HeatTreatment

Dr.SantoshS.Hosmani
1
Brief Intro. about Myself
Ed ti l B k d Educational Background:
1997 2001: B.E. (Metallurgy), V. Regional College of Engineering (currently NIT), Nagpur
2001 2003: M.Tech. (Process Meta.), Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
2003 2006: Ph.D. (Physical Meta.), Max-Planck Institute for Metals Research, Stuttgart, Germany
Professional Experience: Professional Experience:
Assistant Professor, Dept. Metallurgy & Materials Science, College of Engineering, Pune, India.
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Applied Mechanics, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, India.
Lecturer, Dept. of Metallurgical & Materials Engineering, National Institute of Technology
Karnataka, Surathkal, India.
Postdoctoral researcher, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve
University U S A University, U.S.A..
Postdoctoral researcher, Max-Planck-Institute for Metals Research, Stuttgart, Germany.
2
HEAT TREATMENT
LECTURES: 3 hrs/week
FACULTY: Dr. Santosh S. Hosmani
Dept. of Metallurgy & Materials Science, p gy ,
COE, Pune
Email: ssh.meta@coep.ac.in
Phone (use only in case of emergency plz): 9762316594
OFFICE HOURS: Open
3
Weightage
GRADING / EXAMINATION SCHEME:
Weightage
Quiz** - 1 & 2 20%
Mid-Sem Exam 30%
End Sem Exam 50%
** Note: Quiz can be surprise quiz OR Quizzes can be held on short
notice. Therefore, continuous study and attendance is desired. , y
Minimum passing marks for this course is 40%.
Total attendance requirement is as per the institute rules. Any kind of
proxy is strictly prohibited.
Quiz/Examwill not be conducted again if anyone is absent without any
valid reason valid reason.
Depending upon the requirement of the course, Assignments/Home-work
could be given. However, there will be no weightage for the assignments
in this course.
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in this course.
Introduction of the course
In many engineering applications, steels are the most preferred material. There
are various types of steels which are evolved from the requirements of the
engineering components. Requirements is directly linked to desired
properties.
Properties can be manipulated by altering the chemistry of the alloy and/or by
mechanical treatments and/or by giving appropriate heat-treatments.
As a materials engineer, literacy about the heat-treatment technology
processing &fundamental concepts is very essential. This knowledge teaches
the intelligent use of the existing grade of steel for a particular application.
Heat-treatment technology touches many important applications in automobile
and aerospace sectors.
The course is mainly intended to teach the fundamental concepts of heat- The course is mainly intended to teach the fundamental concepts of heat-
treatment and metallurgy of the some important iron-based alloys.
Note: There are some topics in the course which does not require class-room
teaching and therefore those topics will be given as self-study topics
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teaching and therefore, those topics will be given as self-study topics.
TEXT BOOKS:
SYLLABUS: Available on your department website.
TEXT BOOKS:
Heat Treatment of Metals, Vijendra Singh, 2007, Standard Publishers and
Distributors, NewDelhi
R.A. Higgins, Engineering Metallurgy, Part I, App. Physical Met, ELBS, 5th R.A. Higgins, Engineering Metallurgy, Part I, App. Physical Met, ELBS, 5th
ed., 1983
REFERENCE BOOKS:
Steel and its Heat Treatment -K.E Thelning, Butterworth, London
Handbook of Heat Treatment of Steels Prabhudev-Tata Mc Graw Hill.
NewDelhi, 1988
Heat Treatment of Ferrous Alloys Brooks Washington: Hemisphere Pub Heat Treatment of Ferrous Alloys, Brooks, Washington: Hemisphere Pub.,
1979
=> You can read any book available in your library. y y y
=> Whenever lectures are in power-point-presentations, pdf-files of the
slides will be provided to you by email.
6
Friendly suggestion: Please learn to make good class-notes.
Some Basics revision of the concepts
7
Familytrees:organizingmaterialsandprocesses
Each family of materials has its own characteristic profilethe family Each family of materials has its own characteristic profilethe family
likenessuseful to know when deciding which family to use for a given
design.
Choosing a material is only half the story. The other half is the choice of a
process route to shape, join and finish it.
Choice of material and process are tightly coupled: a given material can be Choice of material and process are tightly coupled: a given material can be
processed in some ways but not others, and a given process can be applied to
some materials but not to others.
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Thematerialstree Classificationofmaterials
It is conventional to classify the materials of engineering into the six
broad families:
h h l f h b f f l h f There is sense in this classification: the members of a family have certain features in
common: similar properties, similar processing routes and, often, similar applications.
9
The families can be expanded further into classes subclasses and members The families can be expanded further into classes, subclasses and members,
