kee( hi% #ro% *e!!in* a $i*
head over i! ;> Hor 5>'KL5?@. In o!her words, !his %a0 no! $e
an a(ocal0(!ic !e,! i!sel#, $&! i! cer!ainl0 co&ld have evolved
in!o one, had Da&l no! $een ins!r&c!ed o!herwise.
D.3.2 1 and 2 Thessalonians
+ikewise, i# Da&l had no! $een o!herwise ins!r&c!ed a$o&! his
visi! !o !he !hird heaven, we %i*h! $e !e%(!ed !o !hink !ha! a
#ew 0ears (rior !o wri!in* > Horin!hians he had alread0
div&l*ed !o !he Thessalonian $elievers so%e o# !ha! s!ran*e
e,(erience. .or i# an0 o# his s&rvivin* corres(ondence can $e
considered a(ocal0(!ic, i! is 5 and > Thessalonians.
5>
The
se!!in* is clearl0 one o# o((ression and (ersec&!ion ;e.*., 5
Thess >'>, 58G :'8G > Thess 5'8LK@. Da&l had $een #orced !o #lee
-acedonia ;in which Thessalonica is si!&a!ed@ and was now in
so%e an,ie!0 as !o whe!her !his newl0 (lan!ed co%%&ni!0 o#
$elievers wo&ld re%ain #ai!h#&l in !he %ids! o# !heir !ro&$les.
Ce !here#ore sen! Ti%o!h0 $ack !o see how !hin*s s!ood ;5
Thess :'5L:@, and Ti%o!h0 has re!&rned wi!h a *ood re(or! ;5
Thess :'J@. Al!ho&*h %&ch relieved and over4o0ed, Da&l does
no! leave !he %a!!er !hereG he wri!es !he Thessalonian ch&rch a
le!!er rei!era!in* !he e!hical !eachin* he had laid down when he
was a%on* !he% ;5 Thess 8'5L5>@.
Then, in 5 Thessalonians 8'5:, he !&rns !o a 1&es!ion !he0
have sen! $ack !o hi% wi!h Ti%o!h0. A((aren!l0, since Da&l
le#!, so%e o# !heir (eo(le have died ;(erha(s #ro%
5
>
.or !he (resen! (oin!, we can i*nore 1&es!ions !ha! scholars raise
a$o&! !he in!e*ri!0 o# > Horin!hians as an ori*inall0 co%(le!e le!!er and
a$o&! !he a&!horshi( o# > Thessalonians.
(ersec&!ion@, and !he s&rvivin* $elievers are con#&sed a$o&!
!he #a!e o# !hese who now 2slee(.3 In res(onse, Da&l wa,es
a(ocal0(!icG he #or%all0 declares, 2$0 !he word o# !he +ord3 ;5
Thess 8'5K@, !ha! $o!h !he dead in Hhris! and !hose $elievers
s!ill alive a! !he re!&rn o# Hhris! will $e !aken &( !o*e!her, alive,
!o %ee! !he +ord in !he clo&ds o# !he air and !o $e wi!h hi%
#orever. Ce adds #or *ood %eas&re !he color#&l de!ails !ha! !he
+ord will descend wi!h a *rea! sho&!,
5:
acco%(anied $0 !he
archan*el and wi!h a %i*h!0 !r&%(e! $las! ;5 Thess 8'5J@. Ce
re#&ses !o *ive an0 %ore s(eci#ic in#or%a!ion, however,
clai%in* !his is all !he0 need ;5 Thess K'5@. B&! he does s!ress
!he #ac! !ha! !he ac!&al !i%in* o# !his an!ici(a!ed 2Da0 o# !he
+ord3 ;5 Thess K'>@ canno! $e (redic!edG ins!ead i! will co%e
&ne,(ec!edl0, 2like a !hie# in !he ni*h!.3 The onl0 wa0 !o $e
(re(ared #or i! is !o re%ain $&s0 in an ever0da0 li#e o#
ri*h!eo&s o$edience ;5 Thess K'5>L>>@. Da&l eviden!l0 in!ends
!ha! !his declara!ion o# wha! is 0e! !o co%e will co%#or! !he
$elievers in !heir con#&sion, even i# wha! he e,(ec!s re%ains
#or now $e0ond h&%an e,(erience.
Hlearl0 i! did 4&s! !ha! ;> Thess 5':@. 9e!, al!ho&*h !he #irs!
le!!er $ro&*h! co%#or!, i! also ins(ired in !he Thessalonian
$elievers a new an,ie!0 ;> Thess >'5L>@' had !he Da0 o# !he
+ord area!y co%eI In order !o rein#orce his earlier (oin!,
Da&l re!&rns in a second le!!er !o !he i%a*e o# !he +ords
descen! #ro% heaven, addin* now !he new ele%en! o# a #la%in*
#ire o# ven*eance, Gods ri*h!eo&s 4&d*%en! a*ains! !hose who
5
:
See H. A. Evans, 0on%anoni%a Writin/s an! 0ew @esta&ent
Inter$retation ;Dea$od0, -ass.' Cendrickson, 566>@, ((. 57JL77, #or an
in!eres!in* connec!ion here wi!h Ds 8O'K.
(ersec&!e Gods (eo(le ;> Thess 5'KL5?@. Da&l seeks !o co%#or!
!his worried #lock $0 a((ealin* !o a(ocal0(!ic i%a*es, i%a*es
he had i%(ar!ed !o !he% even in !he da0s he was !here a%on*
!he%. The Da0 o# !he +ord has not co%e. In #ac! i! will no!
co%e &n!il a cer!ain se1&ence o# re$ellion !akes (lace ;> Thess
>':L5>@, in which !he %an o# lawlessness or !he son o#
(erdi!ion ;c#. Ds 77'>: +TT@ asser!s hi%sel# in !he (lace o# God
and leads %an0 as!ra0. .or !he %o%en!, so%e!hin* is kee(in*
!his develo(%en! a! $a0, and !he Thessalonians will recall wha!
i! is, #or Da&l !old !he% a$o&! i! when he 2was s!ill wi!h Q!he%S3
;> Thess >'KLO@. <e who read !his !e,! !oda0 &s&all0 #eel a
li!!le anno0ed a! Da&ls #ail&re !o $e %ore s(eci#ic, $&! o&r
anno0ance is no! an e,c&se !o #ill in !he $lanks as we (lease/
<ha! he does *o on !o sa0, however, is !ha! once !he lawless
re$el is revealed, !he re!&rnin* 2+ord Jes&s will sla0 hi% wi!h
!he $rea!h o# his %o&!h3 ;> Thess >'7@. This so&nds a%aAin*l0
si%ilar !o !he Rider on !he whi!e horse in Revela!ion 56'55, o&!
o# whose %o&!h co%es a shar( sword !o s%i!e !he na!ions ;Rev
56'5K@, as well as !o o!her a(ocal0(!ic or 2(re3)a(ocal0(!ic !e,!s
;e.*., Ds K>'>G Is 55'8G Pss 7o 5O'>8G <is 57'5KL5JG 4 'Qra
5:'7L55@. In o!her words, Da&l once %ore co%#or!s and
reass&res !he Thessalonian $elievers wi!h a(ocal0(!ic i%a*er0,
drawin* &(on !he reservoir o# reso&rces availa$le !o hi% #ro%
Jewish a(ocal0(!ic !radi!ion. Cis %ain concern in all o# i! is !o
ens&re !ha! !he %e%$ers o# !he ch&rch, even in !he %ids! o#
di##ic&l! !i%es, re%ain #ai!h#&l !o !heir +ordG he has si%(l0
a((ealed !o !he co%in* 4&d*%en! and !o a reass&rin*
a(ocal0(!ic escha!olo*0 !o rein#orce his ins!r&c!ion.
D.3.3 4atthe, 2392)
Da&l deals wi!h a #a%iliar !ension in !he Thessalonian le!!ers.
On !he one hand he enco&ra*es !he s&##erin* $elievers !o look
#orward !o !he &l!i%a!e sol&!ion, which he re#ers !o as !he Da0
o# !he +ord. On !he o!her hand, he %&s! !one down &nd&e
an!ici(a!ion o# !he Da0 o# !he +ord, $o!h $0 re$&kin* so%e
2idlers3 who re#&se !o work ;(ro$a$l0 $eca&se !he0 e,(ec! !he
end a! an0 %o%en!G 5 Thess 8'55G K'57G > Thess :'55L5:@ and $0
reass&rin* o!hers !ha! !he0 have no! $een le#! $ehind. This
sa%e !ension is eviden! in !he a(ocal0(!ic (or!ions o# !he
S0no(!ic Gos(els. <e can look $rie#l0 a! -a!!hews Gos(el !o
see i! in o(era!ion.
The Gos(el o# -a!!hew con!ains #ive %a4or disco&rses' ;5@
!he ri*h!eo&sness o# !he kin*do% ;Ser%on on !he -o&n!G -!
KLO@, ;>@ !he (rocla%a!ion o# !he kin*do% ;-! 5?@, ;:@ !he
%0s!er0 o# !he ;#or%erl0 hidden@ kin*do% ;(ara$les o# -! 5:@,
;8@ #a%il0 rela!ions wi!hin !he kin*do% ;-! 57@, and ;K@ !he
cos%ic crisis o# !he kin*do% ;Olive! QEscha!olo*icalS
Disco&rseG -! >:L>K@. This s!r&c!&re s&**es!s !ha! !he %ain
(&r(ose o# -a!!hews Gos(el is !o declare ever0!hin* his
a&dience o&*h! !o know in view o# !he a((earance o# !he
kin*do% o# God in !he (erson o# Jes&s !he NaAarene. This
(&r(ose is es(eciall0 direc!ed !o Jewish $elieversB(erha(s in
S0rian An!ioch d&rin* !he las! !wo decades o# !he #irs! cen!&r0
B$elievers who were ca&*h! $e!ween rel&c!an! %e%$ershi( in
an increasin*l0 Gen!ile %ove%en!, on !he one hand, and
se(ara!ion an,ie!0 in view o# a Jewish co%%&ni!0 !ha!
conde%ned !he% as deser!ers and !rai!ors, on !he o!her. -an0
o# !he% %a0 well have $een re#&*ees #ro% !he des!r&c!ion o#
Jer&sale% in !he 0ear O?. Add !o !his !he s!ron* likelihood !ha!
Hhris!ians and Jews alike were s&$4ec! !o (ersec&!ion $0 !he
Gen!ile (o(&la!ion in !he wake o# !he Jewish <ar. In so%e
%eas&re, !hen, -a!!hews readers %a0 have #o&nd !he%selves
in circ&%s!ances a((ro(ria!e #or a(ocal0(!ic enco&ra*e%en!.
-a!!hew >: (resen!s Jes&s sca!hin* cri!icis% o# a
h0(ocri!ical #or% o# J&dais% es(o&sed $0 cer!ain scri$es and
DhariseesG i! incl&des !he #a%o&s lis! o# 2woes3 ;-! >:'5:L:JG
c#. !he (arallel 2Bea!i!&des3 in -! K@. Jes&s re%arks re#lec! !he
e%(!iness o# second)!e%(le J&dais%. The #ac! !ha! -a!!hew
now rehearses !hese woes !o his own readers s&**es!s !ha! he
sees a si%ilar e%(!iness and h0(ocris0 a%on* !he Jewish
leadershi( in An!ioch ;ass&%in* i! is An!ioch@. The s!ron*l0
an!iclerical ;no! an!i)Se%i!ic@ !one o# -a!!hew >: se!s !he
s!a*e #or Jes&s (redic!ion o# !he Jer&sale% !e%(les
des!r&c!ion in -a!!hew >8'5L>G !he disci(les 1&es!ions !o
Jes&s in >8':, (osed la!er on !he -o&n! o# Olives, are $ased on
!his (redic!ion. The disci(les wan! !o know !hree !hin*s' ;a@
when !he !e%(le will $e des!ro0ed, ;$@ wha! will $e !he si*n o#
Jes&s co%in* as kin*, and ;c@ wha! will $e !he si*n o# !he end
o# !he a*e. Takin* !hese !o*e!her, we *e! !he i%(ression !ha!
#or !he disci(les !he des!r&c!ion o# !he !e%(le and !he end o#
!he a*e wo&ld occ&r si%&l!aneo&sl0G #or !he%, li#e wi!ho&! !he
!e%(le was &ni%a*ina$le.
Jes&s answer !o !hese 1&es!ions #ills &( -a!!hew >8L>K
and #alls in!o !wo %ain (ar!s' a disc&rsive (or!ion #&ll o#
warnin*s and #&r!her (redic!ions ;-! >8'8L:J@ and a
s&((or!ive, s&((le%en!al sec!ion devo!ed !o vario&s (ara$les,
so%e o# !he% 1&i!e lon* ;-! >8':OL>K'8J@. <ha! is
re%arka$le a$o&! Jes&s re(l0 is !ha! i! con!ains a *rea! deal o#
%a!erial dealin* wi!h a co%in* ca!as!ro(he and a *rea! deal
%ore desi*ned !o ?2e a(ocal0(!ic en!h&sias%.
