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Mastering Chemistry Homework:

Assignment 1 closes for credit on
Tuesday (9-2-2014) at 11:00PM
Assignment 2 will open today/tomorrow.
D2L announcement will be made when it is
active
Today:
Isotopic Abundance
Begin Chapter 2:
Precision and Accuracy
Density, Energy, and its units
Dimensional Analysis and problem solving
Lecture 8-29-2014
CHMY 141: Dr. Andy Frame
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Adaptive Learning Follow-up in Mastering
Chemistry
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Homework 1 dues Tuesday night at 11:00 PM
The Adaptive Learning Follow-up is due 2 days
after the main (parent) assignment.
It is worth credit points (not optional)
You can test out of it (and get the points) if you
get > 95% of the main assignment correct.
It is designed to reinforce topics and help
develop the skills you missed in the main
assignment.
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Atomic Mass:
The Average Mass of an Elements Atoms
1 amu = exactly 1/12
th
of a neutral carbon-12 atom.
Atomic mass is sometimes called atomic weight or
standard atomic weight.
The atomic mass of each element is directly beneath
the elements symbol in the periodic table.
The atomic mass of an element represents the
average mass of the isotopes that compose that
element.
It is a weighted value based on the elements
natural abundance of each isotope.
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Atomic Mass

In general, we calculate the atomic mass
with the following equation:
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Atomic Mass: Problem
Naturally occurring chlorine consists of 75.77%
chlorine-35 atoms (mass 34.97 amu) and
24.23% chlorine-37 atoms (mass 36.97 amu).
Calculate chlorines atomic mass.

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Atomic Mass: Answer to the Problem
Naturally occurring chlorine consists of 75.77%
chlorine-35 atoms (mass 34.97 amu) and 24.23%
chlorine-37 atoms (mass 36.97 amu).
Solution:
Convert the percent abundance to decimal
form and multiply it with its isotopic mass:
Cl-37 = 0.2423 (36.97 amu) = 8.9578 amu
Cl-35 = 0.7577 (34.97 amu) = 26.4968 amu
Atomic mass Cl = 8.9578 + 26.4968 = 35.45 amu
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Mass Spectrometry: Measuring the
Mass of Atoms and Molecules
The masses of atoms
and the percent
abundances of isotopes
of elements are
measured using mass
spectrometrya
technique that separates
particles according to
their mass.
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75.77% :chlorine-35 atoms
24.23% :chlorine-37 atoms
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Mass Spectrometry Instrument
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Chapter 2:Measurement, Problem
Solving, and the Mole Concept

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The Units of Measurement
Units are quantities used to specify
measurements, which are critical in chemistry.

The two most common unit systems are as
follows:
Metric system, used in most of the world
English system, used in the United States

Scientists use the International System of
Units (SI), which is based on the metric system.
The abbreviation SI comes from the French phrase Systme
International dUnits.
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The Standard Units
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Memorize the metric system.
Uncommon English conversion factors will be given on an exam.
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Units of Length
1 kilometer (km) = ? meters (m)
1 meter (m) = ? centimeters (cm)
1 centimeter (cm) = ? millimeter (mm)
1 nanometer (nm) = 1.0 x 10
-9
meter
1 picometer (pm) = 1.0 x 10
-12
meter

OH bond distance =
9.58 x 10
-11
m
9.58 x 10
-9
cm
0.0958 nm
95.8 pm
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Accuracy refers to how close the measured
value is to the actual value.
Reliability of Measurements:
Precision and Accuracy
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Precision refers to
how close a series
of measurements
are to one another
or how
reproducible they
are.
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Precision and Accuracy
Measurements are said to be
precise if they are consistent with one another;
accurate only if they are close to the actual value.

Scientific measurements are reported so that every digit
is certain with the exception of the last digit, which is
estimated.
Consider the following reported value of 5.213:
The first three digits are certain; the last digit is
estimated.
5.213
Known with certainty
Estimated value
(includes the error
in the number)
See example 2.1
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Precision and Accuracy: An Illustration Problem
Consider the results of three students who repeatedly
weighed a lead block known to have a true mass of 10.00 g.








From the above data, what can you conclude about each of
the students recorded data? We need to analyze it first
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Precision and Accuracy: An Illustration Problem
Lead block known to have a true mass of 10.00 g
Student As results are both inaccurate (not close to the true value)
and imprecise (not consistent with one another).
Random error is an error that has equal probability of being
too high or too low.
Student Bs results are precise (close to one another in value) but
inaccurate.
Systematic error is an error that tends toward being either too
high or too low.
Student Cs results display little systematic error or random error.
Thus, the data set is both accurate and precise.

