While intelligence is one of the most talked about subjects within psychology, there is no standard definition of what exactly

constitutes 'intelligence.' Some researchers

have suggested that intelligence is a single, general ability, while other believe that intelligence encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills and talents.

The following are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged during the last 100 years.
Charles Spearman - General Intelligence:
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945) described a concept he referred to as general intelligence, or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor
analysis to to examine a number of mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on these tests were remarkably similar. People who performed well on one
cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded that intelligence is general
cognitive ability that could be measured and numerically expressed.
Louis L. Thurstone - Primary Mental Abilities:
Psychologist Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused
on seven different "primary mental abilities." The abilities that he described were:
Verbal comprehension
Reasoning
Perceptual speed
Numerical ability
Word fluency
Associative memory
Spatial visualization
Howard Gardner - Multiple Intelligences:
One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Instead of focusing on the analysis of test scores, Gardner proposed that
numerical expressions of human intelligence are not a full and accurate depiction of people's abilities. His theory describes eight distinct intelligences that are based on
skills and abilities that are valued within different cultures.
The eight intelligences Gardner described are:
Visual-spatial Intelligence
Verbal-linguistic Intelligence
Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence
Logical-mathematical Intelligence
Interpersonal Intelligence
Musical Intelligence
Intra personal Intelligence
Naturalistic Intelligence
Robert Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence:
Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to, selection and shaping of, real-world environments relevant to
ones life." While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general ability, he instead suggested some of Gardner's intelligences are
better viewed as individual talents.
Sternberg proposed what he refers to as 'successful intelligence,' which is comprised of three different factors:
Analytical intelligence: This component refers to problem-solving abilities.


Creative intelligence: This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to deal with new situations using past experiences and current skills.


Practical intelligence: This element refers to the ability to adapt to a changing environment.
Final Thoughts:
While there has been considerable debate over the exact nature of intelligence, no definitive conceptualization has emerged. Today, psychologists often account for the
many different theoretical viewpoints when discussing intelligence and acknowledge that this debate is ongoing.