In!er%in*led in !his disco&rse, !hen, are two sorts o1
state&ents, $o!h o# which %&s! $e considered wi!hin !his
lar*er con!e,!. The #irs! sor! is co%(osed o# (redic!ions and
descri(!ions o# disas!er and a(ocal0(!ic 2resol&!ion.3 -a!!hew
>8'KL58 warns o# wars and r&%or%on*ers, #alse %essiahs,
in!erna!ional crises, (ersec&!ion and $e!ra0al. The dis!ressin*
(ros(ec! con!in&es in -a!!hew >8'5KL>7 wi!h e,(ec!a!ions o#
desola!ion and sacrile*e, warnin*s !o #lee and warnin*s o# #alse
%essiahs and #alse (ro(he!s. -&ch o# !his can easil0 $e
&nders!ood as re#errin* ;#ro% -a!!hews (ers(ec!ive@ !o !he
recen! even!s in and aro&nd Jer&sale% ;A.D. JJLO?@. B&!
!hreaded !hro&*ho&! is a cos%ic !he%e, which co%es !o !he
#ore in -a!!hew >8'>6L:5. There we hear o# !he co%in* o# !he
Son o# -an, o# (or!en!s in !he s&n and !he %oon, lo&d
!r&%(e!s and *rea! %o&rnin*.
Even wi!hin !his #irs! *ro&( o# !e,!s, !hen, -a!!hews
readers are a((aren!l0 le#! wi!h !he sense !ha! Jes&s is !alkin*
a$o&! !wo !hin*s a! once. On !he one hand !he0 hear o# ;a@ !he
now ver0 #a%iliar ca!as!ro(he !ha! had occ&rred in Jer&sale%
so%e !en !o #i#!een 0ears earlier. The0 now know !ha! li#e
con!in&es wi!ho&! !he !e%(le a#!er all. On !he o!her hand, !he0
con!in&e !o hear o# ;$@ !he s!ill e,(ec!ed 2end o# !he a*e,3 !o $e
heralded $0 !he a((earin* o# !he Son o# -an in !he clo&ds o#
heaven and acco%(anied $0 *rea! as!ro(h0sical even!s,
re%iniscen! o# !he &ndoin* o# crea!ion ;-! >8'>6@. Bo!h even!s
are ca!acl0s%ic. One is 2real3 his!or0 $0 now. The o!her, %ore
#ar)reachin*, is 0e! !o $e. The #irs! is a !0(e o# !he second.
58
This sor! o# s!a!e%en!, accen!&a!in* !he serio&sness o# !he
ho&r, is $alanced $0 !he second sor!, in!endin* a((aren!l0 !o
e,ercise a cal%in* in#l&ence, !o #ores!all an0 en!h&sias!ic
irres(onsi$ili!0 arisin* in res(onse !o !he a(ocal0(!ic charac!er
o# !his %a!erial. Th&s !he second *ro&( o# !e,!s incl&des
warnin*s no! !o $e led as!ra0 ;-! >8'8@G !he co%in* o# !he Son
o# -an will $e &n%is!aka$le ;-! >8'>O@, as well as
&n(redic!a$le, #or no one knows !he ho&r when !he end will
co%eBno! even !he Son hi%sel# ;-! >8':J@. The readers are
called !o end&re and !o $e vi*ilan! !o !he end ;-! >8'5:@. The
(ara$olic %a!erial a! !he end o# -a!!hew >8 and !he !hree lon*
s!or0 (ara$les in -a!!hew >K all s(eak !o !he need #or cal%)
headedness and #ai!h#&l, s!ead0 (a!ience. The !i%es %a0 $e
dire and dis!ressin*, $&! !here is a 4o$ !o do while !he +ord
!arries in carr0in* o&! his re)crea!ion o# all !hin*s.
Th&s, !here are !hree !hin*s !o no!ice in !his disco&rse, all
in!erwoven wi!h one ano!her' ;5@ his!orical re#erences, ;>@
a(ocal0(!ic re#erences, and ;:@ dela0 (assa*es ;down(la0in*
5
8
I! is $0 no %eans i%(ossi$le, o# co&rse, !ha! !his i%a*er0 o# (or!en!s
in !he s&n and %oon and o# !he Son o# -an re!&rnin* in !he clo&ds !o
re!rieve his own #ro% all corners o# !he ear!h ;-! >8'>6L:5@ si%(l0
e,(resses %e!a(horicall0 !he hei*h!ened e%o!ional i%(ac! o# !he even!s o#
A.D. O?. I a% no! co%(le!el0 &nco%#or!a$le wi!h !his level o# 2red&ced3
in!er(re!a!ion in !his con!e,!. Cowever, #or now a! leas!, i! #eels !o %e like
!oo %&ch o# a s!re!chBor shrinka*e. H#. N. T. <ri*h!, ,es2s an! t+e Vi%tory
o1 Go! ;Dhiladel(hia' .or!ress, 566J@, cha(. 7, es(. ((. ::6LJ7.
en!h&sias!ic a(ocal0(!icis% and enco&ra*in* (erseverance in
!he #ace o# !ro&$le@. I! is !he sa%e !ension we saw in !he
Thessalonian le!!ers. +ike Da&l, -a!!hew wan!s his readers !o
$e %en!all0 and s(iri!&all0 (re(ared #or wha!ever %a0 ha((en,
$&! !o kee( !heir heads wi!h res(ec! !o wha! an0 o# i! %a0
%ean #or !he #inal da0. The0 s!ill have work !o do, and !he +ord
re%e%$ers !he%. The (oin! is a de%and #or #ai!h#&lness !o
ones God)assi*ned !asks, e!hics and %ission in !he in!ervenin*
(eriod o# dela0.
D.3.! 8e*elation 13
In!er(re!ers have so%e!i%es drawn dis!inc!ions a%on* #o&r
%ain a((roaches !o Revela!ion. One a((roach, !he so)called
(re!eris! view ;!ha! is, havin* !o do wi!h !he (as!@, rela!es !he
$ook e,cl&sivel0 !o !he ancien! se!!in*. Ano!her, !he #&!&ris!
view, &nders!ands i! al%os! e,cl&sivel0, a! leas! #ro% cha(!er
#o&r onward, in !er%s o# !he se!!in* relevan! !o !he %odern
readers and !heir #&!&re. A !hird a((roach re*ards !he
(ro*ressive &n#oldin* o# !he revela!ion as a (redic!ion o# !he
(ro*ressive &n#oldin* o# his!or0 ;&s&all0 <es!ern his!or0@,
!0(icall0 &( !o !he !i%e o# !he con!e%(orar0 readerG !his is
called !he his!oricis! a((roach. ;O# co&rse, !he res&l!s o# !he
#&!&ris! and his!oricis! a((roaches chan*e wi!h !he (assin*
0ears, shi#!in* #ro% reader !o reader.@ The #o&r!h o# !hese
in!er(re!ive a((roaches, !he idealis!, des(airs o# !he o!her
!hree and views Revela!ion as his!oricall0 nons(eci#ic,
concerned wi!h &niversal (rinci(les o# Gods !r&!h ra!her !han
wi!h *en&ine his!orical (heno%ena.
Each o# !hese #o&r a((roaches has i!s s!ren*!hs and
weaknesses. <ha! is reco%%ended in !his !e,!$ook is a
4&dicio&s $lendin* o# a! leas! !hree o# !he%. An in!er(re!a!ion
o# New Tes!a%en! a(ocal0(!ic li!era!&re will $e roo!ed a$ove
all in a care#&l anal0sis o# !he ori*inal circ&%s!ances l0in*
$ehind !he ancien! !e,!. B&! i! will also (&rs&e a !ho&*h!#&l
readin* o# !he in!er(re!ers own circ&%s!ances in li*h! o# !ha!
!e,!. <he!her or no! !ha! (rocess will lead !o (osi!ive
iden!i#ica!ion $e!ween !he ancien! s0%$ols and (ar!ic&lar
%odern (ersons, na!ions or even!s, or whe!her i! will i%(l0
%ore *eneral (rinci(les o# li#e, is less cer!ain. B&! i! sho&ld a!
leas! res&l! in con!e%(orar0 Hhris!ians $eco%in* convinced
!ha! !heir God is s!ill in &l!i%a!e con!rol o# !he &niverse. No
less now !han a! !he end o# !he #irs! cen!&r0, he re%ains
in!i%a!el0 concerned wi!h !he $ehavior and !he #a!e o# !he
h&%an race, and he is co%%i!!ed !o (ar!ic&lar e!hical and
social val&esG i! is i%(or!an! !o hi% how we !rea! each o!her
and how we re*ard hi%. Ce will no! $e %ocked #orever. <i!h
!hese !ho&*h!s in %ind, we %a0 close !his cha(!er wi!h a look
a! Revela!ion 5:.
The (re!eris! in!er(re!a!ion o# a(ocal0(!ic li!era!&re, !o!all0
de!er%ined $0 !he si!&a!ion con!e%(orar0 !o !he wri!er o# !he
$ook, co%%onl0 views !he #irs! $eas! ;Rev 5:'5@ as !he Ro%an
E%(ire and !he second $eas! ;Rev 5:'55@, whose %ark is JJJ
;Rev 55'57@, as Nero Rediviv&s ;!ha! is, 2Nero co%e $ack #ro%
!he dead,3 like so%e (eo(les e,(ec!a!ions #or Elvis and J.=@.
5K
5
K
Al!erna!ivel0, !he #irs! $eas! %a0 $e seen as Nero and !he second as a
Neronic #ac!ion &r*in* Hhris!ians ;and o!hers@ !o (in !heir ho(es on !he
over!hrow o# Ro%e $0 !he ar%ies o# Dar!hia &nder !he leadershi( o# Nero
The %essa*e o# Revela!ion is !hen co%(le!el0 #&l#illed in !he
#i#!h cen!&r0 A.D. wi!h !he #all o# Ro%e.
The s!ren*!h o# !his a((roach is !ha! i! kee(s !he $ook
relevan! !o !he ori*inal readers, who were #acin* !he rise o#
e%(eror worshi( and !he conse1&en! (ersec&!ion o# !hose who
re#&sed !o co%(l0. To $e ass&red !ha! !he (ersec&!in* (owers
were doo%ed wo&ld have *iven added co&ra*e !o !he readers
!o re%ain #ai!h#&l !o Jes&s Hhris!. I!s weakness, however, is
!ha! in i! !he en!ire %essa*e o# !he $ook o# Revela!ion is no!
reall0 #&l#illedG !he #inal over!hrow o# Sa!an ;!he dra*on, Rev
5:'>@ and o# evil ;so clearl0 (or!ra0ed@ did no! ac!&all0 occ&r in
!he ori*inal readers li#e!i%e, nor wi!h !he colla(se o# !he
e%(ire so%e !hree !o #o&r cen!&ries la!er. A((roachin*
Revela!ion #ro% a s!ric!l0 (re!eris! (ers(ec!ive wo&ld i%(l0
!ha! !he a&!hor (&rs&ed his (&r(oseBa! leas! in (ar!B$0
#alsel0 or %is!akenl0 co%#or!in* his (ersec&!ed (eo(le.
.&!&ris! a((roaches in o&r da0 have o#!en re*arded !he #irs!
$eas! as re(resen!in* !he na!ions o# !he E&ro(ean UnionG !he
second $eas! is !he co%in* world r&ler s(onsored $0 !he EU.
The con#lic! and con#la*ra!ion descri$ed in la!er cha(!ers
(or!ra0 !he Grea! Tri$&la!ion, which will c&l%ina!e in !he
Ba!!le o# Ar%a*eddon, and are (receded $0 !he ra(!&re o# !he
ch&rch. In!er(re!in* Revela!ion in !his wa0 is co%%on a%on*
dis(ensa!ionalis!s.
The s!ren*!h o# !his wa0 o# readin* Revela!ion, o# co&rse, is
i!s #oc&s on !he end o# all !hin*s. I! !akes serio&sl0 !he wor!
re!iviv2s. H#. A. J. D. Garrow, *eveation ;+ondon' Ro&!led*e, 566O@, ((.
77L6>.
scale o# !he %a!!er and !he 1ina answer !o !he (ro$le% o# evil.
<here !he (re!eris! a((roach leaves &nresolved !he &l!i%a!e
#a!e o# Sa!an, since he did no! vanish wi!h !he #all o# Ro%e, !he
#&!&ris! a((roach acknowled*es !ha! !he end is 0e! !o co%e. I!s
weakness, however, is !ha! i! wo&ld have $een onl0 re%o!el0
relevan! !o Johns ori*inal readers, i# relevan! a! all. Cow
wo&ld knowled*e o# !he #&!&re EU, #or e,a%(le, or o# -oscow,
or o# swar%s o# helico(!ers, have $een co%#or!in* !o Hhris!ians
s&##erin* &nder E%(eror Do%i!ian ;or Nero@I I! wo&ld ass&%e
!ha! !hose #irs!)cen!&r0 $elievers co&ld have so%ehow known
!he si*ni#icance o# !he EU. And wha! are we !o %ake o# #&!&ris!
in!er(re!a!ions (o(&lar (rior !o !he #all o# !he Sovie! Union in
5676I
As we have seen, (o(&lariAed #&!&ris! readin*s o#
Revela!ion are !he%selves a(ocal0(!ic li!era!&re #or a new !i%e
and (lace. D&rin* !he Eas!)<es! Hold <ar, when Sovie!
co%%&nis% was &nders!ood as !he (ri%ar0 !hrea! !o !he
<es!ern wa0 o# li#e, #&!&ris! e,(lana!ions o# Revela!ion were
orien!ed alon* !he -oscow)<ashin*!onN+ondon (olari!0.
