HYDROPOWER PLANT

A
Project Report
Submitted in partial fulfillment of
Bachelor of Technology
In Department of Applied Electronic and Instrumentation

Supervisior:
Mr. Hemant Kumar Gupta
HOD (AEI)
Submitted !:
"id!un #amba
Enrollment $o :%
&'E()IAIM*&+&,(
Sumit S-amra
Enrollment $o :%
&'E()IAIM*&+&*.
S-ivdan Meena
Enrollment $o :%
&'E()IAIM/&+&*,
Department of Applied Ele0troni0s and Instrumentation
Compucom Institute of Information Tech. and Management
0
Sitapura Jaipur(Ra.!
CERTI"ICATE
1-is is to 0ertif! t-at Mr. #idyun $am%a& Sumit Sharma 2 Shi'dan Meena
are student of .1e0- (Applied Ele0troni0s 3 Instrumentation) "III
t-
semester
-as submitted t-eir Ma4or +ro4e0t report entitled 5(ydropo)er *lant+ under
m! 6uidan0e.

Mr.D.+radeep
(#e0t. Of E) 3 AEI Dept.)

1

AC,-./$E01EME-T
7e ta8e t-is opportunit! to e9press our deep sense of 6ratitude and
respe0t to:ards our 6uide Mr. 0.*radeep2 Department of AEI En6ineerin62
)ompu)om Institute of Information 1e0-. 3 Mana6ement )olle6e of
En6ineerin6. 7e are ver! mu0- indebted to t-em for t-e 6enerosit!2 e9pertise
and 6uidan0e; :e -ave re0eived from t-em :-ile :or8in6 on t-is Ma4or
+ro4e0t and t-rou6-out our studies. 7it-out t-eir support and timel! 6uidan0e2
t-e 0ompletion of our pro4e0t :ould -ave seemed a farfet0-ed dream. In t-is
respe0t :e find ourselves lu08! to -ave t-em as our 6uide. 1-e! -ave 6uided
us not onl! :it- t-e matter2 but also tau6-t us t-e proper st!le and te0-ni<ues
of :or8in6.
7e are 6rateful to our respe0ted prin0ipal Mr. (.- #ERMA. Our
respe0ted (...0. Mr. (EMA-T ,2MAR 12*TA and all t-e staff members
of department of Ele0troni0s Instrumentation And )ontrol En6ineerin6 for t-eir
0onstant en0oura6ement and all t-ose :-o -elped us dire0tl! or indire0tl! in our
endeavor.
#idyun
$am%a
(34ECIAI356!
Sumit Sharma
(3BECIAI378!
Shi'dan Meena
(34ECIAI375!
2
ABSTRACT
1oda! t-e :orld s:iftl! 0-an6in62 t-ere are multiple 0-allen6es fa0ed b! us.
Surel! it is t-e 8no:led6e t-rou6- te0-nolo6!2 :-i0- ma8es us to over0ome
t-em.
1-e Ma4or +ro4e0t2 :-i0- is an inte6ral part of four !ears en6ineerin6 pro6ram
provides a platform to all t-e students to au6ment t-eir professional stud!
t-rou6- pra0ti0al revelation. It is t-e time2 :-i0- is effe0tivel! used b! students
to en-an0e t-eir intera0tion :it- te0-ni0al atmosp-ere.
1-e Ma4or +ro4e0t is obli6ator! as per universit! 0ourse outline. 1-is report is
based on :or8 done and t-eor! 6ained anal!sis of t-e topi0. 1-e report basi0all!
introdu0es fundamentals of topi0 in brief.
I -ave fortunate to 6et a 0-an0e for ma8in6 t-e Ma4or +ro4e0t under 6uidan0e of
Mr. 0.*RA0EE* (#e0t. AEI Dept.).
I -ope2 t-is report :ill ma8e t-e learnin6 of t-e fa0ts are :ardin6 e9perien0e and
:ill -ave a:a! for furt-er stud!.

3

Contents
)ertifi0ate i
A08no:led6ement ii
Abstra0t iii
)-apter (: H!droele0tri0it! ,
(.(: Histor!
)-apter /: H!dropo:er =
/.(: asi0 +arts used in H!dropo:er +lant
/./: H!dropo:er 1!pes
/.*: )al0ulatin6 t-e 6enerated +o:er
)-apter >: +ro4e0t Details (/
>./ 7or8in6 +rin0iple
>.> )onstru0tion
>.* 7or8in6 of +ro4e0t
)-apter *: Generatin6 Met-ods ('
*.( )onventional Dams
*./ +umped%Stora6e H!dro Ele0tri0it!
4
)-apter ,: 1!pes of Dams >=
)-apter ?: #ist Of 0onventional H!droele0tri0 +o:er Stations **
Appendi9 ?/
@eferen0es ?,
(90R.E$ECTRICIT9

(ydroelectricity is t-e term referrin6 to ele0tri0it! 6enerated b! -!dropo:er; t-e produ0tion
of ele0tri0al po:er t-rou6- t-e use of t-e 6ravitational for0e of fallin6 or flo:in6 :ater. It is
t-e most :idel! used form of rene:able ener6!2 a00ountin6 for (? per0ent of 6lobal
ele0tri0it! 0onsumption2 and >2*/= tera:att%-ours of ele0tri0it! produ0tion in /&(&2 :-i0-
0ontinues t-e rapid rate of in0rease e9perien0ed bet:een /&&> and /&&..
H!dropo:er is produ0ed in (,& 0ountries2 :it- t-e Asia%+a0ifi0 re6ion 6eneratin6 >/ per0ent
of 6lobal -!dropo:er in /&(&. )-ina is t-e lar6est -!droele0tri0it! produ0er2 :it- =/(
tera:att%-ours of produ0tion in /&(&2 representin6 around (= per0ent of domesti0 ele0tri0it!
use. 1-ere are no: t-ree -!droele0tri0it! plants lar6er t-an (& G7: t-e 1-ree Gor6es Dam in
)-ina2 Itaipu Dam in raAil2 and Guri Dam in "eneAuela.
1-e 0ost of -!droele0tri0it! is relativel! lo:2 ma8in6 it a 0ompetitive sour0e of rene:able
ele0tri0it!. 1-e avera6e 0ost of ele0tri0it! from a -!dro plant lar6er t-an (& me6a:atts is > to
, B.S. 0ents per 8ilo:att%-our. H!dro is also a fle9ible sour0e of ele0tri0it! sin0e plants 0an be
ramped up and do:n ver! <ui08l! to adapt to 0-an6in6 ener6! demands. Ho:ever2 dammin6
interrupts t-e flo: of rivers and 0an -arm lo0al e0os!stems2 and buildin6 lar6e dams and
reservoirs often involves displa0in6 people and :ildlife. On0e a -!droele0tri0 0omple9 is
0onstru0ted2 t-e pro4e0t produ0es no dire0t :aste2 and -as a 0onsiderabl! lo:er output level of
t-e 6reen-ouse 6as 0arbon dio9ide ()O/) t-an fossil fuel powered energy plants.