each of which is characterized by a set of attributes: its properties..
10
Metals:
They have relatively high stiffness (modulus, E).
Most, when pure, are soft and easily deformed, meaning that
y
is low.
They can be made strong by alloying and by mechanical and heat treatment,
increasing but they remain ductile allowing them to be formed by increasing
y
, but they remain ductile, allowing them to be formed by
deformation processes.
And, broadly speaking, they are tough, with a usefully high fracture toughness
h d l i l d h l d K
1c
. They are good electrical and thermal conductors.
But metals have weaknesses too: they are reactive; most corrode rapidly if not
protected. p
11
Stiffness and strength are central to mechanical design, often in
combination with the density, .
What is the stiffness?
It is the resistance to change of shape that is elastic It is the resistance to change of shape that is elastic,
meaning that the material returns to its original shape
when the stress is removed. Stiffness is measured by
the elastic modulus E. the elastic modulus E.
E reflects stiffness, S, of the bonds that hold them
together. But, remember that E S
What is the strength?
It is materials resistance to permanent distortion or total It is materials resistance to permanent distortion or total
failure. Strength is measured by the elastic limit
y
or
tensile strength
ts
.
Note: Stress and strain are not material properties.
12
It is the plasticity of iron and steel that made them the structural materials
on which the Industrial Revolution was built
18061859
British
Engineer
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
(17571834)
S tti h i
ThomasTelford
He was perhaps the greatest engineer of the
Industrial Revolution in terms of design
ability personality power of execution
IsambardKingdomBrunel
Engineering achievements of these two engineers were possible because of
Scottish engineer
ability, personality, power of execution
Engineering achievements of these two engineers were possible because of
the plasticity of iron and steel.
13
18061859
British
Engineer
IsambardKingdomBrunel
GreatEastern
Launched:31Jan.1858
greatthingsarenot
donebythosewho
simplycountthecost
14
The dominance of steels in The dominance of steels in
engineering, derives from their ability
t b ll d f d d d to be rolled, forged, drawn and
stamped.
15
Strength,plasticworkandductility
Yield strength : For metals the Yield strength
y
: For metals, the
onset of plasticity is not always
distinct so we identify
y
with the
0.2% proof stressthat is, the stress
forMetals
0.2% proof stress that is, the stress
at which the stressstrain curve for
axial loading deviates by a strain of
0.2% from the linear elastic line. It is
the same in tension and
compression.
When strained beyond the yield point When strained beyond the yield point,
most metals work harden, causing
the rising part of the curve, until a
maximum, the tensile strength, is , g ,
reached.
This is followed in tension by non-
uniform deformation (necking) and uniform deformation (necking) and
fracture.
16
Strength,plasticworkandductility
forMetals
Howstressstraincurvelookslikeformetalsincompression? 17
Stress-strain diagrams for
Strength,plasticworkandductility
Stress strain diagrams for
compression have different shapes
from those for tension.
Ductile metals have proportional
forMetals
Ductile metals have proportional
limits in compression very close to
those in tension. However, when
yielding begins the behavior is quite yielding begins, the behavior is quite
different.
When a small specimen of ductile
material is compressed it begins to material is compressed, it begins to
bulge outward on the sides and
become barrel shaped. With
increasing load the specimen is increasing load, the specimen is
flattened out, thus offering increased
resistance to further shortening
(which means the stress-strain
Ref.:DepartmentofCivilEngineering attheUniversityofMemphis
(
curve goes upward).
18
Theoriginsofstrengthandductility Fundamentals
Perfection:theidealstrength
Thebondsbetweenatoms,likeanyotherspring,haveabreakingpoint.
Figure: Stressstrain curve for a
single bond.
Here an atom is assumed to occupy a cube of side a so that a force F corresponds Here an atom is assumed to occupy a cube of side a
o
so that a force F corresponds
to a stress = F/a
o
2
.
The force stretches the bond from its initial length a
o
to a new length a, giving a
strain = (a a
o
)/a
o
. strain (a a
o
)/a
o
.
In case of the modulus we focused on the initial, linear part of this curve, with a
slope equal to the modulus, E. Stretched further, the curve passes through a
maximum and sinks to zero as the atoms lose communication The peak is the maximum and sinks to zero as the atoms lose communication. The peak is the
bond strengthif you pull harder than this it will break.
19
The distance over which interatomic forces act is smalla bond is broken if it is
stretched to more than about 10% of its original length
Perfection:theidealstrength
stretched to more than about 10% of its original length.
So the force needed to break a bond is roughly:
F
S Stiff B d