Since 5676, and es(eciall0 since 6N55, !he orien!a!ion has
shi#!ed in !he direc!ion o# a (olari!0 $e!ween
+ondonN<ashin*!on and Near Eas!ern !erroris%. In o!her
words, %an0 Hhris!ians in !he <es! $eco%e cons&%ers o# an
ever)evolvin* a(ocal0(!ic, !he (ro(onen!s o# which see !heir
own (oli!ical concerns direc!l0 re#lec!ed in an ancien! !e,!
wri!!en !o #irs!)cen!&r0 Hhris!ians in Asia -inor. <e %a0
cer!ainl0 $e *ra!e#&l !ha! !hese !wen!0)#irs! cen!&r0 Hhris!ians
are !h&s enco&ra*ed !o %ain!ain !r&s! in God #or !heir #&!&re
;!ho&*h we %a0 have do&$!s a$o&! !he (assivi!0 !ha! s&ch an
a((roach can ins(ire in !he%@. 9e! we %&s! $e care#&l no! !o
ass&%e !ha! s&ch readin*s o# Revela!ion necessaril0 re(resen!
acc&ra!e and a((ro(ria!e exe/esis o# !he !e,!.
The his!oricis! a((roach views Revela!ion as a (redic!ion o#
even!s &( !o !he in!er(re!ers own !i%e in la!er <es!ern
his!or0. <h0 i! sho&ld $e res!ric!ed !o Western his!or0 is a
%0s!er0 in i!s own ri*h!. In an0 case, ch&rches inheri!in* !he
o&!look o# !he Re#or%a!ion, #or e,a%(le, %i*h! view !he #irs!
$eas! as !he Ro%an Ha!holic Hh&rch and !he second $eas! as
!he (o(e.
O# co&rse, !he s!ren*!h o# !his a((roach is !ha! i! %akes
Revela!ion !r&l0 (ro(he!ic o# la!er Hhris!ian his!or0 and
!here#ore i%%edia!el0 relevan! #or Hhris!ians o# !ha! la!er
(eriod. B&!, as wi!h !he #&!&ris! a((roach, !he o$vio&s
weakness is i!s o(enness !o s&$4ec!ive and shi#!in* a((lica!ion.
I! wo&ld $e 4&s! as le*i!i%a!e #or (ro(onen!s o# !he si,!een!h)
cen!&r0 Ro%an ch&rch !o re*ard !he #irs! $eas! as !he
Dro!es!an! %ove%en! and !he second $eas! as -ar!in +&!her
or John Halvin. Or !he second $eas! %i*h! $e a %&l!i)headed
a%al*a% %ade &( o# +&!her, Halvin, Zwin*li, -elanch!hon
and a hos! o# o!hers. Har!oon)like (ro(a*anda #ro% !he (eriod
is ri#e wi!h s&ch de(ic!ions. In an0 case, wh0 wo&ld John !he
Revela!or #eel inclined !o in#or% his #irs!)cen!&r0 Hhris!ian
ch&rch in Asia re*ardin* !he co%in* $a!!les o# !he E&ro(ean
Re#or%a!ionI Or wh0 sho&ld !his view on Revela!ion a((l0
onl0 !o <es!ern Hhris!iani!0I <h0 wo&ld i! no! have $een 4&s!
as le*i!i%a!el0 s(eakin* o# !he seven!h)cen!&r0 A#rican ch&rch
in i!s enco&n!er wi!h Isla%I
Those who des(air o# !he (revio&s !hree a((roaches %a0
!&rn !o a #o&r!h, one !ha! nea!l0 avoids !he (i!#alls #acin* !he
o!hers. Accordin* !o !he idealis! ;or !i%eless@ a((roach !o
readin* Revela!ion, !he #irs! $eas! o# Revela!ion 5: can $e
&nders!ood (erha(s !o re(resen! #allen h&%an na!&re and !he
second $eas! !aken as re(resen!in* sel#)cen!eredness.
The o$vio&s s!ren*!h o# !his %oralis!ic in!er(re!ive
(roced&re is !he wa0 i! concerns i!sel# wi!h overarchin* e!hical
(rinci(les relevan! !o an0 readers in an0 si!&a!ion. I!
enco&n!ers none o# !he (ro$le%s arisin* #ro% a!!e%(!s in
o!her a((roaches !o %a!ch &( s0%$ols wi!h ac!&al his!orical
even!s and (ersona*es, (as! or #&!&re. I! has !wo %a4or
weaknesses, however. .or one !hin*, !he correla!ion o# %oral
ideals wi!h s(eci#ic %e!a(horical re(resen!a!ions in !he !e,! is
as o(en !o in!er(re!ive a$&se as is !he alle*oriAin* %e!hod we
disc&ssed a$ove in cha(!er ei*h! in connec!ion wi!h Gos(el
(ara$les. There are no relia$le *&idelines #or knowin* wha!
ideal or (rinci(le John had in %ind wi!h !he $eas!s o#
Revela!ion 5:, #or ins!ance. In !he second (lace, s&ch a
%essa*e, even i# correc!l0 discerned, wo&ld $e #ar !oo divorced
#ro% !he des(era!e his!orical si!&a!ion !he ori*inal readers
were (res&%a$l0 #acin*. I! lacks !he ass&rance o# a #inal
vindica!in* cons&%%a!ion o# all !hin*s. In a !0(ical
a(ocal0(!ic si!&a!ion, s&ch as !he !hrea! o# dea!h #or #ail&re !o
con#ess !ha! Haesar ;no! Jes&s@ is lord, wo&ld a 2seer3 like John
have co%#or!ed his (eo(le wi!h a s0%$olic %oralis!ic essa0 on,
sa0, sel#)cen!erednessI O# co&rse i# we (re#er !he idealis!
a((roach, we can alwa0s a$andon !he ass&%(!ion !ha!
Revela!ion was wri!!en #or a (eo(le in a(ocal0(!ic dis!ress. To
do !ha!, however, wo&ld raise a hos! o# new e,e*e!ical
(ro$le%s.
The #ac! !ha! we have a! leas! !hese #o&r diverse a((roaches
!o readin* Revela!ion s&**es!s !ha! !here is no #ir% consens&s
a$o&! which one is !o $e reco%%ended. Dro$a$l0 !he $es!
a((roach will a((recia!e !he s!ren*!hs in all o# !he% and
a!!e%(! !o avoid !heir weaknesses. The e,e*e!ical (ers(ec!ive
re(resen!ed $0 !he *&ide$ook 0o& now hold in 0o&r hands (&!s
a ver0 hi*h val&e on acknowled*in* !he (ri%ac0 o# a $i$lical
!e,!s ori*inal se!!in*. Tha! se!!in* #or%s !he $e*innin* (lace
#or so&nd e,e*esis. -ini%iAin* !he val&e o# !ha! se!!in* #or
&nders!andin* a !e,! o(ens !he door !o %ani(&la!in* !he !e,!
in!o %eanin* wha!ever we %a0 wish i! !o %ean. On !he o!her
hand, i! is clear !ha! we canno! e,ha&s! !he %essa*e e%$odied
in !he $ook o# Revela!ion $0 res!ric!in* i!s a((lica!ion !o !he
#irs! cen!&r0. I!s sco(e and *rande&r $&rs! !he $o&nds o# !he
ancien! si!&a!ion.
In order !o s!rike a reasona$le $alance $e!ween ori*inal
relevance and s&$se1&en! a((lica$ili!0, !he 2$es!3 a((roach !o
!he e,e*esis o# New Tes!a%en! a(ocal0(!ic will (ro$a$l0
a((eal !o !0(e and an!i!0(e. John s(eaks o# Ro%e as a 2!0(e3 o#
Gods concern wi!h !he escha!olo*ical $eas!. Jes&s ;or
-a!!hew@ in !he Olive! Disco&rse ;-! >8@ s(eaks o# !he #all o#
Jer&sale% as a 2!0(e,3 while God in !he Olive! Disco&rse
s(eaks !o #&!&re readers o# !he 2an!i!0(ical3 #&l#ill%en! a! !he
end o# !he a*e. I! is i%(or!an! #ro% an e,e*e!ical (oin! o# view
!o iden!i#0 !he his!oric 2!0(es3 re(resen!ed %e!a(horicall0 in
!he ori*inal se!!in* o# Revela!ion or o# !he Olive! Disco&rse
;Ro%e, Do%i!ian, !he des!r&c!ion o# Jer&sale% e!c.@. B&! we
have nei!her need nor 4&s!i#ica!ion #or insis!in* !ha! !he
an!i!0(es i%(lied #or so%e la!er si!&a!ion re(resen! !his or !ha!
s$e%i1i% even!, ins!i!&!ion or (ersona*e reco*niAa$le !o &s in
o&r own se!!in*s ;s&ch as !he (o(e or Dro!es!an!is% or !he
E&ro(ean Union@.
In an0 *enera!ion, in an0 his!orical se!!in* an0where in !he
world, vario&s s(eci#ic en!i!ies %a0 (la0 !he roles assi*ned !o
!he an!i!0(es i%(lied in Revela!ion, 4&s! as Ro%e and i!s
Haesar once did in !he ori*inal se!!in*. B&! !he iden!i!ies o# !he
1ina (la0ers, le! alone !he da!es o# !heir a((earance, re%ain
veiled !o &s, hidden in !he %is! o# !he #&!&re o&!workin* o#
Gods (&r(oses. As e,e*e!es o# New Tes!a%en! a(ocal0(!ic
li!era!&re, we %&s! sa0 all we can, $&! no %ore !han we can.
This is, I !hink, wha! Da&l %eans in 5 Thessalonians K'5L>'
2Now concernin* !he !i%es and !he seasons, $ro!hers and
sis!ers, 0o& do no! need !o have an0!hin* wri!!en !o 0o&. .or
0o& 0o&rselves know ver0 well !ha! !he da0 o# !he +ord will
co%e like a !hie# in !he ni*h!.3 Ea*erness !o know %ore !han
has $een revealed is (erha(s wha! !he -ishnah warns a*ains!
in &. >.5. <e do no! need !o know !he de!ailsG we onl0
need !o $e cons!an!l0 read0.
+.4 CONCLUSION
I close !his cha(!er $0 s&%%in* &( i!s #&nda%en!al %essa*e.
Jewish)Hhris!ian a(ocal0(!ic li!era!&re (rovides !he ch&rch an
al!erna!ive s!0le o# co%%&nica!ion, no! &nlike #ic!ion co&ld
have done #or %0 elderl0 #riend i# she had $een o(en !o i!. As
an al!erna!ive stye o# $i$lical co%%&nica!ion, a(ocal0(ses
si%(l0 e%(lo0 al!erna!ive #or%s and %e!hods !o conve0 !he
sa%e %essa*e conve0ed $0 all o# Scri(!&re' 2God lives and is in
con!rol o# his crea!ion and i!s #a!eG !ho&*h i! %a0 no! see% so
4&s! now, i! is !r&e none!heless. There#ore re%ain #ai!h#&l !o
hi%, and he will ri*h! all wron*s in his own *ood !i%e.3
In!er(re!in* Revela!ion is no! so %&ch a %a!!er o# divinin* !he
$l&e(rin! o# !he #&!&re as i! is a %a!!er o# &nders!andin* !he
(resen! in !er%s o# Gods rei*nBwhe!her conceived o# as
alread0 here, or 0e! !o co%e, or $o!hBand o# learnin* !o read
!he s0%$olic and %e!a(horical 2lan*&a*e3 in which !ha! rei*n
is descri$ed.
1,
MOVING ON
<ha! Do <e Do NowI
; 7o, w+at s+a we say
a"o2t t+ese t+in/sN
*O;.07 9#<1
So, wha! !o we do nowI Tha! is a reasona$le 1&es!ion !o ask a!
!his s!a*e. I! is also i%(or!an! no! !o *e! !he wron* idea #ro% i!.
Askin* !his 1&es!ionBand askin* i! nowBdoes no! so%ehow
i%(l0 !ha! we can never do an0!hin* a! all &n!il we reach !his
(oin!. In order !o disc&ss !he (roced&res covered in !his $ook,
i! has $een necessar0 !o or*aniAe !he% in so%e lo*ical wa0,
!akin* !he% one $0 one and anal0Ain* !he% s!e( $0 s!e(. 9e!,
in real li#e, a! !he ever0da0 level, we will seldo% have !he
l&,&r0 !o o(era!e as %e!hodicall0 as !ha!. I! wo&ld $e nice, in
!heor0, !o choose a !e,!, !ransla!e i! #ro% Greek ;or Ce$rew@,
consider !he !e,!&al !radi!ion, anal0Ae s!r&c!&re, li!erar0 #or%,
his!orical se!!in*, narra!ive and rhe!orical s!ra!e*0, and so onB
%ore or less in !ha! order and %ore or less !horo&*hl0. Onl0
!hen ;in !his !heore!ical world@ wo&ld we $e*in !o #or%&la!e a
con!e%(orar0 %essa*e $ased on !ha! !e,!. .or a (rivile*ed #ew
$i$lical scholars, !ha! %a0 $e how i! works. .or !he res! o# &s,
however, !he (hone rin*s, !he kids need a ride !o soccer
(rac!ice, and !he wa!er hea!er s(rin*s a leak. Then we hear
!ha! <ard and J&ne Hleaver are s(li!!in* &( and need
i%%edia!e in!erven!ion co&nselin*. B0 !he !i%e we si! down !o
(re(are !he S&nda0 %ornin* ser%on, i! is alread0 .rida0
a#!ernoon. <eeks when we lack eno&*h !i%e !o do !he ideal 4o$
#ar o&!n&%$er !he weeks when we have all !he !i%e we need.