(istory
H!dropo:er -as been used sin0e an0ient times to 6rind flour and perform ot-er tas8s. In t-e
mid%(==&s2 Cren0- en6ineer ernard Corest de Dlidor publis-ed Ar0-ite0ture H!drauli<ue
:-i0- des0ribed verti0al% and -oriAontal%a9is -!drauli0 ma0-ines. ! t-e late (.t- 0entur!2
t-e ele0tri0al 6enerator :as developed and 0ould no: be 0oupled :it- -!drauli0s. 1-e
6ro:in6 demand for t-e Industrial @evolution :ould drive development as :ell. In ('=' t-e
:orldEs first -!droele0tri0 po:er s0-eme :as developed at )ra6side in $ort-umberland2
En6land b! 7illiam Geor6e Armstron6. It :as used to po:er a sin6le ar0 lamp in -is art
6aller!. 1-e old S0-oel8opf +o:er Station $o. ( near $ia6ara Calls in t-e B.S. side be6an to
5
produ0e ele0tri0it! in (''(. 1-e first Edison -!droele0tri0 po:er plant2 t-e "ul0an Street
+lant2 be6an operatin6 September >&2 (''/2 in Appleton2 7is0onsin2 :it- an output of about
(/., 8ilo:atts. ! (''? t-ere :ere *, -!droele0tri0 po:er plants in t-e B.S. and )anada. !
(''. t-ere :ere /&& in t-e B.S. alone.
At t-e be6innin6 of t-e /&t- 0entur!2 man! small -!droele0tri0 po:er plants :ere bein6
0onstru0ted b! 0ommer0ial 0ompanies in mountains near metropolitan areas. Grenoble2
Cran0e -eld t-e International E9-ibition of H!dropo:er and 1ourism :it- over one million
visitors. ! (./& as *&F of t-e po:er produ0ed in t-e Bnited States :as -!droele0tri02 t-e
Cederal +o:er A0t :as ena0ted into la:. 1-e A0t 0reated t-e Cederal +o:er )ommission to
re6ulate -!droele0tri0 po:er plants on federal land and :ater. As t-e po:er plants be0ame
lar6er2 t-eir asso0iated dams developed additional purposes to in0lude flood 0ontrol2 irri6ation
and navi6ation. Cederal fundin6 be0ame ne0essar! for lar6e%s0ale development and federall!
o:ned 0orporations2 su0- as t-e 1ennessee "alle! Aut-orit! ((.>>) and t-e onneville +o:er
Administration ((.>=) :ere 0reated. Additionall!2 t-e ureau of @e0lamation :-i0- -ad
be6un a series of :estern B.S. irri6ation pro4e0ts in t-e earl! /&t- 0entur! :as no:
0onstru0tin6 lar6e -!droele0tri0 pro4e0ts su0- as t-e (./' Hoover Dam. 1-e B.S. Arm! )orps
of En6ineers :as also involved in -!droele0tri0 development2 0ompletin6 t-e onneville Dam
in (.>= and bein6 re0o6niAed b! t-e Clood )ontrol A0t of (.>? as t-e premier federal flood
0ontrol a6en0!.
H!droele0tri0 po:er plants 0ontinued to be0ome lar6er t-rou6-out t-e /&t- 0entur!.
H!dropo:er :as referred to as :-ite 0oal for its po:er and plent!. Hoover DamEs initial
(2>*, M7 po:er plant :as t-e :orldEs lar6est -!droele0tri0 po:er plant in (.>?; it :as
e0lipsed b! t-e ?'&. M7 Grand )oulee Dam in (.*/. 1-e Itaipu Dam opened in (.'* in
Sout- Ameri0a as t-e lar6est2 produ0in6 (*2&&& M7 but :as surpassed in /&&' b! t-e 1-ree
Gor6es Dam in )-ina at //2,&& M7. H!droele0tri0it! :ould eventuall! suppl! some
0ountries2 in0ludin6 $or:a!2 Demo0rati0 @epubli0 of t-e )on6o2 +ara6ua! and raAil2 :it-
over ',F of t-eir ele0tri0it!. 1-e Bnited States 0urrentl! -as over /2&&& -!droele0tri0 po:er
plants :-i0- suppl! *.F of its rene:able ele0tri0it!.
6
(90R.*./ER
(ydropo)er or )ater po)er is po:er derived from t-e ener6! of fallin6 :ater2 :-i0- ma!
be -arnessed for useful purposes. Sin0e an0ient times2 -!dropo:er -as been used for
irri6ation and t-e operation of various me0-ani0al devi0es2 su0- as :atermills2 sa:mills
te9tile mills2 do08 0ranes2 and domesti0 lifts.
Sin0e t-e earl! /&t- 0entur!2 t-e term is used almost e90lusivel! in 0on4un0tion :it- t-e
modern development of -!dro%ele0tri0 po:er2 :-i0- allo:ed use of distant ener6! sour0es.
Anot-er met-od used to transmit ener6! used a trompe2 :-i0- produ0es 0ompressed air from
fallin6 :ater. )ompressed air 0ould t-en be piped to po:er ot-er ma0-iner! at a distan0e
from t-e :aterfall.
7aterEs po:er is manifested in -!drolo6!2 b! t-e for0es of :ater on t-e riverbed and ban8s of
a river. 7-en a river is in flood2 it is at its most po:erful2 and moves t-e 6reatest amount of
sediment. 1-is -i6-er for0e results in t-e removal of sediment and ot-er material from t-e
riverbed and ban8s of t-e river2 lo0all! 0ausin6 erosion2 transport and2 :it- lo:er flo:2
sedimentation do:nstream.
Earl! uses of :aterpo:er date ba08 to Mesopotamia and an0ient E6!pt2 :-ere irri6ation -as
been used sin0e t-e ?t- millennium ) and :ater 0lo08s -ad been used sin0e t-e earl! /nd
millennium ). Ot-er earl! e9amples of :ater po:er in0lude t-e Ganat s!stem in an0ient
+ersia and t-e 1urpan :ater s!stem in an0ient )-ina.
7
Here are t-e basi0 0omponents of a 0onventional -!dropo:er plant:
1-e s-aft t-at 0onne0ts t-e turbine and 6enerator
1. 0am % Most -!dropo:er plants rel! on a dam t-at -olds ba08 :ater2 0reatin6 a lar6e
reservoir. Often2 t-is reservoir is used as a re0reational la8e2 su0- as #a8e @oosevelt at
t-e Grand )oulee Dam in 7as-in6ton State.
2. Inta:e % Gates on t-e dam open and 6ravit! pulls t-e :ater t-rou6- t-e pensto08& a
pipeline t-at leads to t-e turbine. 7ater builds up pressure as it flo:s t-rou6- t-is
pipe.
3. Tur%ine % 1-e :ater stri8es and turns t-e lar6e blades of a turbine2 :-i0- is atta0-ed
to a 6enerator above it b! :a! of a s-aft. 1-e most 0ommon t!pe of turbine for
-!dropo:er plants is t-e Cran0is 1urbine2 :-i0- loo8s li8e a bi6 dis0 :it- 0urved
blades. A turbine 0an :ei6- as mu0- as (=/ tons and turn at a rate of .& revolutions
per minute (rpm)2 a00ordin6 to t-e Coundation for 7ater 3 Ener6! Edu0ation
(C7EE).
4. 1enerators % As t-e turbine blades turn2 so do a series of ma6nets inside t-e 6enerator.
Giant ma6nets rotate past 0opper 0oils2 produ0in6 alternatin6 0urrent (A)) b! movin6
ele0trons. (HouEll learn more about -o: t-e 6enerator :or8s later.)
5. Transformer % 1-e transformer inside t-e po:er-ouse ta8es t-e A) and 0onverts it to
-i6-er%volta6e 0urrent.
6. *o)er lines % Out of ever! po:er plant 0ome four :ires: t-e t-ree p-ases of po:er
bein6 produ0ed simultaneousl! plus a neutral or 6round 0ommon to all t-ree. (@ead
Ho: +o:er Distribution Grids 7or8 to learn more about po:er line transmission.)
8
7. .utflo) % Bsed :ater is 0arried t-rou6- pipelines2 0alled tailra0es2 and re%enters t-e
river do:nstream.
1-e :ater in t-e reservoir is 0onsidered stored ener6!. 7-en t-e 6ates open2 t-e :ater
flo:in6 t-rou6- t-e pensto08 be0omes 8ineti0 ener6! be0ause itEs in motion. 1-e amount of
ele0tri0it! t-at is 6enerated is determined b! several fa0tors. 1:o of t-ose fa0tors are t-e
volume of :ater flo: and t-e amount of -!drauli0 -ead. 1-e -ead refers to t-e distan0e
bet:een t-e :ater surfa0e and t-e turbines. As t-e -ead and flo: in0rease2 so does t-e
ele0tri0it! 6enerated. 1-e -ead is usuall! dependent upon t-e amount of :ater in t-e reservoir.
Waterwheels, turbines, and mills
In India2 :ater :-eels and :atermills :ere built; in Imperial @ome2 :ater po:ered mills
produ0ed flour from 6rain2 and :ere also used for sa:in6 timber and stone; in )-ina2
:atermills :ere :idel! used sin0e t-e Han D!nast!. In )-ina and t-e rest of t-e Car East2
-!drauli0all! operated Ipot :-eelI pumps raised :ater into irri6ation 0anals.
In t-e mid%(=&&s2 Cren0- en6ineer ernard Corest de Dlidor publis-ed Ar0-ite0ture
H!drauli<ue :-i0- des0ribed verti0al% and -oriAontal%a9is -!drauli0 ma0-ines. ! t-e late
(.t- 0entur!2 t-e ele0tri0al 6enerator :as developed and 0ould no: be 0oupled :it-
-!drauli0s. 1-e 6ro:in6 demand for t-e Industrial @evolution :ould drive development as
:ell.
1-e po:er of a :ave of :ater released from a tan8 :as used for e9tra0tion of metal ores in a
met-od 8no:n as -us-in6. 1-e met-od :as first used at t-e Dolau0ot-i 6old mine in 7ales
from =, AD on:ards2 but -ad been developed in Spain at su0- mines as #as Medulas.
Hus-in6 :as also :idel! used in ritain in t-e Medieval and later periods to e9tra0t lead and
tin ores. It later evolved into -!drauli0 minin6 :-en used durin6 t-e )alifornia 6old rus-.
At t-e be6innin6 of t-e Industrial revolution in ritain2 :ater :as t-e main sour0e of po:er
for ne: inventions su0- as @i0-ard Ar8:ri6-tEs :ater frame. Alt-ou6- t-e use of :ater po:er
6ave :a! to steam po:er in man! of t-e lar6er mills and fa0tories2 it :as still used durin6 t-e
('t- and (.t- 0enturies for man! smaller operations2 su0- as drivin6 t-e bello:s in small
blast furna0es (e.6. t-e D!fi Curna0e) and 6ristmills2 su0- as t-ose built at Saint Ant-on!
Calls2 :-i0- uses t-e ,&%foot ((, m) drop in t-e Mississippi @iver.
In t-e ('>&s2 at t-e earl! pea8 in B.S. 0anal%buildin62 -!dropo:er provided t-e ener6! to
transport bar6e traffi0 up and do:n steep -ills usin6 in0lined plane railroads. As railroads
overtoo8 0anals for transportation2 0anal s!stems :ere modified and developed into
-!dropo:er s!stems; t-e -istor! of #o:ell2 Massa0-usetts is a 0lassi0 e9ample of 0ommer0ial
development and industrialiAation2 built upon t-e availabilit! of :ater po:er.
1e0-nolo6i0al advan0es -ad moved t-e open :ater :-eel into an en0losed turbine. In ('*'
James . Cran0is2 :-ile :or8in6 as -ead en6ineer of #o:ellEs #o08s and )anals 0ompan!2
improved on t-ese desi6ns to 0reate a turbine :it- .&F effi0ien0!. He applied s0ientifi0
prin0iples and testin6 met-ods to t-e problem of turbine desi6n. His mat-emati0al and
6rap-i0al 0al0ulation met-ods allo:ed 0onfident desi6n of -i6- effi0ien0! turbines to e9a0tl!
9
mat0- a siteEs spe0ifi0 flo: 0onditions. 1-e Cran0is rea0tion turbine is still in :ide use toda!.
In t-e ('=&s2 derivin6 from uses in t-e )alifornia minin6 industr!2 #ester Allan +elton
developed t-e -i6- effi0ien0! +elton :-eel impulse turbine2 :-i0- utiliAed -!dropo:er from
t-e -i6- -ead streams 0-ara0teristi0 of t-e mountainous )alifornia interior.
(ydraulic po)er;pipe net)or:
H!drauli0 po:er net:or8s also developed2 usin6 pipes to 0arr!in6 pressuriAed :ater and
transmit me0-ani0al po:er from t-e sour0e to end users else:-ere lo0all!; t-e po:er sour0e
:as normall! a -ead of :ater2 :-i0- 0ould also be assisted b! a pump. 1-ese :ere e9tensive
in "i0torian 0ities in t-e Bnited Kin6dom. A -!drauli0 po:er net:or8 :as also developed in
Geneva2 S:itAerland. 1-e :orld famous Jet dEEau :as ori6inall! desi6ned as t-e over%
pressure relief valve for t-e net:or8.
Compressed air hdro
7-ere t-ere is a plentiful -ead of :ater it 0an be made to 6enerate 0ompressed air dire0tl!
:it-out movin6 parts. In t-ese desi6ns2 a fallin6 0olumn of :ater is purposel! mi9ed :it- air
bubbles 6enerated t-rou6- turbulen0e at t-e -i6- level inta8e. 1-is is allo:ed to fall do:n a
s-aft into a subterranean2 -i6-%roofed 0-amber :-ere t-e no:%0ompressed air separates from
t-e :ater and be0omes trapped. 1-e -ei6-t of fallin6 :ater 0olumn maintains 0ompression of
t-e air in t-e top of t-e 0-amber2 :-ile an outlet2 submer6ed belo: t-e :ater level in t-e
0-amber allo:s :ater to flo: ba08 to t-e surfa0e at a sli6-tl! lo:er level t-an t-e inta8e. A
separate outlet in t-e roof of t-e 0-amber supplies t-e 0ompressed air to t-e surfa0e. A fa0ilit!
on t-is prin0ipal :as built on t-e Montreal @iver at @a66ed S-utes near )obalt2 Ontario in
(.(& and supplied ,2&&& -orsepo:er to nearb! mines.
(ydropo)er types
H!dropo:er is used primaril! to 6enerate ele0tri0it!. road 0ate6ories in0lude:
10
A conventonal da!!ed"#ydro $aclty %#ydroelectrc da!& s t#e !ost co!!on
type o$ #ydroelectrc power generaton.
'onventonal #ydroelectrc( re$errng to #ydroelectrc da!s.
R)n"o$"t#e"rver #ydroelectrcty( w#c# capt)res t#e *netc energy n
rvers or strea!s( wt#o)t t#e )se o$ da!s.
+!all #ydro projects are 10 !egawatts or less and o$ten #ave no art,cal
reservors.
-cro #ydro projects provde a $ew *lowatts to a $ew #)ndred *lowatts to
solated #o!es( vllages( or s!all nd)stres.
P)!ped"storage #ydroelectrcty stores water p)!ped d)rng perods o$
low de!and to .e released $or generaton w#en de!and s #g#.
Calculating the amount of a'aila%le po)er
A -!dropo:er resour0e 0an be evaluated b! its available po:er. +o:er is a fun0tion of t-e
-!drauli0 -ead and rate of fluid flo:. 1-e -ead is t-e ener6! per unit :ei6-t (or unit mass) of
:ater. 1-e stati0 -ead is proportional to t-e differen0e in -ei6-t t-rou6- :-i0- t-e :ater falls.
D!nami0 -ead is related to t-e velo0it! of movin6 :ater. Ea0- unit of :ater 0an do an amount
of :or8 e<ual to its :ei6-t times t-e -ead.
1-e po:er available from fallin6 :ater 0an be 0al0ulated from t-e flo: rate and densit! of
:ater2 t-e -ei6-t of fall2 and t-e lo0al a00eleration due to 6ravit!. In SI units2 t-e po:er is:
:-ere
P s power n watts
/ s t#e d!ensonless e$$cency o$ t#e t)r.ne
0 s t#e densty o$ water n *logra!s per c).c !eter
1 s t#e 2ow n c).c !eters per second
g s t#e acceleraton d)e to gravty
# s t#e #eg#t d3erence .etween nlet and o)tlet
1o illustrate2 po:er is 0al0ulated for a turbine t-at is ',F effi0ient2 :it- :ater at ?/./,
poundsK0ubi0 foot (..' 86K0ubi0 meter) and a flo: rate of /'&& 0ubi0%feetKse0ond (=..> 0ubi0%
metersKse0ond)2 6ravit! of ..'& meters per se0ond s<uared and :it- a net -ead of *'& ft.
((*?.> m).
In SI units:
11
4#s gves 96.4
-5
In En6lis- units2 t-e densit! is 6iven in pounds per 0ubi0 foot so a00eleration due to 6ravit! is
in-erent in t-e unit of :ei6-t. A 0onversion fa0tor is re<uired to 0-an6e from foot lbs. Kse0ond
to 8ilo:atts:
4#s gves 96.4 -5
Operators of -!droele0tri0 plants :ill 0ompare t-e total ele0tri0al ener6! produ0ed :it- t-e
t-eoreti0al potential ener6! of t-e :ater passin6 t-rou6- t-e turbine to 0al0ulate effi0ien0!.
+ro0edures and definitions for 0al0ulation of effi0ien0! are 6iven in test 0odes su0- as ASME
+1) (' and IE) ?&&*(. Cield testin6 of turbines is used to validate t-e manufa0turerEs
6uaranteed effi0ien0!. Detailed 0al0ulation of t-e effi0ien0! of a -!dropo:er turbine :ill
a00ount for t-e -ead lost due to flo: fri0tion in t-e po:er 0anal or pensto082 rise in tail :ater
level due to flo:2 t-e lo0ation of t-e plant and effe0t of var!in6 6ravit!2 t-e temperature and
barometri0 pressure of t-e air2 t-e densit! of t-e :ater at ambient temperature2 and t-e
altitudes above sea level of t-e foreba! and tailba!. Cor pre0ise 0al0ulations2 errors due to
roundin6 and t-e number of si6nifi0ant di6its of 0onstants must be 0onsidered.
Some -!dropo:er s!stems su0- as :ater :-eels 0an dra: po:er from t-e flo: of a bod! of
:ater :it-out ne0essaril! 0-an6in6 its -ei6-t. In t-is 0ase2 t-e available po:er is t-e 8ineti0
ener6! of t-e flo:in6 :ater. Over%s-ot :ater :-eels 0an effi0ientl! 0apture bot- t!pes of
ener6!.
1-e :ater flo: in a stream 0an var! :idel! from season to season. Development of a
-!dropo:er site re<uires anal!sis of flo: re0ords2 sometimes spannin6 de0ades2 to assess t-e
reliable annual ener6! suppl!. Dams and reservoirs provide a more dependable sour0e of
po:er b! smoot-in6 seasonal 0-an6es in :ater flo:. Ho:ever reservoirs -ave si6nifi0ant
environmental impa0t2 as alteration of naturall!%o00urrin6 stream flo:. 1-e desi6n of dams
must also a00ount for t-e :orst%0ase2 Iprobable ma9imum floodI t-at 0an be e9pe0ted at t-e
site; a spill:a! is often in0luded to b!pass flood flo:s around t-e dam. A 0omputer model of
t-e -!drauli0 basin and rainfall and sno:fall re0ords are used to predi0t t-e ma9imum
fre<uen0!.
/.R,I-1 *RI-CI*$E ." T(E *R.JECT
In ele0tri0it! 6eneration2 an ele0tri0 6enerator is a devi0e t-at 0onverts me0-ani0al ener6! to
ele0tri0al ener6!. A 6enerator for0es ele0tri0 0-ar6e (usuall! 0arried b! ele0trons) to flo:
t-rou6- an e9ternal ele0tri0al 0ir0uit. It is analo6ous to a :ater pump2 :-i0- 0auses :ater to
flo: (but does not 0reate :ater). 1-e sour0e of me0-ani0al ener6! ma! be a re0ipro0atin6 or
turbine steam en6ine2 :ater fallin6 t-rou6- a turbine or :ater:-eel2 an internal 0ombustion
en6ine2 a :ind turbine2 a -and 0ran82 0ompressed air or an! ot-er sour0e of me0-ani0al
ener6!.1-e reverse 0onversion of ele0tri0al ener6! into me0-ani0al ener6! is done b! an
ele0tri0 motor2 and motors and 6enerators -ave man! similarities. Man! motors 0an be
12
me0-ani0all! driven to 6enerate ele0tri0it!2 and fre<uentl! ma8e a00eptable 6enerators. It is
based on t-e follo:in6 prin0iple:
Ele!troma"netism
Ele!tri!it
#a"netism
Ele!trodnami!s
Lorent$ %or!e law
Em%
6lectro!agnetc nd)cton
&arada's law
Len$'s law
Displa!ement !urrent
#a(well's e)uations
E# *eld
Ele!troma"neti! radiation
#a(well tensor
Pontin" +e!tor
Li,nard-Wie!hert potential
.e*men/o's e)uations
Edd !urrent
13
Ele0troma6neti0 indu0tion is t-e produ0tion of an ele0tri0 0urrent a0ross a 0ondu0tor movin6
t-rou6- a ma6neti0 field. It underlies t-e operation of 6enerators2 transformers2 indu0tion
motors2 ele0tri0 motors2 s!n0-ronous motors2 and solenoids.
Mi0-ael Carada! is 6enerall! 0redited :it- t-e dis0over! of indu0tion in ('>( t-ou6- it ma!
-ave been anti0ipated b! t-e :or8 of Cran0es0o Lantedes0-i in ('/..

