Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment

Ecology
Principles of ecology
1. It is a scientific study of relations of living organisms with each other and with the environment. The term was
coined by German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1869. It has been derived from two Greek words, oikos, meaning
home or estate and logos meaning study.
2. Species It is a group of similar population of organism differentiated from other species by certain unique
genetic characteristics. Members of a particular specie might vary in appearance, but are capable of
interbreeding. The variations which help in existence are promoted via natural selection.
3. Levels of ecological organization organism, population, community, ecosystem
Organism level
Habitat
1. It is a physical environment in which an organism lives. Its various features are represented in terms of space,
food, water and shelter or cover. Earth provides 4 major habitats terrestrial, freshwater, estuarine (where
river meets ocean) and oceans. Further the human intestine is a habitat to the tapeworm and rotting log is a
habitat to a fungus.
Ecological niche
1. A number of species may exist in a habitat. They are differentiated by their functional characteristics. These
characteristics include the resources used, function performed and frequency of the function performed.
Ecological niche is the sum of all the functions by which the species use the resources of the habitat for its
survival and reproduction. This is termed as niche because it cannot be same for two species. This is because
the species having same niche will compete until one is displaced. The most important resources in the niches
of animals are food and shelter while in case of plants, they are moisture and nutrients (phosphorous and
nitrogen).

Adaptation
1. Adaptation is the appearance or behaviour or structure or way of life of an organism that helps it to survive in
a particular environment. E.g. some plants have thorns and some not, shape of birds beak, evergreen or
deciduous nature of trees etc. Adaptations have genetic basis and have been produced and perfected through
evolution
2. How we adapt? A theory of evolution was proposed by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace. Now it has been
extended in light of progress in genetics and is known as Neo-Darwinism. The salient points are (a) organisms
tend to produce more off springs than the environment can support (b) Mutation (a change in genetic material
that results from an error in replication of) and recombination (by sexual reproduction) is the cause of variation
in the same species (c) Genes that help the organism to adopt to its environment are chosen and reproduced
more by Natural selection (d) Off springs who survive pass on their on their suitable adaptations to their
progeny (e) Evolution thus results in adaptation and diversity of the species
Species formation or Speciation
1. The number of species surviving in the world today is the outcome of two processes speciation and extinction
2. Speciation is the process of formation of new species by the mechanism of evolution. Most common way a
population undergoes speciation is by geographical isolation.
3. Steps in speciation Firstly the geographic barrier isolates two populations of the same species. The 2
populations are unable to interbreed because of this barrier. Further different environment leads to different
variations by natural selection. Variations are also caused by random mutations. So each sub-population is
different. They cannot inter-breed because they are sexually receptive at different times, they are not
attracted to each other, or have different sex organs. Thus they form different species.

4. Extinction It is dying out of a variety in a specie or of the whole specie. It is generally a natural phenomenon
(tsunami, volcanoes, and change in environment). Fossils are, the preserved remains of animals, plants, and
other organisms that lived in the geological past. In recent extinction has been caused by human activities like
mining, climate change, deforestation etc.
Population
1. Population is the group of organisms, all of the same species, which occupies a particular area.
2. The characteristics of any population depends on: (i) density of the population, (ii) natality (birth rate), (iii)
mortality (death rate), (iv) dispersal, (v) biotic potential (vi) age distribution (vii) dispersion and (viii) growth
form.
3. Population growth 2 basic patterns can be identified (a) J shaped growth curve (b) S shaped or sigmoid
growth curve. J shaped curve is density independent growth. Population grows exponentially because of
abundant supply of resources. Then suddenly crashes after reaching a peak. E.g. insects.