This is !r&e in (ar! $eca&se !here is si%(l0 no end !o wha!
we %o2! do, i# onl0 we had eno&*h !i%e. There is alwa0s so%e
o!her co%%en!ar0 !o check, ano!her ancien! (ri%ar0 so&rce !o
cons&l!, or one %ore word anal0sis !o carr0 o&!. In reali!0,
however, o&r work will $e %ore a %a!!er o# re#inin* a h&nch
!ha! has $een $&ildin* wi!hin &s #or %on!hs !han a %a!!er o#
workin* &( so%e!hin* en!irel0 new, #ro% scra!ch. .or !his
reason we %&s! avoid !he !e%(!a!ion !o $ea! o&rselves &(
when we canno! do !he #&ll 4o$ o# e,e*esis we wo&ld like !o do,
or !ha! we !hink o&r (ro#essors wo&ld have e,(ec!ed &s !o do.
O!herwise, we will $e*in !o convince o&rselves !ha! !he !ask o#
re*&lar e,e*esis is !oo $i*, !oo de%andin*, !oo &nrealis!ic. This
can lead &s in!o !he ha$i! o# ne*lec!in*, ra!her !han (&rs&in*,
!he !ask as %&ch as (ossi$le. B&! #or !hose who are called $0
God !o #eed his #lock, as well as #or !ha! #lock i!sel#, ne*lec!in*
e,e*esis like !his is no!hin* less !han !ra*ic, since wi!ho&! solid
and no&rishin* #ood, !he Bod0 wi!hers.
<ha! I a% !r0in* !o sa0 is !his' e,e*esis is a i1eti&e
e%(lo0%en!, no! a weekl0 one. I! is a $i! like kee(in* a $all
rollin* $0 *ivin* i! re*&lar n&d*es, ra!her !han each !i%e
s!ar!in* i! &( #resh #ro% a co%(le!e s!o(. So%e!i%es !he n&d*e
will $e a %ere !a(, and a! o!her !i%es a (ower#&l shove, $&! !he
$all kee(s *oin*, al%os! o# i!s own accord, &nless all n&d*in*,
!a((in* and shovin* s!o(. This cr&de analo*0 %a0 hel( !o
release so%e o# &s #ro% an a$s&rd $&rden o# #alse *&il! and a
cri((lin* sense o# o&r ins&##icienc0. <e %a0 work on s(eci#ic
!e,!s one a! a !i%e, $&! over !i%e, we (ro*ressivel0 $&ild &(
insi*h!, &nders!andin* and con#idence. O&r call is no! !o do
ever0!hin* we s+o2! do ;an0wa0, who de!er%ines wha! !ha!
isI@, $&! !o do ever0!hin* we %an do, *iven o&r cons!an!l0
shi#!in* circ&%s!ances. The !rick is never !o le! !he $all s!o(
co%(le!el0, even i# a! !i%esBeven %an0 !i%esBwe can *ive i!
no %ore !han a %ere n&d*e, a sin*le !a(.
<i!h !ha! cavea!, !his #inal cha(!er a!!e%(!s !o draw
concl&sions #or $ene#i!in* #ro% !he #r&i!s o# res(onsi$le New
Tes!a%en! e,e*esis. The work o# e,e*esis is no! an end in
i!sel#. Even i# so%e (eo(le !rea! i! !ha! wa0, !he0 (ro$a$l0Ba!
leas!B%ake a livin* #ro% i!/ B&! %os! o# &s who are called !o
!he %inis!r0 o# !he <ord o# God reco*niAe !ha! e,e*esis and
!he res&l!s i! (rod&ces (la0 an enor%o&sl0 i%(or!an! role in
!he li#e o# Gods (eo(le and !he world. Un#or!&na!el0, so does
!he ne*lec! o# e,e*esis.
1,.1 EXEGESIS IN ITS CONTEXT
Al!ho&*h I have #oc&sed on e,e*esis in !his $ook, I
never!heless acknowled*e $o!h sides o# !he in!er(re!a!ion coin'
e,e*esis and her%ene&!ics, or %eanin* and si*ni#icance, or
2wha! !he !e,! %ean!3 and 2wha! !he !e,! %eans.3 The
&nderl0in* ass&%(!ion, or con#ession, has $een !ha! !he Bi$le
(reserves in wri!!en #or% !he a&!hori!a!ive <ord o# God !o
h&%ani!0, no! 4&s! #or !he ori*inal a&diences o# i!s vario&s
(or!ions, $&! #or all h&%ani!0 o# all c&l!&res in all conceiva$le
his!orical se!!in*s. ;<e see !he a(os!le Da&l !akin* so%e!hin*
like !he sa%e a!!i!&de in Ro% 8'>:L>8.@
Se! wi!hin i!s lar*er con!e,!, e,e*esis leads &s !o $e alwa0s
#or%in* and re#or%in* o&r &nders!andin* o# $i$lical
revela!ion. Tha! (rocess, in !&rn, has i%(lica!ions #or li#e, #ai!h
and (rac!ice. Dersonal !rans#or%a!ion, in!er(ersonal
rela!ionshi(s, !eachin* and (reachin*, leadershi(, val&es)
assess%en! and !he se!!in* o# (riori!iesBall !hese !hin*s and
%ore are s&$4ec! !o !he res&l!s o# care#&l e,e*esis and
!ho&*h!#&l, (a!ien! dialo* a$o&! !he si*ni#icance o# !hose
res&l!s #or an0 con!e%(orar0 si!&a!ion. In !er%s o# !he 2$i*
(ic!&re3 dia*ra% (rovided in cha(!er one ;and kee(in* in
%ind !he cavea! %en!ioned 4&s! a %o%en! a*o@, I a% s(eakin*
now o# !he !ransi!ion #ro% e,e*esis !o her%ene&!ics. <e are
2read03 ;(erha(s as %&ch as we can $e #or now@ !o #eed !he
e,e*e!icall0 recons!r&c!ed ancien! %essa*e in!o !he
2her%ene&!ical *rid,3 doin* so in order !o rela!e !he ancien!
con!e,! !o so%e con!e%(orar0 one. This will ena$le &s, as #ar
as (ossi$le, !o recas! !ha! ancien! %essa*e in !er%s !ha! %ake
a((ro(ria!e sense !o con!e%(orar0 a&diences in !heir own
con!e,!s. So%e (eo(le re#er !o !his s!a*e o# !he (rocess as
2a((lica!ion3G (rovided we are care#&l !o de#ine o&r !er%s,
a$$i%ation is a &se#&l word in !his connec!ion.
1E.1.1 What We 4ean .y +pplication
In #ac!, !here are dan*ers !o avoid in &sin* !he !er%
a$$i%ation in !his con!e,!. B0 acknowled*in* !he le*i!i%ac0 o#
&sin* i!, I a% no! s&**es!in* !ha! !his %ane&ver is a si%(le
%a!!er o# ded&cin* $i$lical 2(rinci(les3 and o# 2a((l0in*3 !he%
!o o&r lives. The will o# God is no! a (iece o# co%(&!er so#!ware
wi!h which we anal0Ae !he da!a$ase o# o&r circ&%s!ances in
order !o #ind o&! wha! we sho&ld do in so%e (ar!ic&lar
si!&a!ion. Nor is Das!or Bo$ or 0o&r %o!her !he co%(&!er
!echie who r&ns !he (ro*ra% #or &s, *ivin* &s on S&nda0
so%e!hin* a%o&n!in* !o !he 2seven (rinci(les o# s&ccess#&l
Hhris!ian (ra0er,3 or o# s!ewardshi( or o# raisin* children.
<ha! we are a#!er ra!her, in %0 view, is a %o&$re+ensive
2n!erstan!in/ o1 t+e $erson o1 Go! inso#ar as he has revealed
hi%sel# !o &s. This revela!ion co%es (acka*ed (ri%aril0 in !he
li#e and words o# God incarna!e in Jes&s Hhris!, and
secondaril0 in !he his!or0 o# his dealin* wi!h h&%ani!0
;(ar!ic&larl0 wi!h Israel and !he earl0 ch&rch@ and in !he words
o# his (ro(he!s and a(os!les. The #&nda%en!al 1&es!ion ;a*ain,
I ad%i!, as i! see%s !o %e@ is alwa0s a$o&! wha! Jes&s wo&ld
do, how he wo&ld !hink, ac!, $ehave and s(eak, i# he were in
!he si!&a!ion we #ind o&rselves in. Al!ho&*h !here is dan*er
l&rkin* here, !oo, !his is wha! I %ean $0 2a((l0in*3 !he
scri(!&ral %essa*e !o a con!e%(orar0 si!&a!ion. The dan*er
lies in !he !e%(!a!ion !o decide 2wha! Jes&s wo&ld do3 on !he
$asis o# wha! we o&rselves wo&ld do. This, however, onl0
rein#orces !he i%(or!ance o# e,e*esis. As !he h&%an
%ani#es!a!ion o# God, Jes&s did no! co%e !o &s wi!h a lis! o#
(rinci(les and (roced&res, $&! wi!h a li#e and a hear!. Bi$lical
e,e*esis seeks !o !ell &s wha! !ha! li#e and hear! were like in !he
ancien! se!!in*s. Cer%ene&!ics seeks !o !ell &s how !ha! li#e
and hear! 2a((l03 !o o&r own se!!in*s, how !he0 (res&%a$l0
%ani#es! !he%selves here and now. God is so in!eres!ed in !he
s&ccess o# !he endeavor !ha! he has endowed !he ch&rch wi!h
his S(iri! !o *&ide &s in #i*&rin* i! o&!. S!ill, even &nder !his
res!ric!ed de#ini!ion, a((lica!ion is no! necessaril0 !he sa%e
!hin* as a2t+oritative a((lica!ion. <e need !o consider !his #or
a %o%en!.
1E.1.2 +uthoritati*e +pplication1 "ersonal '.edience
and Ser*anthood
-an0 who read !his $ook alread0 hold (osi!ions o# a&!hori!0
wi!hin a con*re*a!ion, or !he0 so%eda0 will. The0 %a0 (reach
ser%ons, lead Bi$le s!&dies, cond&c! co%%i!!ee work and hold
o##ices. I# we are reasona$l0 %odes! ;!ha! is, i# we have a
+eat+y sel#)i%a*e@, i! %a0 a%aAe &s how o#!en (eo(le look !o
2s #or a&!hori!a!ive answers !o 1&es!ions a$o&! li#e and
doc!rine. I! can and sho&ld $e #ri*h!enin*, #or !he
res(onsi$ili!0 is enor%o&s. .or!&na!el0, !hese sa%e (eo(le will
also !end !o i*nore !he answers we *ive !he%. The a&!hori!0 we
ass&%e as leaders in !he ch&rch %&s! no! $e ass&%ed li*h!l0
and cer!ainl0 no! as a %eans o# allevia!in* o&r own
insec&ri!ies. Cere are !wo considera!ions #or enhancin* o&r
e##ec!iveness and o&r con#idence as 2a&!hori!a!ive3 leaders
a%on* !he (eo(le o# God.
7ervant+oo!. <e are called !o $e %ore concerned wi!h o&r
(eo(les wel#are ;incl&din*, #irs! o# all, !ha! o# o&r own
#a%ilies@ !han we are wi!h o&r own. Tha! is, we can *overn o&r
li#es!0le wi!h !he ass&rance !ha! Hhris!s own sel#)sacri#icin*
e,a%(le ;-! 5J'>8G Dhil >@ no! onl0 $ears no !hrea! !o o&r
e,is!ence $&! also carries i!s own &nshaka$le (ro%ise o#
reward. Ado(!in* !his concern and livin* i! o&! will ca&se o&r
!r&s!wor!hiness !o $losso%.
O"e!ien%e. <e are enco&ra*ed !o re%e%$er !ha! we
re(resen! Jes&s Hhris!. <e are Hhris! incarna!eBor a! leas!
%e%$ers o# Hhris! incarna!e. <hen we s(eak !he Gos(el, when
we visi! !he sick, when we conde%n or (ardon sin, we do so
wi!h !he a&!hori!0 o# and on $ehal# o# !he Hrea!or o# !he
&niverse. O$edience in $ein* re(en!an!, a$ove all else, is !r&e
ri*h!eo&sness and *en&ine de(endence on God. I# we s&##er #or
i!, we, like Da&l, co%(le!e !he s&##erin*s o# Hhris! ;c#. Hol 5'>8@.