Around ('>& to ('>/

Josep- Henr! made a similar dis0over!2 but did not publis- -is findin6s until later.
.'er'ie)
Mi0-ael Carada! formulated t-at ele0tromotive for0e (EMC) produ0ed around a 0losed pat- is
proportional to t-e rate of 0-an6e of t-e ma6neti0 flu9 t-rou6- an! surfa0e bounded b! t-at
pat-. In pra0ti0e2 t-is means t-at an ele0tri0 0urrent :ill be indu0ed in an! 0losed 0ir0uit :-en
t-e ma6neti0 flu9 t-rou6- a surfa0e bounded b! t-e 0ondu0tor 0-an6es. 1-is applies :-et-er
t-e field itself 0-an6es in stren6t- or t-e 0ondu0tor is moved t-rou6- it.
In mat-emati0al form2 Carada!Es la: states t-at:
:-ere
s t#e electro!otve $orce
7 s t#e !agnetc 2)8.
Cor t-e spe0ial 0ase of a 0oil of :ire2 0omposed of N loops :it- t-e same area2 t-e e<uation
be0omes
A 0orollar! of Carada!Es #a:2 to6et-er :it- AmpMreEs la: and O-mEs la: is #enAEs la:: 1-e
EMC indu0ed in an ele0tri0 0ir0uit al:a!s a0ts in su0- a dire0tion t-at t-e 0urrent it drives
around t-e 0ir0uit opposes t-e 0-an6e in ma6neti0 flu9 :-i0- produ0es t-e EMC.
14
Construction
Ci6 ; Bloc: 0iagram of (ydro *o)er 1eneration
Components 2sed In Construction <
)omponents Spe0ifi0ations
(. +ump +o:er N (.7
Output% ((&& lKHr.
H ma9% (.', meter
/. @esistor 1!pes
(.Ele0trol!ti0
/. +aper
>. 1ransistor
*. Diode
,. S:it0- /%:a!
?. atter! ?% "olt
=. #ed
'. D0 6enerator
15
.. Inverter
/or:ing <;
(. /ater Source N 7e fill t-e :ater tan8 :it- / liters of :ater2 till t-e pump pla0ed in t-e
tan8 6ets submer6ed up to t-e brim.
/. *umping Action N Suppl! of po:er to t-e pump :-i0- pumps t-e :ater into t-e turbine
tan82 :-ere :ater :it- 6reat pressure moves t-e turbine :-i0- is atta0-ed to t-e ele0tri0
6enerator.
>. Tur%ine ; A :or8in6 fluid 0ontains potential ener6! (pressure -ead) and 8ineti0 ener6!
(velo0it! -ead). 1-e fluid ma! be 0ompressible or in0ompressible. Several p-!si0al prin0iples
are emplo!ed b! turbines to 0olle0t t-is ener6!:
Impulse turbines 0-an6e t-e dire0tion of flo: of a -i6- velo0it! fluid or 6as 4et. 1-e resultin6
impulse spins t-e turbine and leaves t-e fluid flo: :it- diminis-ed 8ineti0 ener6!. 1-ere is no
pressure 0-an6e of t-e fluid or 6as in t-e turbine blades (t-e movin6 blades)2 as in t-e 0ase of
a steam or 6as turbine2 all t-e pressure drop ta8es pla0e in t-e stationar! blades (t-e noAAles).
efore rea0-in6 t-e turbine2 t-e fluidEs pressure head is 0-an6ed to velo0it! -ead b!
a00eleratin6 t-e fluid :it- a noAAle. +elton :-eels and de #aval turbines use t-is pro0ess
e90lusivel!. Impulse turbines do not re<uire a pressure 0asement around t-e rotor sin0e t-e
fluid 4et is 0reated b! t-e noAAle prior to rea0-in6 t-e bladin6 on t-e rotor. $e:tonEs se0ond
la: des0ribes t-e transfer of ener6! for impulse turbines.
@ea0tion turbines develop tor<ue b! rea0tin6 to t-e 6as or fluidEs pressure or mass. 1-e
pressure of t-e 6as or fluid 0-an6es as it passes t-rou6- t-e turbine rotor blades.
*. 1enerator ; In ele0tri0it! 6eneration2 an electric generator is a devi0e t-at 0onverts me0-ani0al
ener6! to ele0tri0al ener6!. A 6enerator for0es ele0tri0 0-ar6e (usuall! 0arried b! ele0trons) to flo:
t-rou6- an e9ternal ele0tri0al 0ir0uit. It is analo6ous to a :ater pump2 :-i0- 0auses :ater to flo: (but
does not 0reate :ater). 1-e sour0e of me0-ani0al ener6! ma! be a re0ipro0atin6 or turbine steam
en6ine2 :ater fallin6 t-rou6- a turbine or :ater:-eel2 an internal 0ombustion en6ine2 a :ind turbine2 a
-and 0ran82 0ompressed air or an! ot-er sour0e of me0-ani0al ener6!.
,. Battery % A batter! is a devi0e t-at 0onverts 0-emi0al ener6! dire0tl! to ele0tri0al ener6!.

It 0onsists
of a number of voltai0 0ells; ea0- voltai0 0ell 0onsists of t:o -alf%0ells 0onne0ted in series b! a
0ondu0tive ele0trol!te 0ontainin6 anions and 0ations. One -alf%0ell in0ludes ele0trol!te and t-e
ele0trode to :-i0- anions (ne6ativel! 0-ar6ed ions) mi6rate2 i.e.2 t-e anode or ne6ative ele0trode; t-e
ot-er -alf%0ell in0ludes ele0trol!te and t-e ele0trode to :-i0- 0ations (positivel! 0-ar6ed ions)
mi6rate2 i.e.2 t-e 0at-ode or positive ele0trode. In t-e redo9 rea0tion t-at po:ers t-e batter!2 0ations are
redu0ed (ele0trons are added) at t-e 0at-ode2 :-ile anions are o9idiAed (ele0trons are removed) at t-e
anode. 1-e ele0trodes do not tou0- ea0- ot-er but are ele0tri0all! 0onne0ted b! t-e ele0trol!te. Some
0ells use t:o -alf%0ells :it- different ele0trol!tes. A separator bet:een -alf%0ells allo:s ions to flo:2
but prevents mi9in6 of t-e ele0trol!tes.
16
?. In'erter % A po:er inverter2 or inverter2 is an ele0tri0al devi0e t-at 0-an6es dire0t 0urrent
(D)) to alternatin6 0urrent (A)); t-e 0onverted A) 0an be at an! re<uired volta6e and
fre<uen0! :it- t-e use of appropriate transformers2 s:it0-in62 and 0ontrol 0ir0uits.
Solid%state inverters -ave no movin6 parts and are used in a :ide ran6e of appli0ations2 from
small s:it0-in6 po:er supplies in 0omputers2 to lar6e ele0tri0 utilit! -i6-%volta6e dire0t
0urrent appli0ations t-at transport bul8 po:er. Inverters are 0ommonl! used to suppl! A)
po:er from D) sour0es su0- as solar panels or batteries.
At t-e output terminal :e 0onne0ted a #oad li8e ulb2 :-i0- 6lo:s due to t-e ele0tri0it!
produ0ed in t-e :-ole pro0ess.
17
18
1E-ERATI-1 MET(.0S
Con+entional 0dams1
Most -!droele0tri0 po:er 0omes from t-e potential ener6! of dammed :ater drivin6 a :ater
turbine and 6enerator. 1-e po:er e9tra0ted from t-e :ater depends on t-e volume and on t-e
differen0e in -ei6-t bet:een t-e sour0e and t-e :aterEs outflo:. 1-is -ei6-t differen0e is
0alled t-e -ead. 1-e amount of potential ener6! in :ater is proportional to t-e -ead. A lar6e
pipe (t-e Ipensto08I) delivers :ater to t-e turbine.
19
/ater tur%ine
4#e r)nner o$ t#e s!all water t)r.ne
A )ater tur%ine is a rotar! en6ine t-at ta8es ener6! from movin6 :ater. 7ater turbines :ere
developed in t-e (.t- 0entur! and :ere :idel! used for industrial po:er prior to ele0tri0al
6rids. $o: t-e! are mostl! used for ele0tri0 po:er 6eneration. 1-e! -arness a 0lean and
rene:able ener6! sour0e2 but 0an 0ause indire0t environmental dama6e asso0iated :it- :ater
stora6e and 0onstru0tion.