Communities
1. A community refers to population of different kinds of organisms sharing the same habitat.
Community structure characteristics
1. Species diversity It varies from one community to another. It is measured in terms of (a) species richness
i.e. number of different species in an area (b) specie abundance i.e. abundance of individuals within each of
those species. A stable community is one which can return to its original condition after being disturbed in
some way. Communities with high species diversity have been found to be comparatively more stable
2. Niche structure It is understood in terms of - (a) how many potential ecological niches are there (b) how the
species in these niches interact. E.g. a public and private hospital might have the same niches, but they might
interact very differently with each other resulting in different efficiencies
3. Geographical location Climate varies with geographical location and determines the environment. Only
those species survive which adapt to the environment. In general species diversity is highest in tropics and
declines towards poles. This is because the climatic conditions are harsh and natural resources are limited
towards the poles. Thus species near poles tend to be generalist species with wide niches. They occur over
large expanses of territory and in wide range of environment.
4. Stratification -
Ecological succession
Biotic interaction
Ecosystem
Basic concepts
You know that earth is perhaps the only planet in the solar system that supports life. The portion of the earth which
sustains life is called biosphere. Biosphere is very huge and cannot be studied as a single entity. It is divided into many
distinct functional units called ecosystem.
In the previous lesson, you learnt that in nature several communities of organisms live together and interact with each
other as well as with their physical environment as an ecological unit. W e call it an ecosystem. The term ecosystem
was coined by A.G. Tansley in 1935. An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature encompassing complex interaction
between its biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components. For example- a pond is a good example of ecosystem
Components of ecosystem
1. Biotic
2. Abiotic

Functions of ecosystem
1. Energy flow through food chain
2. Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)
3. Ecological succession or ecosystem development
4. Homeostasis (or cybernetic) or feedback control mechanisms
Types
1. Natural ecosystems (a) Totally dependent on solar radiation e.g. forests, grasslands, oceans, lakes, rivers and
deserts. They provide food, fuel, fodder and medicines. (b) Ecosystems dependent on solar radiation and
energy subsidies (alternative sources) such as wind, rain and tides. E.g. tropical rain forests, tidal estuaries and
coral reefs.
2. Manmade ecosystems (a) Dependent on solar energy-e.g. Agricultural fields and aquaculture ponds. (b)
Dependent on fossil fuel e.g. urban and industrial ecosystems.
Ecosystem function - Energy flow through ecosystem
Food chain
1. Transfer of food energy from green plants (producers) through a series of organisms with repeated eating and
being eaten is called a food chain. E.g. Grasses Grasshopper Frog Snake Hawk/Eagle. Each step in
the food chain is called trophic level. They are generally restricted to 4 or 5 as at each step some energy is lost
as heat energy.
2. Trophic levels (a) Autotrophs convert inorganic material into chemical energy (food) by the process of
photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight. They produce food for all other organisms and largely consist of
green plants. Rate at which they store the radiant energy from sun is Gross Primary Production (GPP). GPP
minus Energy consumed by themselves in the process = NPP (b) Herbivores eat plants directly and are primary
consumers (c) Carnivores eat herbivores (secondary) or other carnivores (tertiary) (d) Omnivores are animals
which eat both plants and animals (e) Decomposers take care of the dead remains of organisms at each trophic
level and help in recycling of the nutrients
3. Two types of food chains Grazing food chains (starts from green plants) and Detritus food chains (starts from
dead organic matters)
Food web
1. One animal may be a member of several food chains. Thus food web is a network of interconnected food
chains in the ecosystem. It is a more realistic representation of energy flow.
2. At every step in a food chain or web the energy received by the organism is used to sustain itself and the left
over is passed on to the next trophic level

Ecological pyramid
1. It is the graphic representation of trophic levels in an ecosystem. They are pyramidal in shape. They are of 3
types.
2. Pyramid by number represents number of organisms at each trophic level. They can be inverted. E.g. In a case
when several insects, caterpillars feed on a single tree.
3. Pyramid by biomass represents total standing crop biomass at each trophic level. Standing crop biomass is
total amount of living matter at any given time. In most terrestrial ecosystems it is upright. While it may be
inverted in aquatic ecosystem. E.g. In a pond phytoplankton are the main producers. They have little mass and
high turnover. At any time they have less living matter than the herbivores supported by them.
4. Pyramid of energy represents total amount of energy at each trophic level. They are never inverted.
Ecological or Lindmans efficiency
1. It is the ratio of energy acquired at higher trophic level to that at lower trophic level. Energy, from one trophic
level to another, is lost in either in respiration or as heat during conversion.
2. Lindman proposed the 10% rule in 1942. E.g. if autotrophs produce 100 cal, herbivores will be able to store 10
cal. and carnivores 1 cal. However this might vary.