In a n&!shell, !he *rea!es! o# all o&r +er&ene2ti%a
endeavors is seen in !he wa0 we s(eak and live. E,e*esis
(rovides !he raw %a!erial #or !hinkin* a$o&! !hese iss&es. As
s&ch, i! (acks enor%o&s (ower #or !rans#or%in* &s accordin*
!o !ha! incarna!ional %odelG i! will a##ec! all as(ec!s o# o&r
lives. The incarna!ion, in #ac!, e(i!o%iAes Gods de!er%ina!ion
!o channel his %essa*e !o h&%ani!0 t+ro2/+ h&%ani!0. I# o&r
(eo(le are !o hear !ha! %essa*e, !he0 will hear i! !hro&*h &s, or
!hro&*h so%eone 4&s! as h&%an as we are. In a ver0 i%(or!an!
sense, even !he Bi$le is wri!!en and (reserved !hro&*h h&%an
e##or!. There#ore, i# we wan! o&r (eo(le !o hear Gods %essa*e
wi!h clari!0 and acc&rac0B!ha! is, wi!h 2a&!hori!03B!here is no
$e!!er wa0 !o acco%(lish o&r desire !han $0 re#lec!in* !he
res&l!s o# o&r e,e*esis in o&r own !hinkin* and $ehavior.
E,e*esis, her%ene&!ics and leadershi( are all o# one clo!h'
Hhris!)cen!ered in!e*ri!0.
1,.2 EXEGESIS AND THE ROADER THEOLOGICAL
CONTEXT
Gran!ed i!s %ore *eneral i%(lica!ions, e,e*esis never!heless
has a (ar!ic&lar relevance #or !he es(eciall0 2ver$al3 or
2acade%ic3 as(ec!s o# %inis!r0. One o# !hese as(ec!s is !he
(rocess o# develo(in* a %ore co%(rehensive &nders!andin* o#
!he lar*er $i$lical)!heolo*ical (ic!&re. There is no &niversal
consens&s on whe!her !ha! lar*er (ic!&re e,is!s a! all as a
coheren! &ni!0 ;le! alone on wha! i! looks like i# i! does@. B&!
!he conce(!s o# divine ins(ira!ion and 2canon3 i%(l0 !ha! s&ch
a &ni!0 does e,is!G and ass&%in* i! does, we can s!o( a %o%en!
here !o !hink a$o&! !he rela!ionshi( $e!ween an a! leas!
!heore!icall0 co%(rehensive $i$lical !heolo*0 and !he
e,e*e!ical !ask.
1E.2.1 (onte$t and 8eciprocity
<e have seen on several con!e,!&al levels !ha! !here is a
circ&lar or reci(rocal se%an!ic rela!ionshi( $e!ween s%aller
and lar*er &ni!s o# !hose levels. The %eanin* o# a word, #or
ins!ance, is in (ar! de!er%ined $0 !he %eanin* o# !he sen!ence
in which i! occ&rsG $&!, reci(rocall0, we &nders!and !he
sen!ences %eanin* %ore ade1&a!el0 when we know !he
%eanin*s o# !he words !ha! %ake i! &(. <e saw in cha(!er
!hree !ha! !his ver0 (rinci(le holds all !he wa0 2&(3 !o !he level
o# en!ire $ooks. <e !ook i! !o cover even lar*er $odies, s&ch as
Da&ls le!!ers or !he Da&line 2cor(&s,3 and we can now a((l0 i!
2canonicall0.3 Tha! is, !his reci(roci!0 holds even a! !he level o#
!he rela!ionshi( $e!ween an individ&al $i$lical $ook and !he
New Tes!a%en! ;or !he en!ire Bi$le@ i!sel#.
Hhris!ian $i$lical !heolo*0 as a whole is cons!r&c!ed #ro%
!he vario&s !heolo*ies e%$edded in !he individ&al $i$lical
$ooks, each wi!h i!s own his!oricall0 de!er%ined s(ecial
concerns and e%(hases. Reci(rocall0, !he individ&al !heolo*ies
o# !he several $ooks in !he canon canno! $e #&ll0 &nders!ood
o&!side !he !heolo*0 o# !he whole canon. O# co&rse, !his
ass&%es !ha! !he Hhris!ian $i$lical canon is !he (rod&c! o# !he
ins(ira!ion o# Gods S(iri!, $o!h in i!s con!en! and in i!s
collec!ion in!o a &ni#ied whole. No! ever0 $i$lical scholar is
convinced o# !his. I a%, $&! 0o& will have !o %ake &( 0o&r own
%ind a$o&! i!.
1E.2.2 Lettin% the Scripture Spea for Itself
Cere, however, we need !o draw a ri*oro&s dis!inc!ion $e!ween
;a@ !he canons &ni#ied !heolo*0 as i! reay is ;a*ain, ass&%in*
!here ac!&all0 is one@ and ;$@ o&r own no!ions and !radi!ions as
!o wha! i! isB!ha! is, w+at we t+in- it is. The ver0 %&l!i!&de o#
con#lic!in* s0s!e%s o# Hhris!ian !heolo*0 (roves !ha! so%e o#
!hese s0s!e%sB&ndo&$!edl0 all o# !he%Bare wron* in cer!ain
res(ec!s in !he wa0s !he0 a!!e%(! !o #ra%e $i$lical doc!rine.
Drecisel0 #or !his reason, we %&s! -ee$ on istenin/ an! re-
istenin/ !o !he %essa*es o# !he individ&al $ooks o# !he Bi$le.
I! is #ar !oo eas0 !o read $ack in!o !he% wha! we e,(ec! !he% !o
sa0 ;or have $een !old !o e,(ec! !he% !o sa0@, $ased on o&r own
ideas o# wha! !he0, as Hhris!ian $ooks, o&*h! !o sa0. To !he
con!rar0, o&r ideas o# wha! !he0 o&*h! !o sa0 %&s! $e
de!er%ined $0 wha! in #ac! !he0 do sa0. I#, #or e,a%(le, we
read !he $ook o# Revela!ion !hro&*h !he s0s!e% recen!l0
(o(&lariAed in !he +e#! Behind series o# novels and #il%s, i! will
so&nd ver0 %&ch like a clear)c&! $l&e(rin! #or !he #&!&re. I# we
read i! wi!ho&! !ha! s0s!e%, i! so&nds 1&i!e di##eren!
al!o*e!her. O&r (ro$le% is !ha! we can never co%e wi!ho&!
so%e s0s!e% or o!her, so%e (aradi*%, so%e se! o# 1&es!ions !o
ask, so%e sche%e o# reali!0 we e,(ec! !o #ind. Tha! is no! $adG
o!herwise we co&ld no! co%e a! all. O&r !ask, however, is !o le!
t+e Bi"e alwa0s $e revisin/ o&r ideas o# wha! !he Bi$le sa0s.
1E.2.3 Hearin% the (anon as a Whole
I! is vi!all0 i%(or!an! !o le! a *iven $ooks individ&al (oin! o#
view *&ide &s in #or%in* ;and re#or%in*@ o&r !heolo*ical
s0s!e%. I! is e1&all0 i%(or!an! !o le! Hhris!ian !heolo*0B
drawn #ro% !he %anon as a w+oe, and as &nders!ood $0 !he
ch&rch as a wholeB!es! and !e%(er e,!re%is! in!er(re!a!ions
o# individ&al (assa*es. <e %a0 sa#el0 ass&%e !ha! !he a&!hors
o# New Tes!a%en! $ooks wro!e wha! !he0 wro!e wi!hin !he
con!e,! o# !he co%%&ni!0 o# $elievers and o# !he !radi!ions
handed down #ro% !he da0s o# Jes&s ear!hl0 %inis!r0. Each
a&!hor had his ;or herI@ own (ar!ic&lar con!ri$&!ion !o %ake.
9e! !here was ;so evan*elicals con#ess@ a kind o# co%%&ni!0
conscience, a nascen! re/2a 1i!eiBwe %i*h! iden!i#0 i! wi!h
!he Col0 S(iri!B!ha! (reven!ed %averick or rene*ade !heolo*0
while a! !he sa%e !i%e (er%i!!in* a (ro(he!ic cri!icis% o#
vario&s 2h&%an3 in!er(re!a!ions o# !he !radi!ions.
So we have !hen a !ension or $alance $e!ween ;a@ !he
in!ivi!2a t+eoo/ies o# !he vario&s a&!hors and $ooks o# !he
Bi$le and ;$@ !he 2ni1ie! voi%e o# !he canonical Hhris!ian
Scri(!&res. <e %&s! never sli*h! one in #avor o# !he o!her. <e
%&s! allow each !o cri!iciAe and ad4&s! o2r i!eas o# wha! !he
o!her !eaches. On !his (er(e!&al, $alanced in!er(la0 $e!ween
!he canon as a whole and !he individ&al $ooks wi!hin !he
canon res!s !he heal!h, s(iri!&al *row!h and edi#ica!ion o# !he
ch&rch. On i!s ne*lec!, so%e (or!ion o# !he ch&rch has o#!en
$een shi(wrecked' Gnos!ics and doce!is!s in !he Johannine
co%%&ni!0, 4&daiAin* le*alis!s and Gen!ile an!ino%ians in !he
Da&line co%%&ni!ies. <ho wo&ld i! $e !oda0I <e o&rselves
are no! i%%&ne.
<e need a *ood wa0, !hen, !o $rin* !his iss&e !o $ear on
2ever0da03 e,e*esis. In #ac!, !here are !wo concerns. One o#
!he% is !o de!er%ine as well as we canBon o&r ownBwha! !he
Scri(!&re ac!&all0 !eaches on so%e %a!!er we are in!eres!ed in,
sa0, !he 2an!ichris!.3 The o!her concern is a! so%e level !o 4oin
in !he ancien! and worldwide disc&ssion o# !he s&$4ec!, !he one
!ha! has $een &nderwa0 in !he ch&rch #or cen!&ries.
1E.2.! The Idea of ;the< +ntichrist
Take as an e,a%(le !he s&$4ec! o# !he an!ichris!. The recen!
s(a!e o# Hhris!ian (&$lica!ions and #il%s #oc&sed on !he 2end
!i%es3 has in!ended !o $e #ai!h#&l !o Scri(!&re. Cow #ar i! has
s&cceeded in !his in!en!ion is o(en #or de$a!e, as i! is o# co&rse
#or an0 o!her Hhris!ian (&$lica!ion or #il% on !he sa%e s&$4ec!,
or an0 s&$4ec!. Even !he #ar)#e!ched (redic!ions we heard
a$o&! !he re!&rn o# Hhris! on a s(eci#ic da!e aro&nd !he recen!
!&rn o# !he %illenni&% $elon* !o !his a*e)old disc&ssion. Each
voice in !he disc&ssion deserves a! leas! one hearin* $0
so%eone so%ewhere, even !he voices o# !hose who !he%selves
re#&se !o lis!en !o an0 voice $&! !heir own. S!ill, i! wo&ld no! $e
(ossi$le #or so%e lone individ&al !o lis!en !o ever0 voice on
ever0 iss&e. .or %os! o# &s, i! will likel0 $e i%(ossi$le !o lis!en
!o ever0 voice on even one iss&e. <e %&s! i%a*ine ins!ead an
al%os! in#ini!el0 co%(le, we$ o# disc&ssion and dialo*
e,!endin* across !he cen!&ries and aro&nd !he world. There is
no wa0 !o %as!er i! all, $&! i# we wish !o $e #ai!h#&l !o !he
S(iri!s lead, i! is essen!ial !ha! we 4oin i! !o wha!ever de*ree we
are a$le.
Do(&lariAed e,(osi!ions o# !he 2end !i%es3 *ive enor%o&s
(ro%inence !o an evil #i*&re o# world)scale (ower, known as
!he an!ichris! ;or si%(l0, An!ichris!, as i# i! were his QherI/S
(ro(er na%e@. This #i*&re is so%e!i%es (or!ra0ed as iden!ical
wi!h one o# !he escha!olo*ical $eas!s o# Revela!ion 5: and is
e,(ec!ed !o e,ercise a$sol&!e do%inion over !he ear!h in !he
las! da0s $e#ore !he Grea! J&d*%en!. Cavin* read an
e,(osi!ion o# !his kind, we %a0 wish !o cons&l! !he Bi$le #or
o&rselves in order !o decide how %&ch we can rel0 on !his
(or!ra0al. B0 checkin* a concordance, we #ind #o&r New
Tes!a%en! occ&rrences o# !he !er% e_ 2an!ichris!3' 5
John >'57, >>G 8':G > John O. The concordance will !ell &s also
!ha! !his !er% occ&rs nowhere else in Scri(!&re, no! even in !he
$ook o# Revela!ion.
An e,a%ina!ion o# !he !er%s &se in 5 and > John !ells &s a!
leas! !he #ollowin*. ;a@ The $elievers have $een !a&*h! !o
e,(ec! !he an!ichris! as a si*n o# !he 2las! ho&r3 ;5 Jn >'57G 8':@.
;$@ The0 know hi% $0 !ha! !i!le, anti%+rist. ;c@ B&! in #ac! !he
an!ichris! has alread0 co%e in Johns own da0, and !h&s John
can sa0 i! is !he las! ho&r now ;!ha! is, in !he #irs! cen!&r0/ 5 Jn
>'57G 8':@. ;d@ The an!ichris!s co%in* is %ani#es! in 2%an03
re(resen!a!ives who have 2*one o&! in!o !he world3 ;5 Jn >'57G
> Jn O@. ;e@ Ce and !he0 are also known as 2deceivers3 ;> Jn O@.