20
(istory
7ater :-eels -ave been used for t-ousands of !ears for industrial po:er. 1-eir main
s-ort0omin6 is siAe2 :-i0- limits t-e flo: rate and -ead t-at 0an be -arnessed. 1-e mi6ration
from :ater :-eels to modern turbines too8 about one -undred !ears. Development o00urred
durin6 t-e Industrial revolution2 usin6 s0ientifi0 prin0iples and met-ods. 1-e! also made
e9tensive use of ne: materials and manufa0turin6 met-ods developed at t-e time.
2wirl
1-e :ord turbine :as introdu0ed b! t-e Cren0- en6ineer )laude urdin in t-e earl! (.t-
0entur! and is derived from t-e #atin :ord for I:-irlin6I or a Ivorte9I. 1-e main differen0e
bet:een earl! :ater turbines and :ater :-eels is a s:irl 0omponent of t-e :ater :-i0- passes
ener6! to a spinnin6 rotor. 1-is additional 0omponent of motion allo:ed t-e turbine to be
smaller t-an a :ater :-eel of t-e same po:er. 1-e! 0ould pro0ess more :ater b! spinnin6
faster and 0ould -arness mu0- 6reater -eads. (#ater2 impulse turbines :ere developed :-i0-
didnEt use s:irl
A new !on!ept
&i"ure %rom Pelton's ori"inal patent 0O!tober 34451
All 0ommon :ater ma0-ines until t-e late (.t- 0entur! (in0ludin6 :ater :-eels) :ere
basi0all! rea0tion ma0-ines; :ater pressure -ead a0ted on t-e ma0-ine and produ0ed :or8. A
rea0tion turbine needs to full! 0ontain t-e :ater durin6 ener6! transfer.
21
In ('??2 )alifornia mill:ri6-t Samuel Kni6-t invented a ma0-ine t-at too8 t-e impulse
s!stem to a ne: level. Inspired b! t-e -i6- pressure 4et s!stems used in -!drauli0 minin6 in
t-e 6old fields2 Kni6-t developed a bu08eted :-eel :-i0- 0aptured t-e ener6! of a free 4et2
:-i0- -ad 0onverted a -i6- -ead (-undreds of verti0al feet in a pipe or pensto08) of :ater to
8ineti0 ener6!. 1-is is 0alled an impulse or tan6ential turbine. 1-e :aterEs velo0it!2 rou6-l!
t:i0e t-e velo0it! of t-e bu08et perip-er!2 does a u%turn in t-e bu08et and drops out of t-e
runner at lo: velo0it!.
In ('=.2 #ester +elton (('/.%(.&')2 e9perimentin6 :it- a Kni6-t 7-eel2 developed a double
bu08et desi6n2 :-i0- e9-austed t-e :ater to t-e side2 eliminatin6 some ener6! loss of t-e
Kni6-t :-eel :-i0- e9-austed some :ater ba08 a6ainst t-e 0enter of t-e :-eel. In about
('.,2 7illiam Doble improved on +eltonEs -alf%0!lindri0al bu08et form :it- an ellipti0al
bu08et t-at in0luded a 0ut in it to allo: t-e 4et a 0leaner bu08et entr!. 1-is is t-e modern form
of t-e +elton turbine :-i0- toda! a0-ieves up to ./F effi0ien0!. +elton -ad been <uite an
effe0tive promoter of -is desi6n and alt-ou6- Doble too8 over t-e +elton 0ompan! -e did not
0-an6e t-e name to Doble be0ause it -ad brand name re0o6nition.
Theory of operation
Clo:in6 :ater is dire0ted on to t-e blades of a turbine runner2 0reatin6 a for0e on t-e blades.
Sin0e t-e runner is spinnin62 t-e for0e a0ts t-rou6- a distan0e (for0e a0tin6 t-rou6- a distan0e
is t-e definition of :or8). In t-is :a!2 ener6! is transferred from t-e :ater flo: to t-e turbine
7ater turbines are divided into t:o 6roups; rea0tion turbines and impulse turbines.
1-e pre0ise s-ape of :ater turbine blades is a fun0tion of t-e suppl! pressure of :ater2 and t-e
t!pe of impeller sele0ted.
Rea!tion turbines
@ea0tion turbines are a0ted on b! :ater2 :-i0- 0-an6es pressure as it moves t-rou6- t-e
turbine and 6ives up its ener6!. 1-e! must be en0ased to 0ontain t-e :ater pressure (or
su0tion)2 or t-e! must be full! submer6ed in t-e :ater flo:.
$e:tonEs t-ird la: des0ribes t-e transfer of ener6! for rea0tion turbines.
Most :ater turbines in use are rea0tion turbines and are used in lo: (O>&mK.' ft) and medium
(>&%>&&mK.'N.'* ft) -ead appli0ations. In rea0tion turbine pressure drop o00urs in bot- fi9ed
and movin6 blades.
6mpulse turbines
Impulse turbines 0-an6e t-e velo0it! of a :ater 4et. 1-e 4et pus-es on t-e turbineEs 0urved
blades :-i0- 0-an6es t-e dire0tion of t-e flo:. 1-e resultin6 0-an6e in momentum (impulse)
22
0auses a for0e on t-e turbine blades. Sin0e t-e turbine is spinnin62 t-e for0e a0ts t-rou6- a
distan0e (:or8) and t-e diverted :ater flo: is left :it- diminis-ed ener6!.
+rior to -ittin6 t-e turbine blades2 t-e :aterEs pressure (potential ener6!) is 0onverted to
8ineti0 ener6! b! a noAAle and fo0used on t-e turbine. $o pressure 0-an6e o00urs at t-e
turbine blades2 and t-e turbine doesnEt re<uire -ousin6 for operation.
$e:tonEs se0ond la: des0ribes t-e transfer of ener6! for impulse turbines.
Impulse turbines are most often used in ver! -i6- (P>&&mK.'* ft.) -ead appli0ations.
Power
1-e po:er available in a stream of :ater is;
7-ere:
power %9:s or watts&
t)r.ne e;cency
densty o$ water %*g:!<&
acceleraton o$ gravty %9.81 !:s=&
>ead %!&. ?or stll water( t#s s t#e d3erence n #eg#t .etween t#e
nlet and o)tlet s)r$aces. -ovng water #as an addtonal co!ponent added
to acco)nt $or t#e *netc energy o$ t#e 2ow. 4#e total #ead e@)als t#e
pressure head pl)s velocity head.
A 2ow rate %!<:s&
Pumped stora"e
Some :ater turbines are desi6ned for pumped stora6e -!droele0tri0it!. 1-e! 0an reverse flo:
and operate as a pump to fill a -i6- reservoir durin6 off%pea8 ele0tri0al -ours2 and t-en revert
to a turbine for po:er 6eneration durin6 pea8 ele0tri0al demand. 1-is t!pe of turbine is
usuall! a DeriaA or Cran0is in desi6n.
23
E7!ien!
#ar6e modern :ater turbines operate at me0-ani0al effi0ien0ies 6reater t-an .&F (not to be
0onfused :it- t-ermod!nami0 effi0ien0!).
*umped;storage hydroelectricity
24
+umped%stora6e -!droele0tri0it! (+SH) is a t!pe of -!droele0tri0 po:er 6eneration used b!
some po:er plants for load balan0in6. 1-e met-od stores ener6! in t-e form of :ater2 pumped
from a lo:er elevation reservoir to a -i6-er elevation. #o:%0ost off%pea8 ele0tri0 po:er is
used to run t-e pumps. Durin6 periods of -i6- ele0tri0al demand2 t-e stored :ater is released
t-rou6- turbines to produ0e ele0tri0 po:er. Alt-ou6- t-e losses of t-e pumpin6 pro0ess ma8es
t-e plant a net 0onsumer of ener6! overall2 t-e s!stem in0reases revenue b! sellin6 more
ele0tri0it! durin6 periods of pea8 demand2 :-en ele0tri0it! pri0es are -i6-est.
+umped stora6e is t-e lar6est%0apa0it! form of 6rid ener6! stora6e available2 and2 as of Mar0-
/&(/2 t-e Ele0tri0 +o:er @esear0- Institute (E+@I) reports t-at +SH a00ounts for more t-an
..F of bul8 stora6e 0apa0it! :orld:ide2 representin6 around (/=2&&& M7. +SH reported
ener6! effi0ien0! varies in pra0ti0e bet:een =&F to '=F.
.'er'ie)
+o:er distribution2 over a da!2 of a pumped%stora6e -!droele0tri0it! fa0ilit!. Green represents
po:er 0onsumed in pumpin6; red is po:er 6enerated.
At times of lo: ele0tri0al demand2 e90ess 6eneration 0apa0it! is used to pump :ater into t-e
-i6-er reservoir. 7-en t-ere is -i6-er demand2 :ater is released ba08 into t-e lo:er reservoir
t-rou6- a turbine2 6eneratin6 ele0tri0it!. @eversible turbineK6enerator assemblies a0t as pump
25
and turbine (usuall! a Cran0is turbine desi6n). $earl! all fa0ilities use t-e -ei6-t differen0e
bet:een t:o natural bodies of :ater or artifi0ial reservoirs. +ure pumped%stora6e plants 4ust
s-ift t-e :ater bet:een reservoirs2 :-ile t-e Ipump%ba08I approa0- is a 0ombination of
pumped stora6e and 0onventional -!droele0tri0 plants t-at use natural stream%flo:. +lants t-at
do not use pumped%stora6e are referred to as 0onventional -!droele0tri0 plants; 0onventional
-!droele0tri0 plants t-at -ave si6nifi0ant stora6e 0apa0it! ma! be able to pla! a similar role in
t-e ele0tri0al 6rid as pumped stora6e2 b! deferrin6 output until needed.
1a8in6 into a00ount evaporation losses from t-e e9posed :ater surfa0e and 0onversion losses2
appro9imatel! =&F to ',F of t-e ele0tri0al ener6! used to pump t-e :ater into t-e elevated
reservoir 0an be re6ained. 1-e te0-ni<ue is 0urrentl! t-e most 0ost%effe0tive means of storin6
lar6e amounts of ele0tri0al ener6! on an operatin6 basis2 but 0apital 0osts and t-e presen0e of
appropriate 6eo6rap-! are 0riti0al de0ision fa0tors.
1-e relativel! lo: ener6! densit! of pumped stora6e s!stems re<uires eit-er a ver! lar6e bod!
of :ater or a lar6e variation in -ei6-t. Cor e9ample2 (&&& 8ilo6rams of :ater (( 0ubi0 meter)
at t-e top of a (&& meter to:er -as a potential ener6! of about &./=/ 87Q- (0apable of raisin6
t-e temperature of t-e same amount of :ater b! onl! &./> )elsius R &.*/ Ca-ren-eit). 1-e
onl! :a! to store a si6nifi0ant amount of ener6! is b! -avin6 a lar6e bod! of :ater lo0ated on
a -ill relativel! near2 but as -i6- as possible above2 a se0ond bod! of :ater. In some pla0es
t-is o00urs naturall!2 in ot-ers one or bot- bodies of :ater -ave been man%made. +ro4e0ts in
:-i0- bot- reservoirs are artifi0ial and in :-i0- no natural :ater:a!s are involved are
0ommonl! referred to as I0losed loopI.
1-is s!stem ma! be e0onomi0al be0ause it flattens out load variations on t-e po:er 6rid2
permittin6 t-ermal po:er stations su0- as 0oal%fired plants and nu0lear po:er plants and
rene:able ener6! po:er plants t-at provide base%load ele0tri0it! to 0ontinue operatin6 at pea8
effi0ien0! (ase load po:er plants)2 :-ile redu0in6 t-e need for Ipea8in6I po:er plants t-at
use t-e same fuels as man! baseload t-ermal plants2 6as and oil2 but -ave been desi6ned for
fle9ibilit! rat-er t-an ma9imal t-ermal effi0ien0!. Ho:ever2 0apital 0osts for purpose%built
-!drostora6e are relativel! -i6-.
Alon6 :it- ener6! mana6ement2 pumped stora6e s!stems -elp 0ontrol ele0tri0al net:or8 fre<uen0!
and provide reserve 6eneration. 1-ermal plants are mu0- less able to respond to sudden 0-an6es in
ele0tri0al demand2 potentiall! 0ausin6 fre<uen0! and volta6e instabilit!. +umped stora6e plants2 li8e
ot-er -!droele0tri0 plants2 0an respond to load 0-an6es :it-in se0onds.
1-e upper reservoir (#l!n St:lan) and dam of t-e Cfestinio6 +umped Stora6e S0-eme in
$ort- 7ales. 1-e lo:er po:er station -as four :ater turbines :-i0- 6enerate >?& M7 of
ele0tri0it! :it-in ?& se0onds of t-e need arisin6. 1-e siAe of t-e dam 0an be 4ud6ed from t-e
road belo:.
1-e first use of pumped stora6e :as in t-e ('.&s in Ital! and S:itAerland. In t-e (.>&s
reversible -!droele0tri0 turbines be0ame available. 1-ese turbines 0ould operate as bot-
turbine%6enerators and in reverse as ele0tri0 motor driven pumps. 1-e latest in lar6e%s0ale
en6ineerin6 te0-nolo6! are variable speed ma0-ines for 6reater effi0ien0!. 1-ese ma0-ines
26
6enerate in s!n0-roniAation :it- t-e net:or8 fre<uen0!2 but operate as!n0-ronousl!
(independent of t-e net:or8 fre<uen0!) as motor%pumps.
1-e first use of pumped%stora6e in t-e Bnited States :as in (.>& b! t-e )onne0ti0ut Ele0tri0
and +o:er )ompan!2 usin6 a lar6e reservoir lo0ated near $e: Milford2 )onne0ti0ut2 pumpin6
:ater from t-e Housatoni0 @iver to t-e stora6e reservoir />& feet above.
A ne: use for pumped stora6e is to level t-e flu0tuatin6 output of intermittent po:er sour0es.
1-e pumped stora6e provides a load at times of -i6- ele0tri0it! output and lo: ele0tri0it!
demand2 enablin6 additional s!stem pea8 0apa0it!. In 0ertain 4urisdi0tions2 ele0tri0it! pri0es
ma! be 0lose to Aero or o00asionall! ne6ative (Ontario in earl! September2 /&&?)2 on
o00asions t-at t-ere is more ele0tri0al 6eneration t-an load available to absorb it; alt-ou6- at
present t-is is rarel! due to :ind alone2 in0reased :ind 6eneration ma! in0rease t-e li8eli-ood
of su0- o00urren0es. It is parti0ularl! li8el! t-at pumped stora6e :ill be0ome espe0iall!
important as a balan0e for ver! lar6e s0ale p-otovoltai0 6eneration.
7orld:ide use of pumped%stora6e -!droele0tri0it!
In /&&. :orld pumped stora6e 6eneratin6 0apa0it! :as (&* G72S.T :-ile ot-er sour0es 0laim
(/= G72 :-i0- 0omprises t-e vast ma4orit! of all t!pes of utilit! 6rade ele0tri0 stora6e.S(&T
1-e EB -ad >'.> G7 net 0apa0it! (>?.'F of :orld 0apa0it!) out of a total of (*& G7 of
-!dropo:er and representin6 ,F of total net ele0tri0al 0apa0it! in t-e EB. Japan -ad /,.,
G7 net 0apa0ities (/*.,F of :orld 0apa0it!).
In /&(& t-e Bnited States -ad /(., G7 of pumped stora6e 6eneratin6 0apa0it! (/&.?F of
:orld 0apa0it!). +HS 6enerated (net) %,,&( G7- of ener6! in /&(& be0ause more ener6! is
0onsumed in pumpin6 t-an is 6enerated.
Cive lar6est operational pumped%stora6e plants are listed belo::
Station Country Capacity (M/!
Bath County *umped Storage Station Bnited States >2&&>
1uangdong *umped Storage *o)er Station
)-ina
/2*&&
.:utataragi (ydroelectric *o)er Station
Japan
(2.>/
27
$udington *umped Storage *o)er *lant Bnited States (2'=/
Tianhuangping *umped Storage *o)er Station
)-ina
(2'>?
*otential technologies
1-e use of under6round reservoirs -as been investi6ated. @e0ent e9amples in0lude t-e
proposed Summit pro4e0t in $orton2 O-io2 and t-e Mount Hope pro4e0t in $e: Jerse!2 :-i0-
:as to -ave used a former iron mine as t-e lo:er reservoir. Several ne: under6round pumped
stora6e pro4e0ts -ave been proposed. )ost estimates for t-ese pro4e0ts are -i6-er t-an for
surfa0e pro4e0ts2 but t-eir use mi6-t 6reatl! e9pand t-e number of pumped stora6e sites.
A ne: 0on0ept is to use :ind turbines or solar po:er to drive :ater pumps dire0tl!2 in effe0t
an EEner6! Storin6 7ind or Solar DamE. 1-is 0ould provide a more effi0ient pro0ess and
usefull! smoot- out t-e variabilit! of ener6! 0aptured from t-e :ind or sun.
One 0an use pumped sea :ater to store t-e ener6!. 1-e >& M7 Hanbaru pro4e0t in O8ina:a
:as t-e first demonstration of sea:ater pumped stora6e. A >&& M7 sea:ater%based pro4e0t
-as re0entl! been proposed on #anai2 Ha:aii2 and several sea:ater%based pro4e0ts -ave
28
re0entl! been proposed in Ireland. Anot-er potential e9ample of t-is 0ould be used in a tidal
barra6e or tidal la6oon. A potential benefit of t-is arises if sea:ater is allo:ed to flo: be-ind
t-e barra6e or into t-e la6oon at -i6- tide :-en t-e :ater level is rou6-l! e<ual eit-er side of
t-e barrier2 :-en t-e potential ener6! differen0e is 0lose to Aero. 1-en :ater is released at lo:
tide :-en a -ead of :ater -as been built up be-ind t-e barrier2 :-en t-ere is a far 6reater
potential ener6! differen0e bet:een t-e t:o bodies of :ater. 1-e result bein6 t-at :-en t-e
ener6! used to pump t-e :ater is re0overed2 it :ill -ave multiplied to a de6ree dependin6 on
t-e -ead of :ater built up. A furt-er en-an0ement is to pump more :ater at -i6- tide furt-er
in0reasin6 t-e -ead :it- for e9ample intermittent rene:ables. 1:o do:nsides are t-at t-e
6enerator must be belo: sea level2 and t-at marine or6anisms :ould tend to 6ro: on t-e
e<uipment and disrupt operation. 1-is is not a ma4or problem for t-e EDC #a @an0e 1idal
po:er station in Cran0e. Instead of pumpin6 :ater up-ill2 t-e pumped stora6e idea 0an be
inverted2 pumpin6 air under :ater.
Run;of;the;ri'er hydroelectricity