S Stiffness Bond = ,
10
% 10
% 10
o
a
a a
length bond origional of
= = =
=

10 100
% 10
o o
a a
10 /
o
a
F
S =
On this basis the ideal strength of a solid
should therefore be roughly:
10
o
a S
F = Q
a S a
S F
E S
=
=

) (
: and between Relation
2
o
o o
a
S
a S a
=
=



& between relation linear Assume
) (
o
a
S
E = Q
& between relation linear Assume
Note: This relationship doesnt allow for the
curvature of the forcedistance curve; more refined
calculations give a ratio of 1/15. 20
Perfection:theidealstrength
Surprisingly,
None of the metals, polymers and ceramics achieve the ideal value of
1/10; most dont even come close.
21
CriticalResolvedShearStress
Th E i t R ti Theory
(GPa)
Experiment
(MPa)
Ratio
Theory/Exp
Fe (BCC) 12 15 800
Cu (FCC) 7 0.5 14,000
Zn (HCP) 5 0.3 17,000
22
Perfection:theidealstrength
Surprisingly,
None of the metals, polymers and ceramics achieve the ideal value of
1/10; most dont even come close.
Whynot?
Nothing is perfect in this world.!
Existence of Imperfections / Defects in materials.!
23
Dislocation
The dislocation is the key player in explaining important mechanical properties, like
strength and ductility.
Dislocated means out of joint and this is not a bad description of what is
happening here. The upper part of the crystal has extra halflayer of atoms than
the lower part.
It is dislocations that make metals soft and ductile.
Dislocations distort the latticehere the green atoms are the most distortedand Dislocations distort the lattice here the green atoms are the most distorted and
because of this they have elastic energy associated with them.
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Inventorsofdislocationconcepts
The strength of a perfect crystal computed from interatomic forces gives The strength of a perfect crystal computed from interatomic forces gives
an ideal strength around E/15 (where E is the modulus).
In reality the strengths of engineering materials are nothing like this big;
f h b l 1% f i often they are barely 1% of it.
(1901 1989)
(1886 1975)
(19011989)
Hungarian/US
physicist and
(18861975)
British
mathematician,
p y
metallurgist
physicist and
expert on fluid
dynamics and
wave theory
Th t liti li d th t di l t d t l
Sir Geoffrey Ingram Taylor Egon Orowan
wave theory
These two personalities realized that a dislocated crystal
could deform at stresses far below the ideal.
25
Ref.: Book by W.D. Callister
Ref.: Book by W.D. Callister Ref.: Book by W.D. Callister
Ref.: Book by W.D. Callister Ref.: Book by W.D. Callister
30
Thelatticeresistance
Dislocation Motion
Plastic Deformation
Easy Dislocation Motion Easy Plastic Deformation Easy Dislocation Motion Easy Plastic Deformation
Weak Crystal y
Difficult
Dislocation Motion
Difficult
Plastic Deformation
Strong Crystal
31
Where does the resistance to
motion of dislocation (i e slip) f motion of dislocation (i.e. slip), f,
come from?
32
The lattice resistance
There are several contributions to this resistance.
Thi i th i t i i i t f th t l t t t l ti h
I. Lattice resistance, f
i
:
This is the intrinsic resistance of the crystal structure to plastic shear.
Plastic shear, as we have seen, involves the motion of dislocations.
Pure metals are soft because the non-localized metallic bond does little Pure metals are soft because the non localized metallic bond does little
to obstruct dislocation motion, whereas ceramics are hard because their
more localized covalent and ionic bonds (which must be broken and
reformed when the structure is sheared) lock the dislocations in place.
The electrons and +ve ions
are all in a fixed position.
The electrons are in a fixed
position
The electrons are not
fixed and free to move
throughout the lattice. 33
The lattice resistance
When the lattice resistance is high, as in ceramics, further hardening is g , , g
more than sufficientthe problembecomes that of suppressing fracture: i.e.
yield strength is much larger than fracture strength of ceramics.
On the other hand, when the lattice resistance f
i
is low, as in metals, the ,
i
, ,
material can be strengthened by introducing obstacles to slip.
How to introduce the obstacles? How to introduce the obstacles?
II. other dislocations giving what is called Work Hardening (f
wh
), g g g (
wh
)
III. grain boundaries introducing Grain-size Hardening (f
gb
),
IV. precipitates or dispersed particles giving Precipitation Hardening (f
ppt
),
V. by adding alloying elements to give Solid Solution Hardening (f
ss
).
These techniq es for manip lating strength are central to allo design These techniques for manipulating strength are central to alloy design.
34
II. Work hardening / Strain hardening, f
wh
:
D i l i d f i di l i d i During plastic deformation dislocation density
of a crystal should go down
But,
Experimental Result
Dislocation Density of a crystal actually goes up Dislocation Density of a crystal actually goes up
Well-annealed crystal: 10
10
m
-2
Lightly cold-worked: 10
12
m
-2
H il ld k d 10
16 2
Heavily cold-worked: 10
16
m
-2
35
k h
II. Work hardening / Strain hardening, f
wh
:
Workhardeningor
StrainHardening