;#@ Cis ;!heir@ chie# charac!eris!ic is !he re#&sal !o reco*niAe
!ha! !he %an Jes&s is also !he divine Hhris!B!an!a%o&n! in
Johns e0es !o a denial o# $o!h .a!her and Son ;5 Jn >'>>@Band
!he re#&sal !o con#ess !he divine Hhris!s h&%ani!0 and
incarna!ion ;5 Jn 8'>L:G > Jn O@. ;*@ This la!!er (oin! is also
a!!ri$&!ed !o !he s$irit o# !he an!ichris! ;5 Jn 8'>L:@, which
e,(lains how !here can $e &any an!ichris!sNdeceivers.
Takin* a c&e #ro% !hese da!a, we can %ove on !o !race !he
idea o# 2dece(!ion3 in !he Johannine le!!ers. ;a@ .irs! John 8'J
iden!i#ies !he 2s(iri! o# error3 ;!he deceivin* s(iri!B(ro$a$l0
e1&ivalen! !o !he s(iri! o# an!ichris!G 5 Jn 8':@ wi!h !he re#&sal
!o lis!en !o so&nd doc!rine. ;$@ .irs! John >'>JL>O %a0 s&**es!
!ha! 2!hose who are deceivin*3 !he co%%&ni!0 are clai%in* a
s(ecial anoin!in* #ro% !heir ;(ro!o)Gnos!icI@ *od. ;c@ .irs!
John :'OL7 see%s !o s&**es! !ha! !hese deceivers are likewise
!eachin* a #reedo% o# $ehavior !ha! John e1&a!es wi!h sin and
!he devils work. I! is no do&$! in con!ras! !o !his !ha! he &r*es
2*en&ine love3 ;> Jn 5@. .inall0, ;d@ !he re#erence !o #alse
(ro(he!s who have *one o&! in!o !he world ;5 Jn 8'5@ $elon*s
here !oo, since i! heads &( !he whole sec!ion on !he s(iri! o# !he
an!ichris!.
.ro% !his 1&ick anal0sis o# !he onl0 $i$lical occ&rrences o#
!he !er% anti%+rist, we *e! !he i%(ression !ha! i! re#ers !o one
who o((oses ascri$in* divini!0 !o !he %an Jes&s o# NaAare!h.
This %a0 also i%(l0 a *nos!iciAin* o# !he idea o# !he Hhris!,
al!erin* i! #ro% !he ear!hl0 %essianic role &nders!ood in
Dales!inian J&dais% !o a heavenl0, divine role %ore in line
wi!h (ro!o)Gnos!ic e,(ec!a!ions. S&ch e,(ec!a!ions ke(! !he
h&%an and !he divine in shar(l0 dis!inc! ca!e*ories, on !he
ass&%(!ion !ha! an0!hin* %a!erial or ear!hl0 co&ld have no
(ar! in an0!hin* divine or s(iri!&al. .or John, se(ara!in* Jes&s
!he h&%an $ein* #ro% Hhris! !he e!ernal incarna!e God
des!ro0s !he hear! o# !he *os(el. In Johns own his!orical)social
con!e,!, drawin* !his dis!inc!ion (erha(s re(resen!s !he
&l!i%a!e o((osi!ion !o God and his (&r(oses. I! wo&ld no! have
re1&ired a lon* s!re!ch #or la!er e,e*e!es !o connec! !he
an!ichris! wi!h !he &l!i%a!e God)o((onen!s descri$ed in
Revela!ion, es(eciall0 i# i! was ass&%ed !ha! !he a&!hor o# !he
Johannine e(is!les and !he a&!hor o# Revela!ion were one and
!he sa%e (erson.
Ar!icles on 2an!ichris!3 in Bi$le dic!ionaries can (oin! &s !o
o!her $i$lical !rea!%en!s o# #i*&res like !he an!ichris!G i! is one
o# !he chie# services !ha! s&ch ar!icles o##er &s. Th&s, $esides
re#erences !o Revela!ion 5:, we %a0 #ind o!hers !o EAekiel :7L
:6 ;Go* o# -a*o*@ or !o Daniels 2a$o%ina!ion o# desola!ion3
;Dan 6'>O@. <e %a0 $e re#erred !o !he 2%an0 #alse (ro(he!s
and #alse chris!s3 in -ark 5: and -a!!hew >8, or !o Da&ls
2%an o# lawlessnessNson o# (erdi!ion3 in > Thessalonians >.
+ikewise %en!ioned will $e n&%ero&s relevan! e,!ra$i$lical
!radi!ions, $o!h Hhris!ian and Jewish. S&ch ar!icles %a0 also
!race !he idea !hro&*h s&$se1&en! his!or0 o# Hhris!ian
!heolo*0. .ro% all !his !here is discerni$le a #airl0 co%%on
!hread o# an escha!olo*ical #i*&re who o((oses ei!her God, or
!he re!&rnin* Hhris! ;!he an!ichris!@, or who se!s hi%sel# &( as
God or as !he Hhris! ;#alse chris!@. This dis!inc!ion in roles is
(erha(s wha! lies $ehind !he !wo $eas!s o# Revela!ion 5:. A!
an0 ra!e, !hese can $e seen as escha!olo*ical #i*&res.
.or John !he le!!er wri!er, !oo, !he an!ichris! is an
escha!olo*ical #i*&re, e,(ec!ed a! !he 2las! ho&r,3 $&! in his
o(inion, !he las! ho&r has alread0 arrived. In his view, an0one
$rash eno&*h !o den0 !he incarna!ion and !here$0 sever God
#ro% h&%ani!0 has !o $e !he an!ichris!, es(eciall0 when s&ch a
heres0 is %akin* s&ccess#&l inroads in!o his own
con*re*a!ions. In #ac!, he re*ards !he s(iri! o# !he an!ichris! as
(resen! a%on* !he an!ichris!s #ollowers in !he sa%e wa0 as !he
S(iri! o# Hhris! ;!he 2anoin!in*,3 5 Jn >'>OG (erha(s in con!ras!
!o (ro!o)Gnos!ic clai%s !o $ein* anoin!ed@ is (resen! a%on*
Hhris!ians. In !his, John is like !he %an who called in on a
radio !alk show !o sa0 !ha! he !ho&*h! !he s!a!e (olice sho&ld
s(end %ore o# !heir ener*ies chasin* down s&(er)s(eeders and
lane)weavers !han in !icke!in* (eo(le who drive si,!0 %iles (er
ho&r in a #i#!0)#ive)%iles)(er)ho&r Aone. As i! !&rned o&!, !he
caller had $een !icke!ed !hree !i%es recen!l0 #or !he la!!er. <e
o#!en a!!ri$&!e &niversal si*ni#icance !o o&r own (ersonal
iss&es. The in!eres!in* !hin* is !ha! !he S(iri! o# ins(ira!ion
honors Johns sense o# #r&s!ra!ion and challen*es &s !o see
how his 2o&!$&rs!3 #&nc!ions in #ac! as !he ins(ired <ord o#
God !o &s in o&r own si!&a!ions.
.or John, !hen, we see !ha!, while !here %a0 well co%e a
las! da0 when !he an!ichris! $ar ex%een%e will a((ear, !his evil
#i*&re has alread0 a((eared in s(iri! in !hose who o((ose
so&nd Hhris!olo*0 and e!hics. In !his sense, we who live in !he
(os!)Eas!er era are alread0 livin* in !he las! da0s. <e !h&s
a((aren!l0 have $i$lical warran! #or iden!i#0in* s(iri!s o#
an!ichris! a%on* &s !oda0. The (oin! here is si%(l0 !ha! $e#ore
we a$sol&!iAe a (ar!ic&lar res&l! o# 2localiAed3 e,e*esis, we
need !o $roaden !he $ase and co%(are !ha! res&l! wi!h o!her
!e,!s !o&chin* on !he sa%e or si%ilar iss&es, and !o cons&l! !he
$roader 2conversa!ion3 on !he s&$4ec!. The S(iri! reveals
hi%sel# !o !he ch&rch, no! 4&s! !o isola!ed individ&als wi!hin
!he ch&rch.
1,.3 EXEGESIS, PREACHING AND TEACHING
In addi!ion !o *a!herin* an e,(andin* sense o# !he lar*er
$i$lical)!heolo*ical con!e,!, we also acknowled*e !he s(ecial
relevance e,e*esis has #or ser%ons and !eachin*. I! is
i%(or!an! !o devo!e s(ace !o !his di%ension o# $i$lical
in!er(re!a!ion as well. <e can do !his in !he #or% o# (rovidin*
so%e s&**es!ions #or co%%&nica!in* e,e*e!ical res&l!s
!hro&*h (reachin* and !eachin*.
1E.3.1 Find the Word of God for Four "eople
.irs! and a$ove all else, o$serve !he disci(line o# (ra0er,
%edi!a!ion, o(enness and silence, as #&nda%en!al !o knowin*
wha! God wan!s 0o&, his s(okes(erson, !o (roclai% !o his
(eo(le on his $ehal#. In o!her words, !o not "e a1rai! to as-.
On !he o!her hand, !his does no! necessaril0 %ean !ha! 0o&
canno! devo!e !he ne,! si, %on!hs, (erha(s, !o a s0s!e%a!ic
s!&d0 o# -a!!hew or o# Ro%ans, 4&s! !o kee( !he e,e*e!ical $all
rollin*.
Second, %+oose a "i"i%a text. <h0 sho&ld we choose a
!e,!I I! is i%(or!an! !o (roclai% a $i$lical !e,!, $eca&se in !he
con!e,! o# !he ch&rch, (eo(le need !o hear !he <ord o# Go!,
no! 4&s! !he %&sin*s o# o!her (eo(le. O# co&rse, in a sense,
(reachin* and !eachin* is a kind o# %&sin*, $&! i! is in!ended
!o $e a disci(lined %&sin* ai%ed a! &nders!andin* wha! Go!
has !o sa0 in !he Scri(!&re. There are a! leas! !hree co%%on
wa0s !o (roceed in !he $&siness o# choosin* !e,!s.
5. 3onsi!er so&e s$e%i1i% nee! 0o& sense !ha! 0o&r (eo(le
have, and wi!h !his to$i% in %ind, sear%+ 1or an a$$ro$riate
text. The !o(ic %&s! not $e so%e o$no,io&s one !ha! o$vio&sl0
(er!ains !o one (erson or one *ro&( wi!hin !he con*re*a!ion
who% 0o& wish !o #lo*. To do !ha! is !o co&r! disas!er. I! o&*h!
ra!her !o s(eak !o $road $&! i%(or!an! iss&es !ha! a##ec! !he
li#e and callin* o# !he en!ire co%%&ni!0. .or e,a%(le, s&ch
!o(ics as %arria*e and #a%il0 rela!ionshi(s, *&il! and sha%e,
sel#)es!ee% and world h&n*er are likel0 candida!es. Avoid
haran*&in* !he con*re*a!ion on 0o&r (e! (eeves or #annin*
0o&r (eo(les collec!ive (re4&dices $0 har(in* on !o(ics a$o&!
which 0o& and !he0 alread0 a*ree ;like !he an!i)co%%&nis%
ser%ons o# (as! decades or !he an!i)sec&lar)h&%anis%
ser%ons o# %ore recen! !i%es@.
Do no! $e deceived howeverG !his is a ver0 di##ic&l!
endeavor. I! is no! as eas0 as 0o& %i*h! !hink !o selec! !e,!s
!ha! are a$$ro$riate to yo2r to$i%. The challen*e is !o choose
!e,!s dealin* direc!l0 wi!h !he !o(ic, i# (ossi$leG i# none can $e
#o&nd, !hen choose !e,!s !ha! deal direc!l0 wi!h !he dee(er
iss&es involved. 0ever &se a !e,! !ha! onl0 secondaril0 !o&ches
on !he s&$4ec!, or worse, has no!hin* a! all !o do wi!h !he
s&$4ec!, $&! !ha! con!ains a word or (hrase re%indin* 0o& o#
so%e as(ec! o# !he s&$4ec!. 9o&r %essa*e %&s! #oc&s on wha!
!he !e,! i!sel# #oc&ses on/ S&ch a %essa*e, or a series o# s&ch
%essa*es, re1&ires care#&l, lon*)ran*e (lannin*.
>. D&rs&e a t+ro2/+-t+e-"oo- series. This !echni1&e is
e,!re%el0 *ood disci(line, since i! #orces !he !rea!%en! o# !he
w+oe <ord o# God ;a! leas! as i! a((ears in !ha! $ook@. One o#
i!s chie# (ro$le%s is !ha! i! is no! alwa0s eas0 !o ad4&s! i! !o !he
ch&rch 0ear ;i# !ha! is i%(or!an! !o 0o&@. +ikewise, i! is no!
alwa0s a((ro(ria!e !o con*re*a!ional need ;al!ho&*h a !0(ical
con*re*a!ion has %an0 needs@, and i! can *e! !edio&s i# no!
handled (ro(erl0. Never!heless, (reachin* !hro&*h a (ar!ic&lar
$ook kee(s !he (as!orN!eacher #ro% *rowin* s!ale wi!h !he
sa%e old %essa*e week a#!er week. A$ove all, i! con!ri$&!es !o
!he *row!h o# !he sain!s, no! 4&s! !heir conversion.
<. Le%tionaries ;o#!en in !hree)0ear c0cles@ co%e down !o &s
as a rich and $ea&!i#&l worshi( !radi!ion, *eared !o !he ch&rch
0ear and &n#or!&na!el0 o#!en i*nored in evan*elical ch&rches.