Operatin" prin!iple
29
@un%of%t-e%river -!droele0tri0it! (@O@) is a t!pe of -!droele0tri0 6eneration :-ereb! little or
no :ater stora6e is provided. @un%of%t-e%river po:er plants ma! eit-er -ave no stora6e at all2
or a limited amount of stora6e2 in :-i0- 0ase t-e stora6e reservoir is referred to as ponda6e. A
plant :it-out ponda6e -as no stora6e and is2 t-erefore2 sub4e0ted to seasonal river flo:s and
serves as a pea8in6 po:er plant :-ile a plant :it- ponda6e 0an re6ulate :ater flo: and serve
eit-er as a pea8in6 or base load po:er plant.
Concept
@un%of%t-e%river -!droele0tri0it! is ideal for streams or rivers :it- a minimum dr! :eat-er
flo: or t-ose re6ulated b! a mu0- lar6er dam and reservoir upstream.

A dam2 smaller t-an
t-at used for traditional -!dro2 is re<uired to ensure t-at t-ere is enou6- :ater to enter t-e
Ipensto08I pipes t-at lead to t-e lo:er%elevation turbines.
S>T
+ro4e0ts :it- ponda6e2 as
opposed to t-ose :it-out ponda6e2 0an store :ater for pea8 load demand or 0ontinuousl! for
base load2 espe0iall! durin6 :et seasons. In 6eneral2 pro4e0ts divert some or most of a riverUs
flo: (up to .,F of mean annual dis0-ar6e) t-rou6- a pipe andKor tunnel leadin6 to ele0tri0it!%
6eneratin6 turbines2 t-en return t-e :ater ba08 to t-e river do:nstream.
@O@ pro4e0ts are dramati0all! different in desi6n and appearan0e from 0onventional
-!droele0tri0 pro4e0ts. 1raditional -!dro dams store enormous <uantities of :ater in
reservoirs2 ne0essitatin6 t-e floodin6 of lar6e tra0ts of land. In 0ontrast2 most run%of%river
pro4e0ts do not re<uire a lar6e impoundment of :ater2 :-i0- is a 8e! reason :-! su0-
pro4e0ts are often referred to as environmentall!%friendl!2 or I6reen po:er.I
1-e use of t-e term Irun%of%t-e%riverI for po:er pro4e0ts varies around t-e :orld and is
dependent on different definitions. Some ma! 0onsider a pro4e0t @O@ if po:er is produ0ed
:it- no stora6e :-ile a limited stora6e is 0onsidered b! ot-ers. Developers ma! mislabel a
pro4e0t @O@ to soot- publi0 ima6e about its environmental or so0ial effe0ts. 1-e ureau of
Indian Standards des0ribes run%of%t-e%river -!droele0tri0it! as:
A po:er station utiliAin6 t-e run of t-e river flo:s for 6eneration of po:er :it- suffi0ient
ponda6e for suppl!in6 :ater for meetin6 diurnal or :ee8l! flu0tuations of demand. In su0-
stations2 t-e normal 0ourse of t-e river is not materiall! altered.
Man! of t-e lar6er @O@ pro4e0ts -ave been desi6ned to a s0ale and 6eneratin6 0apa0it!
rivalin6 some traditional -!dro dams. Cor e9ample2 one @O@ pro4e0t 0urrentl! proposed in
ritis- )olumbia ()) )anadaVone of t-e :orldUs ne: epi0entres of run%of%river
developmentV-as been desi6ned to 6enerate (&/= me6a:atts 0apa0it!.
Ad'antages
7-en developed :it- 0are to footprint siAe and lo0ation2 @O@ -!dro pro4e0ts 0an 0reate
sustainable ener6! minimiAin6 impa0ts to t-e surroundin6 environment and nearb!
0ommunities.
S
Advanta6es in0lude:
Cleaner power, fewer greenhouse gases
#i8e all -!dro%ele0tri0 po:er2 run%of%t-e%river -!dro -arnesses t-e natural ener6! of :ater and
6ravit!2 eliminatin6 t-e need to burn 0oal or natural 6as to 6enerate t-e ele0tri0it! needed b!
0onsumers and industr!.
30
Less fooding/reservoirs
Substantial floodin6 of t-e upper part of t-e river is not re<uired for smaller%s0ale run%of%river
pro4e0ts as a lar6e reservoir is not re<uired. As a result2 people livin6 at or near t-e river donEt
need to be relo0ated and natural -abitats and produ0tive farmlands are not :iped out.
0isad'antages
@un%of%t-e%@iver po:er is 0onsidered an 5unfirmW sour0e of po:er: a run%of%t-e%river pro4e0t
-as little or no 0apa0it! for ener6! stora6e and -en0e 0anEt 0o%ordinate t-e output of ele0tri0it!
6eneration to mat0- 0onsumer demand. It t-us 6enerates mu0- more po:er durin6 times :-en
seasonal river flo:s are -i6- (i.e2 sprin6 fres-et)2