5.4.1 Significance of studying food chains
1. It helps in understanding the feeding relations and interactions among different organisms of an ecosystem.
2. It explain the flow of energy and circulation of materials in ecosystems.
3. It help in understanding the concept of bio magnification in ecosystems.
Biogeochemical cycles
1. In ecosystems flow of energy is linear but that of nutrients is cyclical. Our biosphere is a closed system w.r.t.
nutrients. The nutrients locked in the dead remains of organisms are released back into the soil by detrivores
and decomposers. This recycling of nutrients is called biogeochemical or nutrient cycle (Bio = living, geo = rock
chemical = element). The cycle has 2 important components reservoir pool like atmosphere or rock which
store large amounts of nutrients; cycling pool which contains relatively short storages of carbon in the form of
plants and animals
Carbon cycle
1. The source of all carbon is carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. It is highly soluble in water; therefore,
oceans also contain large quantities of dissolved carbon dioxide
2. Green plants fix atmospheric CO2 into organic matter (food) by the process of photosynthesis. Forest acts as
reservoir of CO2 as tree have large life cycles. Thus great amount of CO2 is released in forest fires.
3. Respiration (oxidation of food to liberate energy, CO2 and water) releases CO2 into the atmosphere. All food
in animals and plants is not used for energy. A major part is retained as biomass and is available to
decomposers. CO2 is released in the atmosphere on decomposition.
4. Burning of fossil fuels, is burning the plant or animal biomass only. Thus CO2 is released on combustion.

Nitrogen cycle
1. Nitrogen is essential component of protein and is required by all living organisms. Atmosphere contains 79%
of nitrogen but it cannot be used directly. It has to be converted in a usable form. Following are the methods.
2. Nitrogen fixation It is the conversion of atmospheric N to ammonia, a form which can be used by plants. 3
methods (a) atmospheric fixation involves lightning, combustion or volcanic activity (b) industrial fixation
At high T & P, N2 is broken into N which combines with H to for NH3 (c) bacterial fixation Bacteria present in
the root nodules of leguminous plants
3. Nitrification It involves conversion of ammonia into nitrates or nitrites with the help of bacteria
4. Assimilation After nitrification, the fixed nitrogen is converted into organic molecules such as DNA, RNA,
proteins etc. It forms both plants and animal tissues
5. Ammonification - Living organisms produce nitrogenous waste products such as urea and uric acid. These
waste products as well as dead remains of organisms are converted back into inorganic ammonia by the
ammonifying bacteria
6. Denitrification - Conversion of nitrates back into gaseous nitrogen. Reverse of nitrogen fixation.
Water cycle
1. It is the continuous exchange of water b/w oceans, atmosphere, land, sub-surface & organisms. It involves
processes of evaporation, precipitation & condensation.
2. Water in the atmosphere has a holding period of 10 days at an average, whereas water present deep in arctic
or Antarctic, groundwater aquifers, glacial ice has a holding period of more than 1000 days. While the change
in water present in atmosphere changes the weather, a change in water present in deep oceans causes climate
change.
3. 86% of water evaporates from ocean. Rest 14% evaporates from land (including water absorbed by plants
which is lost via transpiration). Out of the 78% precipitation on oceans, 66% can be accounted to come from
water evaporated from oceans itself & 12% to land. Out of the 22% precipitation on land, 20% comes from
oceans & 2% from land itself. The imbalance of 78% & 22% b/w oceans & land respectively, is settled by 8%
run-off from land to oceans via streams & rivers. Very little run-off is via ground water.
Homeostasis of ecosystem
1. It is the tendency of a biological systems to resist changes. Negative feedback mechanism is responsible for
maintaining stability in an ecosystem.