O##erin* weekl0 selec!ions #ro% !he Gos(els, E(is!les, Old
Tes!a%en! and Dsal%s ;wi!h e,!ras #or s(ecial da0s@, !he0 lend
!he%selves !o a &ni#ied !he%e each week, aro&nd which one
can (lan an en!ire worshi( service. The0 are seasonall0
a((ro(ria!e, i# no! alwa0s a((ro(ria!e !o !he con*re*a!ional
need ;$&! !here are #o&r !e,!s !o choose #ro% each week@.
Disci(lined &se o# a lec!ionar0 #orces &s !o !rea! (assa*es we
%i*h! o!herwise i*nore. <h0, #or ins!ance, do we hear so #ew
Hhris!%as ser%ons on !he sla&*h!er o# !he innocen!s in
-a!!hew >'5JL57I On !he o!her hand, I have !o ad%i! !ha! no!
one o# !he several lec!ionaries I &se #ro% !he +&!heran
!radi!ion incl&des -a!!hew >'5JL57/ +ec!ionaries do no!
necessaril0 &se all Gos(el (arallels ei!her. S!ill, &sin* one does
solve !he on*oin* (ro$le% o# 2wha! !o (reach on !his week,3
which can ea! &( so %&ch o# a (ersons s!&d0 !i%e in !he
(as!ora!e. As a disci(line, !r0 s!ickin* !o !he Gos(els one 0ear,
e(is!les !he ne,! 0ear, and so on.
1E.3.2 +pply Four #$e%etical 8esults ,ith (are
Once 0o& have a !e,!, carr0 o&! an e,e*esis o# i! in order !o
decide wha! i! &eant. So&nd and care#&l e,e*esis, o# !he sor!
we have $een s!&d0in* in !his $ook, (rovides !he essen!ial
con!rol on a((lica!ion. These e,e*e!ical res&l!s are wha! 0o&
sho&ld now seek !o %ake relevan! !o !he (eo(le.
5. In !he #irs! (lace, !eter&ine +ow %2t2re-trans%en!ent
or +ow %2t2re-"o2n! yo2r exe/eti%a res2ts are.
De!er%inin* which ele%en! or #ea!&re $elon*s in which o#
!hese !wo ca!e*ories, or !o wha! de*ree, will alwa0s ins(ire
de$a!e. Iss&es s&ch as h&%an na!&re, Gods charac!er and
Gods (lan #or redee%in* !he world are ar*&a$l0 c&l!&re)
!ranscenden!. B&! Da&ls concern #or his cloak and (arch%en!
;> Ti% 8'5:@, ins!r&c!ions a$o&! slaver0, his view o# !he s!a!&s
o# wo%en in Horin!h and !he wearin* o# head coverin*s in
ch&rch will likel0 need !o $e re*arded as %ore c&l!&re)$o&nd.
<hen Da&l sa0s in 5 Horin!hians 55'5J !ha! he and !he ch&rches
have 2no o!her (rac!ice,3 i! is reasona$le !o ass&%e !ha! he
%a0 %ean %2t2ra (rac!ice. The i%(or!ance o# !his dis!inc!ion
is si%(l0 !ha! wha! is #airl0 de!er%ined !o $e c&l!&re)
!ranscenden! can $e a((lied across c&l!&res %ore or less
wi!ho&! ada(!a!ion. <ha! is #airl0 de!er%ined !o $e c&l!&re)
$o&nd will need !o $e ada(!ed !o o!her c&l!&res, i# in #ac! i! is
a((lica$le !here a! all. <e %a0 a*ree !ha! on so%e level 2all
scri(!&re is P &se#&l #or !eachin*, #or re(roo#, #or correc!ion,
and #or !rainin* in ri*h!eo&sness3 ;5 Ti% :'5J@. Tha! does no!
necessaril0 %ean, however, !ha! all o# i! is &se#&l in !he sa%e
wa0 or !o !he sa%e de*ree. Besides, when !hose words were
#irs! (enned, !he0 (ro$a$l0 re#erred onl0 !o wha! we now know
as !he Old Tes!a%en!. Tha! does no! %ean !ha! !he New
Tes!a%en! is not &se#&l #or !hese !hin*s, $&! onl0 !ha! we need
!o $e care#&l how we &nders!and wha! we read in Scri(!&re.
>. Second, seek and !hen !each or (reach !he &ain $oint o1
yo2r "i"i%a text. In !he (ara$le o# !he *ood Sa%ari!an ;+k
5?'>6L:O@, !he (oin! is !he de#ini!ion o# 2nei*h$or3Band in !he
con!e,! o# wha! i! !akes !o inheri! e!ernal li#eBra!her !han wha!
one sho&ld do #or a nei*h$or, even !ho&*h !he Sa%ari!an does
%odel nei*h$orliness. The %ain (oin! o# a !e,! %a0 $e !he
(rinci(le &nderl0in* a !i%e)$o&nd c&l!&ral varia$le. Da&ls
cons!rain!s on !eachin* $0 wo%en, #or e,a%(le, %a0 well have
$een in!ended !o eli%ina!e an &nnecessar0 c&l!&ral hindrance
!o !he *os(elG so%e wo%en were (erha(s le!!in* !heir newl0
#o&nd #reedo% carr0 !he% awa0 in a %anner c&l!&rall0
o##ensive !o !he lar*er co%%&ni!0. The si!&a!ion is (res&%a$l0
1&i!e di##eren! in con!e%(orar0 <es!ern c&l!&re;s@. The
i%(or!an! !he%e !o (reach in !ha! case wo&ld $e !he avoidance
o# &nnecessar0 c&l!&ral o$s!acles !o !he ch&rchs %ission,
whe!her a##ec!in* %en or wo%en, and no! (ar!ic&lar r&les and
re*&la!ions #or wo%ens leadershi( in !he ch&rch. .oc&s onl0
on wha! !he !e,! i!sel# #oc&ses on. I# 0o&r !e,! does no! #oc&s on
wha! 0o& wan! !o address, #ind a !e,! !ha! does, or chan*e yo2r
#oc&s.
:. Anow yo2r $eo$e. In a sense, e,e*e!icall0 anal0Ae 0o&r
a&dience. Be conscio&s o# !he co%%on h&%ani!0 0o&r (eo(le
share wi!h !he ori*inal a&diences and a&!hors. Bo!h *ro&(s
e,(erience s&ch !hin*s as #ear, insec&ri!0, (ride, l&s!, an*er,
*reed, ho(e, love, drea%s and %ore. On !he o!her hand, $e
e1&all0 conscio&s o# di##erences in c&l!&ral se!!in*s and iss&es.
Television, n&clear war, o##)shore drillin*, s&icide $o%$ers,
la$or s!rikes, ci*are!!es, ecolo*ical des!r&c!ion and so on ei!her
(la0ed no role in !he #irs!)cen!&r0 world a! all, or i# !he0 did,
!he0 %a0 no! have carried !he sa%e conno!a!ions #or
Hhris!ians !hen as !he0 do !oda0. Re%e%$er !ha! 0o&r (eo(le
are like 0o&. Re%e%$er !ha! 0o& need !o s(eak !o !he real
iss&es o# t+eir lives, and !here#ore 0o& need !o -now 0o&r
(eo(le. Do no! !hink 0o& can 4&s!i#0 alwa0s isola!in* 0o&rsel# in
0o&r s!&d0. On !he o!her hand, 0o& canno! e,(ec! !o #eed 0o&r
(eo(le wit+o2t re*&larl0 isola!in* 0o&rsel# in 0o&r s!&d0. I!s a
!wo)sided her%ene&!ical !ask re1&irin* e##ec!ive $alance. I! is
no! eas0, $&! nei!her is i! i%(ossi$le, and i! is essen!ial #or !he
heal!h o# !he ch&rch.
8. A((l0 !he <ord o# God !o t+e sit2ation yo2r $eo$e an!
yo2 are 1a%in/. On !he one hand, avoid (resen!in* a %erel0
e,e*e!ical s!&d0 wi!ho&! re#erence !o 0o&r (eo(les needG on
!he o!her hand, avoid %erel0 addressin* (eo(les need wi!ho&!
res(onsi$le a((lica!ion o# e,e*e!ical res&l!s. <e need a
%essa*e, $&! we need a %essa*e #ro% Go!. One o# %0 #irs!
ser%ons a#!er #inishin* %0 se%inar0 work was on +&ke 5'5L8G
I delivered a $rillian!l0 irrelevan! and s!&nnin*l0 $orin* lec!&re
on !he in!rod&c!or0 iss&es o# a&!horshi(, da!e, his!orio*ra(h0,
S0no(!ic (ro$le% and so on. I! was an e,1&isi!e disas!er. Be
care#&l !o 2co%#or! !he a##lic!ed and !o a##lic! !he co%#or!a$le.3
So%e !radi!ions call !his !he dis!inc!ion $e!ween law, which
de%ands, convic!s and o##ers no ho(e, and *os(el, which
#or*ives, res&rrec!s and o##ers no!hin* $&! ho(e. Avoid
co%#or!in* !he co%#or!a$le and a##lic!in* !he a##lic!edBwhich
is !he %e!hodolo*0 o# hell. Be candidG le! 0o&r (eo(le see 0o&
as a #ellow sinner. This #rees !he% !o ad%i! t+eir sin and
#ail&re. 2I# !he (as!or isn! (er#ec!, wh0 do I have !o (re!end I
a%I3 One o# !he %os! (o!en! killers o# a %inis!r0s
e##ec!iveness is a (os!&re o# (as!oral (er#ec!ion. Be v&lnera$le
and !rans(aren!, ass&rin* 0o&r (eo(le !he0 do no! need !o
$eco%e as *ood as 0o& are in order !o #ind *race wi!h God.
Nei!her do 0o&, #or !ha! %a!!er.
1E.3.3 "aca%e Four Ser&ons #ffecti*ely
One o# !he %ore !ra*ic !hin*s in !he con!e%(orar0 ch&rch is
!he (acka*in* o# *ood solid $i$lical e,(osi!ion and !eachin* in
d&ll, ra!ionalis!ic, (ro(osi!ional, lec!&re)s!0le, !hree)(oin!
ser%ons. 9o& %a0 (ossi$l0 reach (eo(les heads wi!h s&ch
(resen!a!ionsBeven!&all0, and !ha!s no! $ad. B&! (reachin*
seeks !o %o!iva!e res(onse o# hear! and will. S!or0!ellin* is
o#!en a #ar %ore e##ec!ive %eans o# acco%(lishin* !ha!
(&r(ose. In view o# !his, I reco%%end !he #ollowin* as one
(ossi$le wa0 !o s!r&c!&re a ser%on.
5. O(en wi!h a well)!old s!or0 #ro% 0o&r own li#e, es(eciall0
a #&nn0 one, &sin* i! !o ill&s!ra!e !he %ain (oin! o# !he ser%on
;which i!sel# sho&ld corres(ond wi!h !he %ain (oin! o# 0o&r
!e,!@. I! is no! necessar0 !ha! !he connec!ion $e!ween 0o&r
s!or0 and !he !e,! $e i%%edia!el0 o$vio&s. Be care#&l !o $e
discree! and !o avoid e%$arrassin* an0one in 0o&r a&dience
;like 0o&r s(o&se or children@, $&! show 0o&rsel# as h&%an and
v&lnera$le.
>. E,(lain !he !e,! %ore or less e,e*e!icall0. Avoid $ein*
!oo !echnical, and do no! !r0 !o cover ever0!hin*. Develo( !he
%ain (oin! #ro% !he (ers(ec!ive o# !he ori*inal readers,
concl&din* wi!h !he 2dis!illed3 core o# !he !e,!, !he one)
sen!ence lo*ic)con!en! s!a!e%en! ;see cha(!er si,@ in
in!eres!in* dress. Use i%a*ina!ive descri(!ions ;Jes&s $rown
e0es, d&s!0 *ar%en!s@. I! is o#!en e##ec!ive !o 2re)%0!holo*iAe3
!he !e,! in 0o&r e,(lana!ions, !alkin*, #or ins!ance, a$o&! Dila!e
as a !hree)(ack)a)da0 %an, (&##in* awa0 in !he $ack o# a
li%o&sine on his wa0 !o work ;!o ci!e an e,a%(le #ro%
.rederick B&echner@.
5
2Re)%0!holo*iAin*3 !he Scri(!&re is
so%e!hin* like !he li!erar0 !echni1&e o# 2swi!chin*3 ;as when
*o&eo an! ,2iet is redone as Berns!eins Westsi!e 7tory, or
3yrano !e Ber/era% rea((ears as S!eve -ar!ins *oxanne@.
This can $e e##ec!ive, (rovided 0o&r a&dience sees !he new
2%0!h3 as relevan!, !ha! 0o& do no! lose si*h! o# !he serio&sness
5

.rederick B&echner, @ein/ t+e @r2t+# @+e Gos$e as @ra/e!y,
3o&e!y, an! 4airy @ae ;New 9ork' Car(er W Row, 56OO@, (. 6.
o# 0o&r (&r(ose, and !ha! 0o& do no! overdo i!. +ike %a(le
s0r&( on a Bel*ian wa##le, &se i! s(arin*l0.