and mu0- less durin6 drier summer mont-s.
Availability of sites
1-e potential po:er at a site is a result of t-e -ead and flo: of :ater. ! dammin6 a river2 t-e
-ead is available to 6enerate po:er at t-e fa0e of t-e dam. 7-ere a dam ma! 0reate a
reservoir -undreds of 8ilometers lon62 in run of t-e river t-e -ead is usuall! delivered b! a
0anal2 pipe or tunnel 0onstru0ted upstream of t-e po:er -ouse. Due to t-e 0ost of upstream
0onstru0tion2 a steep drop in t-e river is desirable.
Environmental impacts
Small2 :ell%sited @O@ pro4e0ts 0an be developed :it- minimal environmental impa0ts.
#ar6er pro4e0ts -ave more environmental 0on0erns. Cor e9ample2 +lutoni0 +o:er )orp.Us
ute Inlet H!droele0tri0 +ro4e0t in ) :ill see t-ree 0lusters of run%of%river pro4e0ts :it- (=
river diversions; as proposed2 t-is run%of%river pro4e0t :ill divert over .& 8ilometres of
streams and rivers into tunnels and pipelines2 re<uirin6 **> 8m of ne: transmission line2
/?= 8m of permanent roads2 and (*/ brid6es2 to be built in :ilderness areas.
ritis- )olumbiaUs mountainous terrain and :ealt- of bi6 rivers -ave made it a 6lobal testin6
6round for run%of%river te0-nolo6!. As of Mar0- /&(&2 t-ere :ere ?/' appli0ations pendin6
for ne: :ater li0en0es solel! for t-e purposes of po:er 6eneration N representin6 more t-an
=,& potential points of river diversion.
Concerns
(. Man! of t-e impa0ts of t-is te0-nolo6! are still not understood or :ell%0onsidered2
in0ludin6 t-e follo:in6:
/. Divertin6 lar6e amounts of river :ater redu0es river flo:s2 affe0tin6 :ater velo0it!
and dept-2 minimiAin6 -abitat <ualit! for fis- and a<uati0 or6anisms; redu0ed flo:s
0an lead to e90essivel! :arm :ater for salmon and ot-er fis- in summer.

As planned2
t-e ute Inlet pro4e0t in ) 0ould divert ., per0ent of t-e mean annual flo: in at least
t-ree of t-e rivers.
>. $e: a00ess roads and transmission lines 0an 0ause e9tensive -abitat fra6mentation for
man! spe0ies2 ma8in6 inevitable t-e introdu0tion of invasive spe0ies and in0reases in
undesirable -uman a0tivities2 li8e ille6al -untin6.
31
*. )umulative impa0tsVt-e sum of impa0ts 0aused not onl! b! t-e pro4e0t2 but b! roads2
transmission lines and all ot-er nearb! developmentsVare diffi0ult to measure.
)umulative impa0ts are an espe0iall! important 0onsideration in areas :-ere pro4e0ts
are 0lustered in -i6- densities 0lose to sour0es of ele0tri0it! demand: for e9ample2 of
t-e ?/' pendin6 :ater li0ense appli0ations for -!dropo:er development in ritis-
)olumbia2 rou6-l! one t-ird are lo0ated in t-e sout-:estern <uarter of t-e provin0e2

:-ere -uman population densit! and asso0iated environmental impa0ts are -i6-est.
,. 7ater li0enses issued b! t-e ) Ministr! of Environment2 enablin6 developers to
le6all! divert rivers2 -ave not in0luded 0lauses t-at spe0if! 0-an6in6 :ater
entitlements in response to altered 0onditions; t-is fa0t means t-at 0onfli0ts :ill arise
over t-e :ater needed to sustain a<uati0 life and 6enerate po:er :-en river flo:
be0omes more variable or de0reases in t-e future.

Ho:ever2 it s-ould also be noted
t-at under se0tion (&( of t-e ) 7ater A0t2 re6ulations re6ardin6 a :ater li0enses 0an
be 0-an6ed b! t-e 6overnment at an! time2 in0ludin6 t-e amount of :ater t-at a po:er
plant is re<uired to release to prote0t a<uati0 life.
Tidal po)er
1idal po:er2 also 0alled tidal ener6!2 is a form of -!dropo:er t-at 0onverts t-e ener6! of
tides into useful forms of po:er % mainl! ele0tri0it!.
Alt-ou6- not !et :idel! used2 tidal po:er -as potential for future ele0tri0it! 6eneration. 1ides
are more predi0table t-an :ind ener6! and solar po:er. Amon6 sour0es of rene:able ener6!2
tidal po:er -as traditionall! suffered from relativel! -i6- 0ost and limited availabilit! of sites
:it- suffi0ientl! -i6- tidal ran6es or flo: velo0ities2 t-us 0onstri0tin6 its total availabilit!.
Ho:ever2 man! re0ent te0-nolo6i0al developments and improvements2 bot- in desi6n (e.6.
d!nami0 tidal po:er2 tidal la6oons) and turbine te0-nolo6! (e.6. ne: a9ial turbines2 0ross
flo: turbines)2 indi0ate t-at t-e total availabilit! of tidal po:er ma! be mu0- -i6-er t-an
32
previousl! assumed2 and t-at e0onomi0 and environmental 0osts ma! be brou6-t do:n to
0ompetitive levels.
Histori0all!2 tide mills -ave been used2 bot- in Europe and on t-e Atlanti0 0oast of $ort-
Ameri0a. 1-e in0omin6 :ater :as 0ontained in lar6e stora6e ponds2 and as t-e tide :ent out2
it turned :ater:-eels t-at used t-e me0-ani0al po:er it produ0ed to mill 6rain. 1-e earliest
o00urren0es date from t-e Middle A6es2 or even from @oman times.

It :as onl! in t-e (.t-
0entur! t-at t-e pro0ess of usin6 fallin6 :ater and spinnin6 turbines to 0reate ele0tri0it! :as
introdu0ed in t-e B.S. and Europe.
1-e :orldEs first lar6e%s0ale tidal po:er plant (t-e @an0e 1idal +o:er Station) be0ame
operational in (.??.
1eneration of tidal energy
33
8ariation o% tides o+er a da
1idal po:er is e9tra0ted from t-e Eart-Es o0eani0 tides; tidal for0es are periodi0 variations in
6ravitational attra0tion e9erted b! 0elestial bodies. 1-ese for0es 0reate 0orrespondin6 motions
or 0urrents in t-e :orldEs o0eans. Due to t-e stron6 attra0tion to t-e o0eans2 a bul6e in t-e
:ater level is 0reated2 0ausin6 a temporar! in0rease in sea level. 7-en t-e sea level is raised2
:ater from t-e middle of t-e o0ean is for0ed to move to:ard t-e s-orelines2 0reatin6 a tide.
1-is o00urren0e ta8es pla0e in an unfailin6 manner2 due to t-e 0onsistent pattern of t-e
moonUs orbit around t-e eart-. 1-e ma6nitude and 0-ara0ter of t-is motion refle0ts t-e
0-an6in6 positions of t-e Moon and Sun relative to t-e Eart-2 t-e effe0ts of Eart-Es rotation2
and lo0al 6eo6rap-! of t-e sea floor and 0oastlines.
1idal po:er is t-e onl! te0-nolo6! t-at dra:s on ener6! in-erent in t-e orbital 0-ara0teristi0s
of t-e Eart-NMoon s!stem2 and to a lesser e9tent in t-e Eart-NSun s!stem. Ot-er natural
ener6ies e9ploited b! -uman te0-nolo6! ori6inate dire0tl! or indire0tl! :it- t-e Sun2
in0ludin6 fossil fuel2 0onventional -!droele0tri02 :ind2 biofuel2 :ave and solar ener6!.
$u0lear ener6! ma8es use of Eart-Es mineral deposits of fissionable elements2 :-ile
6eot-ermal po:er taps t-e Eart-Es internal -eat2 :-i0- 0omes from a 0ombination of residual
-eat from planetar! a00retion (about /&F) and -eat produ0ed t-rou6- radioa0tive de0a!
('&F).
A tidal 6enerator 0onverts t-e ener6! of tidal flo:s into ele0tri0it!. Greater tidal variation and
-i6-er tidal 0urrent velo0ities 0an dramati0all! in0rease t-e potential of a site for tidal
ele0tri0it! 6eneration.
34
e0ause t-e Eart-Es tides are ultimatel! due to 6ravitational intera0tion :it- t-e Moon and
Sun and t-e Eart-Es rotation2 tidal po:er is pra0ti0all! ine9-austible and 0lassified as a
rene:able ener6! resour0e. Movement of tides 0auses a loss of me0-ani0al ener6! in t-e
Eart-NMoon s!stem: t-is is a result of pumpin6 of :ater t-rou6- natural restri0tions around
0oastlines and 0onse<uent vis0ous dissipation at t-e seabed and in turbulen0e. 1-is loss of
ener6! -as 0aused t-e rotation of t-e Eart- to slo: in t-e *., billion !ears sin0e its formation.
Durin6 t-e last ?/& million !ears t-e period of rotation of t-e eart- (len6t- of a da!) -as
in0reased from /(.. -ours to /* -ours