Natural ecosystem
1. A natural ecosystem is an assemblage of plants and animals which functions as a unit and is capable of
maintaining its identity such as forest, grassland, an estuary, human intervention is an example of a natural
ecosystem. A natural ecosystem is totally dependent on solar energy. There are two main categories of
ecosystems.
Human modified ecosystem
Environmental conservation
Biodiversity conservation
Concept of biodiversity
Why biodiversity is important?
Ecosystem services
Biological benefits
Social benefits
Research, Education and Monitoring
Indian biodiversity
Causes of biodiversity depletion
1. Direct ways - Deforestation, hunting, poaching, commercial exploitation.
2. Indirect ways - Loss or modification of the natural habitats, introduction of exotic species, pollution, etc.
3. Natural causes - Climate change
IUCN red list
Conservation of biodiversity
In-situ methods
Ex-situ methods
Conservation of other natural resources
Soil conservation
Land conservation
Energy conservation
Water conservation
Climate change
http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/a-map-and-a-compass-for-climate-talks/article6239368.ece
Ganga
Causes of pollution
Impacts of pollution
Steps taken by govt
June 12 - http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/cleaning-the-ganga-step-by-step/article6106021.ece
July 16 - http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/for-rejuvenating-not-reengineeringthe-
ganga/article6214892.ece
July 16 - http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-opinion/dams-without-responsibility/article6214889.ece
July 17 - http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/to-keep-the-river-alive/
Environmental management
Environmental legislation
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Concept of EIA
Significance of EIA
1. Every country progresses and wants to move ahead of others. One aspect of this progress is economic
development which includes trading and manufacturing. Every country builds industries which helps in
providing employment, serve consumer needs and generate revenue.
2. Industries in the past were developed without the consideration of environment. As a result air, water and
land pollution levels reached threatening levels. Now people want the new projects to be environmental
friendly. EIA is a tool to anticipate the environmental impact of a project before it is implemented.
Meaning
1. EIA helps in assessing the environmental, health and social impact of developmental projects or programmes.
Clearance in given after mitigation strategies are included in the plan. It ensures that the project impact is in
limits of the regenerative capacity of the ecosystem. It provides a cost effective method to eliminate or
minimize the adverse impact of development projects. Thus it ensures that the projects are environmentally
sound and sustainable.
2. It has 3 main components of risk assessment, environmental management and post product monitoring.

Components
In order to carry out an environmental impact assessment, the following are essential:
1. Assessment of existing environmental status.
2. Assessment of various factors of ecosystem (air, water, land, biological).
3. Analysis of adverse environmental impacts of the proposed project to be started.
4. Impact on people in the neighbourhood.
Core values
Guiding principles
Steps
1. Screening
2. Scoping
3. Baseline data
4. Impact prediction
5. Mitigating measures and EIA report
6. Public hearing law
7. Decision making
8. Monitoring and implementation of environmental management plan
9. Risk assessment
Environmental appraisal procedure in India
1. EIA was introduced in India in 1978, with respect to river valley projects. Later the EIA legislation was enhanced
to include other developmental sections since 1941. EIA is now mandatory for 30 categories of projects, and
these projects get Environmental Clearance (EC) only after the EIA requirement are fulfilled.
2. Environmental clearance or the go ahead signal is granted by the Impact Assessment Agency in the Ministry
of Environment and Forests, Government of India.
3. All projects that require clearance from central government can be broadly categorized into the following:- (1)
Industries (2) Mining (3) Thermal power plants (4) River valley projects (5) Infrastructure and CRZ (Coastal
Regulation Zone) (6) Nuclear power projects
Issues
Main participants
Environmental clearance
Forestry clearance
Evaluation of EIA
Environment related Institutions and Organizations
Environmental Ethics