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Precision and Accuracy: Graphing The Data
Accuracy and Precision usually mathematically include the
statistical analysis of the data.
It describes the how close the data is to the actual value and the
reproducibility of the data/experiment.
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Significant Figures
Significant figures deal with writing numbers to reflect
precision.

The precision of a measurement depends on the
instrument used to make the measurement.

The preservation of this precision during calculations can
be accomplished by using significant figures.

The greater the number of significant figures, the greater
the certainty of the measurement.
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Rules for determining significant figures
Any non-zero number is significant
For Zeros:
Any zero between two significant figures is
significant
A zero at the end of a number AND to the right of
the decimal point is significant
A zero at the end of a number AND to the left of a
decimal point is NOT significant
Zeroes at the beginning of a number are just silly
and NOT significant

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Reporting Precision in a measurement
involves significant figures Sig Figs
The last digit in any measurement has
uncertainty but is considered significant.
1.001 has 4 significant figures (digits)
0.005 has 1 sig fig
Because it could be written as, 5 x 10
-3
4.60 has 3 sig figs
500 has at least one sig fig, use scientific
notation to remove ambiguity, i.e., 5.0 x 10
2

has 2 sig figs.
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Multiplying or dividing measurements
with sig figs
Answer has same number of sig figs
as Least precise measurement:
5.46 cm x 6.932 cm = 34.84872 cm
2
Round to 3 sig figs, 34.8 cm
2

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Adding or subtracting
measurements with sig figs
Answer has same number of digits to right
of decimal as Least precise measurement
72.475 ml 3 place to right of the decimal
+5.7371 ml 4 places to right of the decimal
78.2121 ml

Round to 3 places: 78.212 ml
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Exact Numbers
Exact numbers have an unlimited (infinite)
number of significant figures.
Exact counting of discrete objects
Integral numbers that are part of an equation
Volume of a sphere = (4/3)!r
3
Defined quantities or scientific definitions
For example a metric conversion: 1 m = 100 cm
Some conversion factors are defined quantities,
while others are not.
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Density
Density is
an INTENSIVE physical property.
The physical property does not depend on amount
of substance.
Temperature is another intensive property
The physical properties of mass and volume that
determine a substances density are EXTENSIVE.
Extensive physical properties are dependent
on amount.
Heat (as opposed to temperature) is an Extensive
Property. Why?
Densities of liquids and gases are affected by temperature.
See example 2.2
Density = mass
volume
Density, (d) = m
V
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Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical
and Chemical Change
Energy is the capacity to do work.
Work is defined as the action of a force
through a distance.

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Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy
associated with the motion of
an object.
KE = ! mv
2
Potential energy is the energy
associated with the position or
composition of an object.
Thermal energy is the energy
associated with the temperature of
an object.
Thermal energy is actually a
type of kinetic energy because
it arises from the motion of the
individual atoms or molecules
that make up an object.
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James Joule
1818-1889
Energy Units
The SI unit is the joule (J). Unit = kg(m
2
/s
2
)
The English unit is the calorie (cal).
is the heat required to raise temp. of 1.00 g of
H
2
O by 1.0
o
C.
The dietary unit is the Calorie (Cal), which
is equal to 1000 calories or 1 kilocalorie
(kcal).
1 cal = exactly 4.184 J
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Overview of Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work.
Energy is always conserved in a physical or chemical change; it
is neither created nor destroyed (law of conservation of energy).
Systems with high potential energy tend to change in a direction
that lowers their potential energy, releasing energy into the
surroundings.
An exothermic process (physical phase change or chemical
reaction) releases energy from the system to the surroundings.
A release of energy is given a () negative sign to indicate
that the energy of the system decreased.
An endothermic process (physical phase change or chemical
reaction) takes in energy from the surroundings into the system.
The intake of energy from the surroundings into the system is
given a (+) sign to indicate that the energy of the system
increased.
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Reactants
Products
Kinetic
Energy
PE
Potential Energy (PE) of system dropped. Kinetic
energy (KE) increased. Kinetic energy can be
several forms temperature is one form.
The diagram shown is for an exothermic reaction.
Time (s)
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

e
n
e
r
g
y

(
J
)

Energy Change in Chemical Processes
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Calculations and Solving Chemical
Problems
Most chemistry problems you will solve in this
course are unit conversion problems.
Using units as a guide to solving problems is
called dimensional analysis.
Units should always be included in calculations;
they are multiplied, divided, and canceled like any
other algebraic quantity.
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Dimensional Analysis
A unit equation is a statement of two equivalent
quantities, such as
2.54 cm = 1 in.
This is an exact scientific definition
A conversion factor is a fractional quantity of a unit
equation with the units we are converting from on the
bottom and the units we are converting to on the top.
Most unit conversion problems take the following form:
information given ! conversion factor(s) = information desired

given unit ! (desired unit / given unit) = desired unit
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