in t-is period t-e Eart- -as lost (=F of its rotational
ener6!. 7-ile tidal po:er ma! ta8e additional ener6! from t-e s!stem2 t-e effe0t is ne6li6ible
and :ould onl! be noti0ed over millions of !ears.
1enerating methods
The world's *rst !ommer!ial9s!ale and "rid9!onne!ted tidal
stream "enerator - 2ea:en - in 2tran"%ord Lou"h.
35
Tidal po)er can %e classified into three generating methods<
Tidal stream "enerator
1idal stream 6enerators (or 1SGs) ma8e use of t-e 8ineti0 ener6! of movin6 :ater to po:er
turbines2 in a similar :a! to :ind turbines t-at use :ind to po:er turbines. Some tidal
6enerators 0an be built into t-e stru0tures of e9istin6 brid6es2 involvin6 virtuall! no
aest-eti0 problems. #i8e:ise2 5tidal brid6in6W is a relativel! ne: advan0ement t-at is
6ainin6 re0o6nition as a more pra0ti0al and benefi0ial :a! to 6enerate tidal po:er.
lue Ener6! )anada is a 0ompan! t-at is fo0used on buildin6 brid6es to mat0- toda!Es
demands.
Tidal barra"e
1idal barra6es ma8e use of t-e potential ener6! in t-e differen0e in -ei6-t (or -ead) bet:een
-i6- and lo: tides. 7-en usin6 tidal barra6es to 6enerate po:er2 t-e potential ener6! from a
tide is seiAed t-rou6- strate6i0 pla0ement of spe0ialiAed dams. 7-en t-e sea levels rises and
t-e tide bein6s to 0ome in2 t-e temporar! in0rease in tidal po:er is 0-anneled into a lar6e
basin be-ind t-e dam2 -oldin6 a lar6e amount of potential ener6!. 7it- t-e re0edin6 tide2 t-is
ener6! is t-en 0onverted into me0-ani0al ener6! as t-e :ater is released t-rou6- lar6e
turbines t-at 0reate ele0tri0al po:er t-ou6- t-e use of 6enerators. arra6es are essentiall!
dams a0ross t-e full :idt- of a tidal estuar!.
Dnami! tidal power
D!nami0 tidal po:er (or D1+) is a t-eoreti0al 6eneration te0-nolo6! t-at :ould e9ploit an
intera0tion bet:een potential and 8ineti0 ener6ies in tidal flo:s. It proposes t-at ver! lon6
dams (for e9ample: >&N,& 8m len6t-) be built from 0oasts strai6-t out into t-e sea or o0ean2
:it-out en0losin6 an area. 1idal p-ase differen0es are introdu0ed a0ross t-e dam2 leadin6 to a
si6nifi0ant :ater%level differential in s-allo: 0oastal seas N featurin6 stron6 0oast%parallel
os0illatin6 tidal 0urrents su0- as found in t-e BK2 )-ina and Korea.
1eographic $ocations
1-e o0eanUs speed of 0ir0ulation varies b! lo0ation. )ertain 0urrents li8e t-e Clorida%Gulf
Stream )urrent S!stem -as a fast2 :estern intensified surfa0e 0urrent t-at runs alon6 t-e East
)oast of t-e Bnited States. @esear0-es -ave determined t-at at least /2&&& me6a:atts of
ele0tri0it! 0ould be 6enerated from t-e Clorida%Gulf Stream )urrent. 1-e pro9imit! to
0iviliAation ma8es t-e Gulf Stream ideal to -arvest. 1-e Antar0ti0 )ir0umpolar )urrent
provides t-e fastest 0urrent :-i0- 0an 6enerate even more po:er. 1ransferrin6 t-e 6enerated
po:er over e9tremel! lon6 distan0es ma8es t-is an unli8el! lo0ation t-ou6-.
36
2S and Canadian studies in the t)entieth century
1-e first stud! of lar6e s0ale tidal po:er plants :as b! t-e BS Cederal +o:er )ommission in
(./* :-i0- :ould -ave been lo0ated if built in t-e nort-ern border area of t-e BS state of
Maine and t-e sout- eastern border area of t-e )anadian provin0e of $e: runs:i082 :it-
various dams2 po:er-ouses and s-ip lo08s en0losin6 t-e a! of Cund! and +assama<uodd!
a! (note: see map in referen0e). $ot-in6 0ame of t-e stud! and it is un8no:n :-et-er
)anada -ad been approa0-ed about t-e stud! b! t-e BS Cederal +o:er )ommission.
1-ere :as also a report on t-e international 0ommission in April (.?( entitled 5Investi6ation
of t-e International +assama<uodd! 1idal +o:er +ro4e0tI produ0ed b! bot- t-e BS and
)anadian Cederal Governments. A00ordin6 to benefit to 0osts ratios2 t-e pro4e0t :as
benefi0ial to t-e BS but not to )anada. A -i6-:a! s!stem alon6 t-e top of t-e dams :as
envisioned as :ell.
A stud! :as 0ommissioned b! t-e )anadian2 $ova S0otian and $e: runs:i08 Governments
(@eassessment of Cund! 1idal +o:er) to determine t-e potential for tidal barra6es at
)-i6ne0to a! and Minas asin N at t-e end of t-e Cund! a! estuar!. 1-ere :ere t-ree sites
determined to be finan0iall! feasible: S-epod! a! ((,,& M7)2 )umberline asin ((&',
M7) and )obe<uid a! (>'&& M7). 1-ese :ere never built despite t-eir apparent feasibilit!
in (.==.
Tidal *o)er Issues
E!olo"i!al
1idal po:er 0an be a t-reat to marine life. 1-e turbines 0an a00identall! 8ill s:immin6 sea
life :it- t-e rotatin6 blades. 1-e Annapolis @o!al Generatin6 Station dis0overed a bod! of an
immature -umpba08 :-ale as it s:am t-rou6- t-e 6ates. Some fis-es ma! no lon6er utiliAe
t-e area if t-e! :ere t-reatened :it- a 0onstant rotatin6 ob4e0t. 1-e turbines 0an also be a
dan6er to s-ips if t-e turbines are installed in s-allo: :aters. Similarl!2 rotatin6 turbines 0an
also be a dan6er to submersible vessels if installed in deeper :aters.
Cor tidal barra6e2 0ertain spe0ies ma! no lon6er e9ist on t-e ot-er side of t-e barra6e. 1-e
barra6e limits a00esses to spe0ies t-at are 0apable of enterin6 and e9itin6 t-e barra6e
openin6s.
Corrosion
Salt :ater 0auses 0orrosion in metal parts2 :-i0- redu0es t-e total ele0tri0al !ield t-e turbine
0an 6enerate. It 0an be diffi0ult to maintain tidal steam 6enerators due to its siAe and dept- in
t-e :ater. Me0-ani0al fluids2 su0- as lubri0ants2 0an lea8 out2 :-i0- is -armful to t-e marine
life nearb!.
37
1-e follo:in6 redo9 rea0tion o00urs in t-e presen0e of :ater and is 0ru0ial to t-e formation of
rust:
4?e
2C
C D2 E 4?e
3C
C 2D
2F
In addition2 t-e follo:in6 multistep a0id%base rea0tions affe0t t-e 0ourse of rust formation:
?e
2C
C 2>2D G ?e%D>&2 C 2>
C
?e
3C
C 3>2D G ?e%D>&3 C 3>
C
1-e H
X
0an raise t-e pH of t-e surroundin6 :ater2 :-i0- ma! -arm pH intolerant spe0ies
andKor dissolve t-e 0al0ium 0arbonate s-ells of 0al0areous spe0ies.
)orrosion 0an be avoided if t-e turbines are not 0onstru0ted from iron. +roper maintenan0e
0an minimiAe t-e amount of -armful 0-emi0als t-at ma! enter t-e environment.
2nderground po)er station
An under6round po:er station ma8es use of a lar6e natural -ei6-t differen0e bet:een t:o
:ater:a!s2 su0- as a :aterfall or mountain la8e. An under6round tunnel is 0onstru0ted to ta8e
:ater from t-e -i6- reservoir to t-e 6eneratin6 -all built in an under6round 0avern near t-e
lo:est point of t-e :ater tunnel and a -oriAontal tailra0e ta8in6 :ater a:a! to t-e lo:er outlet
:ater:a!.
An underground po)er station is a t!pe of -!droele0tri0 po:er station 0onstru0ted b!
e90avatin6 t-e ma4or 0omponents (e.6. ma0-ine -all2 pensto08s2 and tailra0e) from ro082
rat-er t-an t-e more 0ommon surfa0e%based 0onstru0tion met-ods.
Often under6round po:er stations form part of pumped stora6e -!droele0tri0it! s0-emes2
:-ose basi0 fun0tion is to level load: t-e! use 0-eap or surplus off%pea8 po:er to pump :ater
from a lo:er la8e to an upper la8e2 t-en2 durin6 pea8 periods (:-en ele0tri0it! pri0es are
often -i6-)2 t-e po:er station 6enerates po:er from t-e :ater -eld in t-e upper la8e.
38
Types of dams
Dams 0an be formed b! -uman a6en0!2 natural 0auses2 or even b! t-e intervention of :ildlife
su0- as beavers. Man%made dams are t!pi0all! 0lassified a00ordin6 to t-eir siAe (-ei6-t)2
intended purpose or stru0ture.
; stru!ture
ased on stru0ture and material used2 dams are 0lassified as timber dams2 ar0-%6ravit! dams2
emban8ment dams or masonr! dams2 :it- several subt!pes.
Arch dams