Mental retardation (MR) is a condition diagnosed before age 18, usually in infancy or prior to birth, that includes below-
average general intellectual function, and a lack of the skills necessary for daily living. When onset occurs at age 18 or
after, it is called dementia, which can coexist with an MR diagnosis. Intelligence level as determined by individual standard
assessment is below 70, and the ability to adapt to the demands of normal life is impaired. This is important because it
distinguishes a diagnosis of MR from individuals with low IQ scores who are able to adapt to the demands of everyday life.
Education, job training, support from family, and individual characteristics such as motivation and personality can all
contribute to the ability of individuals with MR to adapt.
Other behavioral traits associated with MR (but not deemed criteria for an MR diagnosis) include aggression, dependency,
impulsivity, passivity, self-injury, stubbornness, low self-esteem, and low frustration tolerance. Some may also exhibit mood
disorders such as psychotic disorders and attention difficulties, though others are pleasant, otherwise healthy individuals.
Sometimes physical traits, like shortness in stature and malformation of facial elements, can set individuals with MR apart,
while others may have a normal appearance.
Mental retardation affects about 1 percent to 3 percent of the population.
SYMPTOMS
Failure to meet intellectual developmental markers
Persistence of infantile behavior
Lack of curiosity
Decreased learning ability
Inability to meet educational demands of school
Deviations in normal adaptive behaviors depend on the severity of the condition. Mild retardation may be associated with a
lack of curiosity and quiet behavior. Severe mental retardation is associated with infantile behavior throughout life.
CAUSES
Causes of mental retardation are numerous, but a specific reason for mental retardation is determined in only 25 percent of
cases.
Failure to adapt normally and grow intellectually may become apparent early in life or, in the case of mild retardation, may
not become recognizable until school age or later. An assessment of age-appropriate adaptive behaviors can be made by
the use of developmental screening tests. The failure to achieve developmental milestones is suggestive of mental
retardation.
A family may suspect mental retardation if motor skills, language skills, and self-help skills do not seem to be developing in
a child or are developing far more slowly than among the child's peers.
The degree of impairment from mental retardation ranges widely, from profound impairment to mild or borderline
retardation. Less emphasis is now placed on degree of retardation and more on the amount of intervention and care
required for daily life.
Causes of mental retardation can be roughly broken down into several categories:
unexplained (the largest category)
trauma (prenatal and postnatal) such as oxygen deprivation before, during or after birth
infection (congenital and postnatal)
Chromosomal abnormalities
Genetic abnormalities and inherited metabolic disorders
metabolic disorders
toxins such as lead or mercury poisoning
nutritional deficits such as severe malnutrition
environment
TREAMENTS
In order to develop an appropriate treatment plan, an assessment of age-appropriate adaptive behaviors should be made
using developmental screening tests. The objectives of these tests are to determine which developmental milestones have
been missed. The primary goal of treatment is to develop the person's potential to the fullest. Special education and
training may begin as early as infancy. Attention is given to social skills to help the person function as normally as possible.
It is important for a specialist to evaluate the person for coexisting affective disorders that may require treatment.
Behavioral approaches are important in understanding and working with mentally retarded individuals.
Extremes of Intelligence: Mental Retardation and Giftedness
No matter how we choose to define and assess intelligence, it is true that there will be a wide range of
individual differences. For example, the psychometric approaches compare people's scores to averages of
others of the same chronological age, so most people by definition show average intelligence scores. But
what about those whose IQ scores are significantly below or above average? What outcomes are common
for these individuals?
Mental Retardation
Children with mental retardation learn more slowly than other children, have more difficulty solving
problems, and show language and communication deficits. As a result, they perform less well in school and
have more difficulty making friends and engaging in social activities. With special services and support,
children with mild-to-moderate levels of retardation can adjust to many of the normal challenges in life.
They can attend regular classrooms, learn to care for themselves, and develop friendships with peers. With
more severe levels of retardation, a child may need extensive support merely to negotiate everyday
activities such as brushing teeth and getting dressed. Approximately 2 to 3% of the U.S. population has
mental retardation. There are three components to the formal definition of mental retardation (MR):
1. below-normal intellectual functioning (usually indicated by an IQ of less than 70 or 75);
2. deficits in adaptive behavior, the daily activities required for personal and social independence (e.g., communicating needs to
others, eating, dressing, grooming, toileting, following rules, and working and playing with others); and
3. an onset early in life (before age 18) (Hodapp & Dykens, 2003).
Literally thousands of biological and environmental factors can cause mental retardation. The most severe
forms of MR tend to result from genetic disorders. Down syndrome and fragile X syndrome are the two
most common types of genetic disorders that cause mental retardation. Together these two disorders alone
affect 1 in every 500 children born, and more than 700 other genetic diseases also can contribute to MR
(Hodapp & Dykens, 2003). Mental retardation can also result from prenatal damage to the brain and
nervous system by toxins such as alcohol and drugs. Prenatal alcohol exposure is the leading known cause
of mental retardation in the United States (Abel & Sokol, 1987; Institute of Medicine, 1996). MR can also
occur when infants suffer oxygen deprivation or other traumas during birth, and when they are born
prematurely.
After children are born, numerous factors in the environment can retard mental development. The best-
known environmental factors related to MR include exposure to lead and other toxins, poor nutrition, lack
of stimulation, and parents who are illiterate or mentally retarded themselves. Rates of mental retardation
are higher among children living in poverty, minority children, and males (Hodapp & Dykens, 2003). Mental
health researchers often refer to retardation caused by lack of educational opportunity and stimulation as
cultural-familial retardation. Mental retardation also can have multiple causes. For example, children may
inherit low intelligence from their parents; on top of this, they may suffer poor nutrition, and their parents
may fail to provide a stimulating learning environment. When both parents have mental retardation, the
odds are more than 40% that their children will also have MR. The odds drop to 20% when only one parent
has MR and to less than 10% when neither parent has MR (Mash & Wolfe, 2005).
Approximately 85% of people with mental retardation are in the mild category (Mash & Wolfe, 2005).
Toddlers and preschoolers with mild MR usually show only small delays. When they reach early elementary
school, however, they fall behind in academic subjects. With some special education and support, these
children can learn up to the sixth- or seventh-grade level. They may have only minor problems with peers
and other social relationships, and after finishing school they can live and work independently or with a
modest amount of supervision. At the other end of the scale, 1 to 2% of all people with mental retardation
are in the profound category. As infants, they show serious delays in sensory and motor functions, and by
the age of 4 they are still responding like typical 1-year-olds (Mash & Wolfe, 2005). These children need
considerable training to learn to perform self-care activities such as eating, dressing, and toileting. They
will need lifelong care. At present, most people with profound MR in the United States eventually go to live
in group homes or residential facilities. Almost all cases of profound MR have a genetic or biological cause.
There are several things family members and other people can do to help children with mental retardation
improve the quality of their lives (Mash & Wolfe, 2005; Ramey & Ramey, 1992). They can encourage
children with MR to explore the environment so they can learn and gather information, and work with them
on basic learning skills such as labeling, sorting, and comparing objects. Children with MR need consistent
care from a responsible adultsomeone they can trust and depend on. Caregivers can also help by
celebrating the achievements and developmental milestones of children with MR, and protect them from
harmful teasing, punishment, and criticism. None of these steps can erase the retardation, but they can go
a long way i+++n helping the child live a more happy and satisfying life.
Gifted and Talented Children
Gifted (or talented) children show achievement that is well above average in one or more areasusually in
language, math, music, art, or athletics. Some children are globally gifted: They show exceptional talent in
all areas. Other children are unevenly gifted: They are exceptional in one or two areas but are at (or
below) average levels in others. While a high IQ score may be one indicator of giftedness, it is not the only
one; some talent areas are not included on intelligence tests, and such tests do not consider a child's
cultural context when used as indicators of talent (Sternberg, 2007). Winner (1996) describes three
characteristics that are typical of gifted (or talented) children:
Gifted children are precocious. They begin learning early and progress faster than others.
Gifted children march to their own drummer. They don't need much assistance to master information in their favorite subjects.
They often teach themselves, have their own ways of learning, organizing, and sorting information; and they don't always conform
to the conventional learning methods of schools.
Gifted children have a rage to masteran intense craving for information and an obsessive need to make sense out of their favorite
topics. They devour information, spend endless hours on their chosen subjects, and rarely engage in any other pursuits. Parents
don't push them to achieve; instead, gifted children push their parents for more materials and stimulation.
One of the most ambitious longitudinal studies in history was begun by Lewis Terman in 1921 to study the
development of highly gifted individuals. Contrary to common stereotypes, Terman found that gifted and
talented individuals were not neurotic, frail, eccentric, or emotionally sensitive individuals. Instead, they
were larger, healthier, and generally more well-adjusted than most other children. Overall, they tended to
live longer, enjoy better health, have a lower divorce rate, and be happier than most people (Shurkin,
1992; Terman, 1925). More recent research has found that gifted and talented adolescents are more
focused in school, spend much of their free time working in their talent areas, and spend more time alone
than their "average" peers. Their parents tend to have more education, and their families have higher
incomes, as well as more supportive and positive family environments. For example, most talented
teenagers rate their family interactions as more affectionate, cohesive, flexible, and happy than other
students (Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, 1997; Shurkin, 1992; Terman, 1925). If others had these
benefits, how many more would show exceptional talent?