y
Strain,
see Book by V. Raghvan
36
II. Work hardening / Strain hardening, f
wh
:
37
II. Work hardening / Strain hardening, f
wh
:
During plastic deformation dislocation density increases.
Plastic deformation increases the yield strength of the
crystal: strain hardening or work hardening
Why deformation increases strength?
What exactly is the Strain Hardening?
38
II. Work hardening / Strain hardening, f
wh
:
Strain Hardening:
Dislocation against Dislocation
A dislocation in the path of other
dislocation can act as an obstacle to the
motion of the latter
39
Sessile dislocation in an FCC crystal:
E < E
1
+E
2
b
a
= b for FCC in <110> is:
2
2
1
b E =
n
g
,

f
w
h
:

] 0 1 1 [
1
2 2 2
2 2 2
a a a
+ <
] 1 10 [
2
1
Energetically favourable
reaction:
E < E
1
+E
2
2
b = b for FCC in <110> is:
n

h
a
r
d
e
n
i
n
] 1 1 0 [
2
1
] 0 1 1 [
2
2 2 2
(001) t f bl li l
Strain energy (potential energy associated
with dislocation) decreases by 50% during
this reaction.
n
i
n
g

/

S
t
r
a
i
n
] 0 1 1 [
1
(001) not a favourable slip plane
(CRSS is high).
The dislocation

o
r
k

h
a
r
d
e
n
] 1 1 0 [
2
1
) 1 1 1 (
] 1 10 [
1
] 0 1 1 [
2
The dislocation
immobile or sessile.
I
I
.
W
o
) 11 1 (
) 1 1 1 (
) 001 (
] 1 10 [
2
] 110 [

) 001 (
] 110 [
see Book by V. Raghvan
40
II. Work hardening / Strain hardening, f
wh
:
Sessile dislocation a barrier to other dislocations
creating a dislocation pile-up
Sessile dislocation (barrier)
) 1 1 1 (
) 11 1 (
) 1 1 1 (
Piled up dislocations
see Book by V. Raghvan
41
II. Work hardening / Strain hardening, f
wh
:
Empirical relation for strain hardening or
work hardening
A + =
0

0
: is the shear stress to move a dislocation in a
crystal with dislocation density

o
and A : empirical constants

o
=>is the shear stress required to move a single dislocation in the
absence of any other dislocation
42
II. Work hardening / Strain hardening, f
wh
:
This concept is relevant to processing of soft This concept is relevant to processing of soft
metals and alloys, e.g. Al-based alloys
43
III. Grain-size / Grain-boundary hardening, f
gb
:
Grain Boundary Grain Boundary
G i 2 Grain 2
Grain1
Grain boundary
44
III. Grain-size / Grain-boundary hardening, f
gb
:
Discontinuity of a slip plane across a grain boundary
Slip plane
Dislocation
Grain Boundary
45
III. Grain-size / Grain-boundary hardening, f
gb
:
Slip plane discontinuity at grain boundary Slip plane discontinuity at grain boundary
A dislocation cannot glide across a grain
boundary boundary
Higher stresses required for deformation
Finer the grains, greater the strength
Ref.: Book by V. Raghavan
46
R l f G i Si i St th i
III. Grain-size / Grain-boundary hardening, f
gb
:
Role of Grain Size in Strengthening
Hall-Petch Relation
k

y
k
D
= +
0
i ld h
y
: yield strength
D: average grain diameter

0
, k: constants
Coarse Grains Fine Grains
Both are at same magnification!

0
=> yield strength of a single
crystal
Both are at same magnification!
47
R l f G i Si i St th i
III. Grain-size / Grain-boundary hardening, f
gb
:
Role of Grain Size in Strengthening
k

y
k
D
= +
0
Coarse Grains Fine Grains
Both are at same magnification!
This concept is relevant to annealing,
normalizing heat treatment and processing &
Both are at same magnification!
normalizing heat-treatment and processing &
alloy design, e.g. HSLA steel
48