:. 2A((l03 !he !eachin* o# !he !e,! !o !he vario&s si!&a!ions
o# !he con*re*a!ion in !heir own li#e se!!in*. Tie i! in wi!h !he
o(enin* ill&s!ra!ion and call #or a res(onse ;or a! leas! i%(l0 a
call #or res(onse@. This 2call3 %a0 si%(l0 $e an enco&ra*e%en!
!o have con#idence in Gods &!!erl0 #ree and no)s!rin*s)
a!!ached *race, or i! %a0 $e a *en&ine al!ar call.
8. S&((l0 0o&r ser%on wi!h a ca!ch0, in!ri*&in* !i!le. One
%e!hod o# holdin* 0o&r (eo(les a!!en!ion is !o kee( !he%
*&essin* #or a while, &n!il 0o& 2sa!is#03 !he% wi!h !he
resol&!ion. S!ar! wi!h !he !i!le. Ti!les like 2-r. Do!a!o Cead,3
2The ^Real Nowhere -an,3 2Sin*in* !o Cells An*els,3 2-0
+over Is Ho%in* in a 568? Dackard,3 and 2Raisin* Nor!h
Dako!a,3 %a0 hel( !o s!ir &( c&riosi!0 and e,(ec!a!ion. One o#
%0 #avori!e ser%on !i!les ;i!s no! %ine/@, &sed #or a %essa*e
on !he Gadarene de%oniac, is 2Givin* !he Di*s a Der%anen!
<ave.3 Drovided !he connec!ion $e!ween !he !i!le and !he
%essa*e $eco%es clear a! so%e (oin!, !he a&dience
e,(eriences a cer!ain sense o# sa!is#ac!ion 4&s! #ro% !ha!.
Re%e%$er !ha! color, candor, h&%or and h&%an in!eres! *e!
!hro&*h !o (eo(le #ar %ore e##ec!ivel0 !han s!rai*h!)laced,
didac!ic lec!&res. Take a lesson #ro% Jes&s own s!0le.
1,.4 EXEGESIS FOR LIFE
<e can ro&nd o&! !his cha(!er, and !he $ook, wi!h so%e
2realis!ic3 s&**es!ions #or a li#elon* (rac!ice o# re*&lar,
res(onsi$le e,e*esis, a li#e!i%e o# kee(in* !he e,e*e!ical $all
rollin*. The 2!rick3 is !o %ain!ain a $alance $e!ween as(ira!ion
and reali!0, $e!ween e,(ec!a!ion and a$ili!0. <e %i*h! wan! !o
do an in!ense s!r&c!&ral anal0sis o# Ce$rews >LJ, $&! a series
o# !ra*edies in !he ch&rch #a%il0 has %ade !ha! i%(ossi$le !his
%on!hG i! will have !o wai! &n!il ne,! %on!h. The reali!0 o# o&r
own li#e)circ&%s!ances %a0 no! alwa0s ;or ever@ allow &s !o
a!!ain !he level o# e,e*e!ical (rod&c!ivi!0 !o which we %a0
as(ire. O&r a$ili!ies a! a *iven s!a*e o# o&r on*oin*
develo(%en! %a0 no! ena$le &s !o sa!is#0 !he e,e*e!ical
e,(ec!a!ions ot+ers %a0 have #or &s. <e are who we are, and
we %&s! no! a*oniAe over i! i# we are no! wha! we, or !hose
o!hers, wish we were. Tha! sor! o# a*on0 cri((les &s,
(reven!in* &s #ro% doin* even wha! we are indeed a$le !o do.
Be con!en! !o do wha!ever is realis!ic #or 0o&. =ee( !he
e,e*e!ical $all rollin* wi!h a !a( now, wi!h a n&d*e ne,! week,
and i# 0o& are l&ck0, wi!h a *en&ine shove !he week a#!er !ha!B
onl0, kee( !he $all rollin*. The #ollowin* !en s&**es!ions, lis!ed
in no (ar!ic&lar order, %a0 (rovide so%e *&idance in !his
res(ec!. Dick an0 or as %an0 as work #or 0o&. Add o!hers no!
lis!ed, i# 0o& #ind !he%. A$ove all, %ain!ain a $alance $e!ween
(ersis!ence and realis%. As 0o& (ersis!, a! wha!ever level 0o&
can, 0o& will #ind 0o&rsel# *rowin* in a$ili!0 and skill,
a$sor$in* li#e #ro% !he <ord o# +i#e, and (assin* i! alon* !o
0o&r (eo(le, alwa0s. E,e*esis is #or li#e.
5. Be #orever workin* wi!h so%e $i$lical $ook. S!&d0
Gala!ians #or si, %on!hs (erha(s. Se! a $o&ndar0, and ei!her
$&d*e! o&! !he $ook wi!hin !ha! $o&ndar0, or (&rs&e !he s!&d0
in as %&ch de!ail as 0o& wish, $&! 1&i! when 0o& reach !he
$o&ndar0 0o& se! #or 0o&rsel#.
>. Trea! 0o&rsel# !o readin* !hro&*h one or !wo si*ni#ican!
noncanonical (ri%ar0 !e,!s each 0ear, (erha(s a! so%e s(ecial
occasion like +en! or 0o&r $ir!hda0. This will kee( 0o&
da$$lin* in !he ancien! world o# !he Bi$le, %akin* 0o&
(er(e!&all0 aware o# i!s i%(or!ance and %akin* 0o&
increasin*l0 #a%iliar wi!h i!s charac!er. 9o& will $e s&r(rised
how even !his 2li!!le3 e,(os&re will $e*in !o enli*h!en 0o&r
&nders!andin* o# $i$lical !e,!s.
:. Do no! $e disco&ra*ed i# 0o& canno! a!!ain 0o&r *oals.
Si%(l0 acce(! !he #ac!, rese! 0o&r *oals, and s!ar! #resh. There
is no li%i! on !he n&%$er o# !i%es 0o& %a0 s!ar! over.
8. I# 0o& have s!&died !he $i$lical lan*&a*es, do a li!!le
Greek or Ce$rew readin* each week, or a! leas! each %on!h.
9o& (ro$a$l0 s(en! an enor%o&s a%o&n! o# e##or! and !i%e
;no! !o %en!ion %one0@ in learnin* !hose lan*&a*es. 9o&r
(ro#essors cer!ainl0 did in !eachin* !he%. -an0 si*nals o# a
!e,!s s!r&c!&re and o# i!s in!errela!ionshi( wi!h o!her !e,!s are
e%$edded in !he (ec&liari!ies o# !he ori*inal lan*&a*e, o#!en in
wa0s !ha! do no! readil0 !ransla!e in!o En*lish. =ee( 0o&rsel#
conversan! wi!h !he ori*inal lan*&a*es a! leas! a! so%e level.
K. Read a si*ni#ican! ;heav0)d&!0@ e,e*e!icall0 $ased $ook
ever0 0ear or !wo. N. T. <ri*h!s %a4or vol&%es on Hhris!ian
ori*ins and !he 1&es!ion o# God re(resen! so%e *ood
e,a%(les.
>
Or work !hro&*h a classic !rea!%en! o# New
Tes!a%en! !heolo*0, s&ch as Geor*e Eldon +adds.
:
J. Use co%%en!aries s(arin*l0, &nless 0o& have !he
!e%(era%en! #or !ha! *enre. -0 own e,(erience, which %a0
well $e a!0(ical, is !ha! readin* !hro&*h a co%%en!ar0 soon
$eco%es !edio&s, %akin* %e even less %o!iva!ed !o (&rs&e !he
e,e*e!ical !ask !han I %a0 alread0 $e as a res&l! o# %0 own
laAiness. On !he o!her hand, !here is scarcel0 a $e!!er, %ore
accessi$le so&rce o# 2dialo*&e3 on an e,e*e!ical (oin! !han
wha! we %i*h! #ind a%on* a *ood co%%en!ar0s re%arks on a
(ar!ic&lar (assa*e. In an0 case, aways *ive 0o&rsel# a chance
!o &nders!and a !e,! $e#ore 0o& resor! !o co%%en!aries. 9o&
have as %&ch na!ive a$ili!0 !o &nders!and, *iven !he !ools o#
!he !rade and 0o&r own co%%on sense, as does an0 (&$lished
co%%en!a!or.
O. Browse rando%l0 in $i$lical dic!ionaries. Si! down
occasionall0 and read #or an ho&r, di((in* here and !here in!o
an ar!icle on Ha(erna&% or so%e!hin* on dra*ons or !he
%e!a(horical i%a*e o# !he co%%&ni!0 well. The weal!h o#
in#or%a!ion a! o&r #in*er!i(s in dic!ionaries is as!onishin*. Ge!
in!o !he ha$i! o# nosin* aro&nd in i!, even 4&s! #or #&n.
7. Join a s!&d0 *ro&(. I! %a0 $e a *ro&( o# (eo(le who wan!
!o read Greek or Ce$rew. I! co&ld $e a collec!ion o# la0 (eo(le
>

N. T. <ri*h!, @+e 0ew @esta&ent an! t+e Peo$e o1 Go!
;-innea(olis' .or!ress, 566>@G ,es2s an! t+e Vi%tory o1 Go! ;-innea(olis'
.or!ress, 566J@G @+e *es2rre%tion o1 t+e 7on o1 Go! ;-innea(olis' .or!ress,
>??:@.
:

Geor*e Eldon +add, . @+eoo/y o1 t+e 0ew @esta&ent, rev. ed.
;Grand Ra(ids' Eerd%ans, 566:@.
#ro% 0o&r ch&rch, who %ee! #or $reak#as! weekl0 a! Bo$s Bi*
Bo0 and disc&ss !he ser%on !e,! #or !he co%in* week. I! co&ld
involve o!her local (as!ors who covenan! !o (reach #ro% !he
sa%e !e,! each week. Honsider *a!herin* an online *ro&( o#
#ar)#l&n* (reachers #or !he sa%e (&r(ose. In an0 o# !hese or
si%ilar cases, !he $ene#i! is an incarna!ed %ani#es!a!ion o# !he
Bod0 o# Hhris!, whose %e%$ers lis!en !o each o!her and
s!r&**le !o*e!her wi!h !he <ord o# +i#e.
6. As 0o& can a##ord i!, o$!ain a *ood elec!ronic Bi$le
research (ro*ra%, (erha(s one o# !he !hree %en!ioned in
cha(!er !wo ;sec!ion >.: on concordances@. =ee( i! o(en and
r&nnin* in !he $ack*ro&nd o# 0o&r co%(&!er whenever 0o& are
a! work, so !ha! i# a 1&es!ion (o(s &(, 0o& can i%%edia!el0
check i! o&!. I! is a%aAin* wha! we can learn wi!h 4&s! a #ew
ke0s!rokes. In a (ro%o!ional $l&r$ #or one o# !hese (ro*ra%s,
New Tes!a%en! scholar Hrai* Evans once said !ha! his
elec!ronic Bi$le so#!ware was !he #irs! !hin* he !&rned on in !he
%ornin* and !he las! !hin* he !&rned o## a! !he end o# !he da0.
5?. Take a re#resher co&rse. Derha(s a se%inar0 in 0o&r
vicini!0 o##ers s(ecial ra!es #or local (as!ors. Honsider !ravelin*
ever0 co&(le o# 0ears !o !ake in an e,e*e!ical con#erence or
se%inar in so%e dis!an! (lace, (erha(s a! 0o&r al%a %a!er.
Even i# 0o& a!!end so%e!hin* $ased on an e,e*e!ical a((roach
!ha! %akes 0o& &nco%#or!a$le, re4oice in !he #ac! !ha! 0o&r
%ind is $ein* s!re!ched. Ei!her wa0, #resh ideas will s!i%&la!e
0o&r !hinkin* and (rovide (eriodic re4&vena!ion #or 0o&r
li#elon* callin* !o $e an e,(osi!or o# !he <ord o# God.
J&s! re%e%$er never !o overload 0o&rsel# $&! alwa0s !o
kee( !he $all rollin*, however slowl0. Harve o&! a li!!le
2e,e*e!ical3 !i%e #or 0o&rsel# each week, however shor!, and
s!ick !o i! de!er%inedl0. S!rive no! #or (er#ec!ion, $&! #or
(ersis!ence. I can al%os! (ro%ise 0o& !ha! (er#ec!ion will
never co%e, de(endin* on how 0o& wish !o de#ine (er#ec!ion.
No %a!!er how 0o& de#ine i!, 0o& will a((roach i! onl0 !hro&*h
(ersis!ence. I won! *o so #ar as !o a((l0 !o !he e,e*e!ical !ask
!he hackne0ed (hrase, 2!here is no hi*her callin*.3 Tha! wo&ld
$e* a whole hos! o# 1&es!ions, like 2no hi*her #or who%I3
Never!heless, I a% convinced $e0ond all do&$! !ha! #ai!h#&l
e,e*esis o# Scri(!&re is indis(ensa$le !o !he #&ll)$odied li#e o#
!he ch&rch, a! leas! on !his side o# Jordan. I# !he !rained
e,e*e!es will no! s&((l0 i!, who willBor ra!her, who is
s&((l0in* i!I I! is a #ri*h!enin* 1&es!ion. There %a0 or %a0 no!
$e an0 2hi*her callin*,3 $&! i! is hi*h eno&*h. I# God has called
0o& !o $e an e,e*e!e, $e an e,e*e!e #or li#e.