In t-e ar0- dam2 stabilit! is obtained b! a 0ombination of ar0- and 6ravit! a0tion. If t-e
upstream fa0e is verti0al t-e entire :ei6-t of t-e dam must be 0arried to t-e foundation b!
6ravit!2 :-ile t-e distribution of t-e normal -!drostati0 pressure bet:een verti0al 0antilever
39
and ar0- a0tion :ill depend upon t-e stiffness of t-e dam in a verti0al and -oriAontal
dire0tion. 7-en t-e upstream fa0e is sloped t-e distribution is more 0ompli0ated. 1-e normal
0omponent of t-e :ei6-t of t-e ar0- rin6 ma! be ta8en b! t-e ar0- a0tion2 :-ile t-e normal
-!drostati0 pressure :ill be distributed as des0ribed above. Cor t-is t!pe of dam2 firm reliable
supports at t-e abutments (eit-er buttress or 0an!on side :all) are more important. 1-e most
desirable pla0e for an ar0- dam is a narro: 0an!on :it- steep side :alls 0omposed of sound
ro08. 1-e safet! of an ar0- dam is dependent on t-e stren6t- of t-e side :all abutments2 -en0e
not onl! s-ould t-e ar0- be :ell seated on t-e side :alls but also t-e 0-ara0ter of t-e ro08
s-ould be 0arefull! inspe0ted.
)ross se0tion of an ar0- dam
Emban8ment dams are 0onstru0ted of eit-er eart- fill or a 0ombination of eart- and ro08 fill.
1-erefore2 emban8ment dams are 6enerall! built in areas :-ere lar6e amount of eart- or
ro08s are available. 1-e! represent =,F of all dams in t-e :orld. Gravit! dams depend
entirel! on t-eir o:n :ei6-t to resist t-e tremendous for0e of stored :ater. In t-e earlier
times2 some dams -ave been 0onstru0ted :it- masonr! blo08s and 0on0rete. 1oda!2 6ravit!
dams are 0onstru0ted b! mass 0on0rete or roller 0ompa0ted 0on0rete.
Ar0- dams are 0on0rete dams t-at 0urve upstream to:ard t-e flo: of :ater. 1-e! are
6enerall! built in narro: 0an!ons2 :-ere t-e ar0- 0an transfer t-e :aterEs for0e to t-e 0an!on
:all. Ar0- dams re<uire mu0- less 0on0rete t-an 6ravit! dams of t-e same len6t-2 but t-e!
re<uire a solid ro08 foundation to support t-eir :ei6-t. uttress dams depend for support on a
series of verti0al supports 0alled buttresses2 :-i0- run alon6 t-e do:nstream fa0e.
40
1ra'ity dams
41
In a 6ravit! dam2 t-e for0e t-at -olds t-e dam in pla0e a6ainst t-e pus- from t-e :ater is
Eart-Es 6ravit! pullin6 do:n on t-e mass of t-e dam. 1-e :ater presses laterall!
(do:nstream) on t-e dam2 tendin6 to overturn t-e dam b! rotatin6 about its toe (a point at t-e
bottom do:nstream side of t-e dam). 1-e damEs :ei6-t 0ountera0ts t-at for0e2 tendin6 to
rotate t-e dam t-e ot-er :a! about its toe. 1-e desi6ner ensures t-at t-e dam is -eav! enou6-
t-at 6ravit! :ins t-at 0ontest. In en6ineerin6 terms2 t-at is true :-enever t-e resultant of t-e
for0es of 6ravit! and :ater pressure on t-e dam a0ts in a line t-at passes upstream of t-e toe
of t-e dam.
Curt-ermore2 t-e desi6ner tries to s-ape t-e dam so if one :ere to 0onsider t-e part of dam
above an! parti0ular -ei6-t to be a :-ole dam itself2 t-at dam also :ould be -eld in pla0e b!
6ravit!. I.e. t-ere is no tension in t-e upstream fa0e of t-e dam -oldin6 t-e top of t-e dam
do:n. 1-e desi6ner does t-is be0ause it is usuall! more pra0ti0al to ma8e a dam of material
essentiall! 4ust piled up t-an to ma8e t-e material sti08 to6et-er a6ainst verti0al tension.
$ote t-at t-e s-ape t-at prevents tension in t-e upstream fa0e also eliminates a balan0in6
0ompression stress in t-e do:nstream fa0e2 providin6 additional e0onom!.
1-e desi6ner also ensures t-at t-e toe of t-e dam is sun8 deep enou6- in t-e eart- t-at it does
not slide for:ard. Cor t-is t!pe of dam2 it is essential to -ave an impervious foundation :it-
-i6- bearin6 stren6t-. 7-en situated on a suitable site2 a 6ravit! dam 0an prove to be a better
alternative to ot-er t!pes of dams. 7-en built on a 0arefull! studied foundation2 t-e 6ravit!
dam probabl! represents t-e best developed e9ample of dam buildin6. Sin0e t-e fear of flood
is a stron6 motivator in man! re6ions2 6ravit! dams are bein6 built in some instan0es :-ere
an ar0- dam :ould -ave been more e0onomi0al.
Gravit! dams are 0lassified as IsolidI or I-ollo:I and are 6enerall! made of eit-er 0on0rete
or masonr!. 1-is is 0alled IAonin6I. 1-e 0ore of t-e dam is Aoned dependin6 on t-e
availabilit! of lo0all! available materials2 foundation 0onditions and t-e material attributes.
1-e solid form is t-e more :idel! used of t-e t:o2 t-ou6- t-e -ollo: dam is fre<uentl! more
e0onomi0al to 0onstru0t. Gravit! dams 0an also be 0lassified as Ioverflo:I (spill:a!) and
Inon%overflo:.I Grand )oulee Dam is a solid 6ravit! dam and Itaipu Dam is a -ollo: 6ravit!
dam.
42
Ar!h9"ra+it dams
43
Desi6n of a 0on0rete dam depends on t-e purpose of t-e dam and t-e 0onfi6uration of t-e site
:-ere it :ill be built. Dams are of t:o 6eneral t!pes. Overflo: dams blo08 flo: in a stream
and -arness t-e :ater for 6eneratin6 po:er or to improve navi6ation and provide irri6ation
:ater. 1-e 0omponents of an overflo: dam are desi6ned so t-e :ater 0an be released and t-e
level of t-e :ater in t-e reservoir re6ulated b! a series of slui0e 6ates2 spill:a!s2 or outlet
tunnels. $on%overflo: dams store :ater for drin8in6 :ater suppl!2 irri6ation2 or po:er; t-e!
also -ave a spill:a!2 but its use is restri0ted for emer6en0ies to lo:er t-e :ater level <ui08l!
durin6 floods. Met-ods for releasin6 t-e stored :ater are mu0- more limited t-an in overflo:
dams2 and t-e dam itself ma! not 0ontain an! outlet stru0tures. Instead2 :ater ma! be pumped
out for irri6ation2 for e9ample2 from part of t-e reservoir.
Some sites are best suited to parti0ular t!pes of dams. An ar0- dam is most appropriate for
0onstru0tion in a -i6-2 narro: 6or6e :-ere t-e ar0- of t-e stru0tural s-ape provides stren6t-.
ut an ar0- 0an also be built a0ross a :ider 0an!on :-ere ot-er effe0ts li8e fri0tion on t-e
base of t-e dam add stren6t- and resistan0e to movement. Similarl!2 a 6ravit! dam is t-e
t!pi0al 0-oi0e for a s-allo:2 :ide 0an!on2 but if it is built :it- some 0urvature2 ar0-in6 a0tion
:ill also stren6t-en a 6ravit! dam in a narro:er and -i6-er 6or6e. 7-ere t-e riverbed is
e90eptionall! :ide2 t-e dam ma! be desi6ned to -ave several spans2 ea0- :it- different
en6ineerin6 properties dependin6 on t-e variation of foundation materials. 1-e separate spans
are usuall! supported on t-e do:nstream (air) side b! buttresses or t-e e9tended 0urves of
multiple ar0-es. Sometimes2 t-e spans of multiple span dams are 0onstru0ted of 0on0rete slabs
or steel plates supported on piers.
#i8e fill dams2 0on0rete dams 6o t-rou6- e9tensive rounds of preliminar! desi6n and
feasibilit! studies to 0-oose and e9plore t-e site2 to evaluate t-e <uantit! of :ater retained and
its value (as a po:er sour0e or sour0e of suppl!) versus t-e 0ost of t-e pro4e0t over t-e
anti0ipated !ears of operation2 to 0onsider a :ide ran6e of ot-er effe0ts su0- as 0-an6es to t-e
environment2 and to 0-oose a dam of t-e optimal siAe and 0onfi6uration. Hundreds of fa0tors
enter into t-ese studies2 and t-e pro0ess is usuall! iterative. A desi6n is 0-osen and tested
a6ainst all t-ese fa0tors until it fails to satisf! one or more fa0tors2 and t-e ne9t variation in
desi6n is 0-osen and studied until it failsVor passes.
44
1-e desi6n pro0ess for a 0on0rete dam t!pi0all! involves professionals from a more e9tensive
ran6e of dis0iplines t-an desi6n of a fill dam. 1-e te0-ni0al professionals :-o 0ontribute t-eir
e9pertise to desi6n of a 0on0rete dam ma! in0lude 6eolo6ists2 seismolo6ists2 environmental
s0ientists2 6eote0-ni0al (soil) en6ineers2 0ivil en6ineers2 stru0tural en6ineers2 0omputer
anal!sts (spe0ialists in soft:are appli0ations t-at e9amine t-e damEs stren6t- and safet!)2
-!drolo6ists and -!drauli0 en6ineers2 me0-ani0al en6ineers2 and ele0tri0al en6ineers if t-e
dam is to be used for po:er 6eneration. Still more spe0ialists ma! stud! aspe0ts li8e 0orrosion
of 0on0rete and steel stru0tures. 1-e team:or8 re<uired for dam desi6n and 0onstru0tion is
0riti0al not onl! be0ause of t-e enormous 0osts of t-ese pro4e0ts but be0ause t-e safet!
A 6ravit! dam 0an be 0ombined :it- an ar0- dam into an ar0-%6ravit! dam for areas :it-
massive amounts of :ater flo: but less material available for a purel! 6ravit! dam.
A barra6e dam is a spe0ial 8ind of dam :-i0- 0onsists of a line of lar6e 6ates t-at 0an be
opened or 0losed to 0ontrol t-e amount of :ater passin6 t-e dam. 1-e 6ates are set bet:een
flan8in6 piers :-i0- are responsible for supportin6 t-e :ater load. 1-e! are often used to
0ontrol and stabiliAe :ater flo: for irri6ation s!stems.
arra6es t-at are built at t-e mout- of rivers or la6oons to prevent tidal in0ursions or utiliAe
t-e tidal flo: for tidal po:er are 8no:n as tidal barra6es.
The Construction *rocess
(. efore 0onstru0tion 0an be6in on an! dam2 t-e :ater in t-e streambed must be
diverted or stopped from flo:in6 t-rou6- t-e site. As in t-e 0ase of fill dams2 a 0offer%
dam (a temporar! stru0ture to impound t-e :ater) must be built or t-e :ater must be
diverted into anot-er 0-annel or area do:n%stream from t-e dam site. Cor lar6e
pro4e0ts2 t-is 0onstru0tion ma! be done several seasons before buildin6 of t-e dam
be6ins. 1-e flo: of :ater is 0losed off at t-e ver! last moment.
/. 1-e foundation area for an! 0on0rete dam must be imma0ulate before t-e first
0on0rete for t-e dam is pla0ed. As for fill dams2 t-is is a detailed pro0ess of
e90avatin62 0leanin62 and repairin6 t-e ro08 t-rou6-out t-e foundation IfootprintI and
on bot- abutments (t-e sides of t-e 0an!on t-at form t-e ends of t-e dam). Sites
immediatel! do:nstream of t-e dam for an! po:er plant2 stillin6 basin2 or ot-er
stru0ture must also be prepared.
At some sites2 e9tensive :or8 ma! be re<uired. If t-e ro08 in t-e foundation or
abutments is prone to fra0turin6 be0ause of t-e load imposed b! t-e dam and its
reservoir2 eart-<ua8e a0tivit!2 or t-e properties of t-e ro082 it ma! be ne0essar! to
install e9tensive s!stems of ro08 bolts or an0-or bolts t-at are 6routed into t-e ro08
t-rou6- potential fra0ture Aones. On t-e abutments above t-e dam2 s!stems of ro08
bolts and nettin6 ma! be re<uired to 8eep lar6e ro08 fra6ments from fallin6 onto t-e
dam. Instruments to monitor 6round:ater levels2 4oint movement2 potential seepa6e2
slope movements2 and seismi0 a0tivit! are installed be6innin6 durin6 t-e earl! sta6es
of foundation preparation t-rou6- 0ompletion of t-e dam.
A 0utoff :all ma! be e90avated deep into ro08 or -oles ma! be drilled in t-e
foundation for t-e installation of reinfor0in6 steel2 0alled rebars t-at e9tend up into t-e
dam and :ill be tied to t-e steel inside t-e first lifts of t-e dam. 1-e idea is to build a
45
reservoir t-at2 li8e a bo:l2 is e<uall! sound around its perimeter. 1-e :ater is deepest
and -eaviest at t-e dam (:-en t-e reservoir is near 0apa0it!) so t-e dam and its
foundation 0annot be a :ea8 point in t-at perimeter.
>. Corms made of :ood or steel are 0onstru0ted alon6 t-e ed6es of ea0- se0tion of t-e
dam. @ebar is pla0ed inside t-e forms and tied to an! ad4a0ent rebar t-at :as
previousl! installed. 1-e 0on0rete is t-en poured or pumped in. 1-e -ei6-t of ea0- lift
of 0on0rete is t!pi0all! onl! ,%(& ft. ((.,%> m) and t-e len6t- and :idt- of ea0- dam
se0tion to be poured as a unit is onl! about ,& ft. ((, m). )onstru0tion 0ontinues in
t-is :a! as t-e dam is raised se0tion b! se0tion and lift b! lift. Some ma4or dams are
built in se0tions 0alled blo08s :it- 8e!s or inter%lo08s t-at lin8 ad4a0ent blo08s as :ell
as stru0tural steel 0onne0tions.
1-e pro0ess is mu0- li8e 0onstru0tin6 a buildin6 e90ept t-at t-e dam -as far less
internal spa0e; surprisin6l!2 -o:ever2 ma4or 0on0rete dams -ave observation 6alleries
at various levels so t-e 0ondition of t-e inside of t-e dam 0an be observed for seepa6e
and movement. Inlet and outlet tunnels or ot-er stru0tures also pass t-rou6- 0on0rete
dams2 ma8in6 t-em ver! different from fill dams t-at -ave as fe: stru0tures
penetratin6 t-e mass of t-e dam as possible.
*. As soon as a si6nifi0ant portion of t-e dam is built2 t-e pro0ess of fillin6 t-e reservoir
ma! be6in. 1-is is done in a -i6-l! 0ontrolled manner to evaluate t-e stresses on t-e
dam and observe its earl! performan0e. A temporar! emer6en0! spill:a! is
0onstru0ted if dam buildin6 ta8es more t-an one 0onstru0tion season; len6t-!
0onstru0tion is usuall! done in p-ases 0alled sta6es2 but ea0- sta6e is full! 0omplete in
itself and is an operational dam. 1-e upstream 0offerdam ma! be left in pla0e as a
temporar! pre0aution2 but it is not usuall! desi6ned to -old more t-an minimal stream
flo:s and rainfall and :ill be dismantled as soon as pra0ti0al. Dependin6 on desi6n2
some dams are not filled until 0onstru0tion is essentiall! 0omplete.
,. 1-e ot-er stru0tures t-at ma8e t-e dam operational are added as soon as t-e elevation
of t-eir lo0ation is rea0-ed as t-e dam rises. 1-e final 0omponents are erosion
prote0tion on t-e upstream (:ater) side of t-e dam (and sometimes do:nstream at t-e
bases of outlet stru0tures)2 instruments alon6 t-e 0rest (top) of t-e dam2 and roads2
side%:al8s2 streetli6-ts2 and retainin6 :alls. A ma4or dam li8e Hoover Dam -as a full%
fled6ed road:a! alon6 its 0rest; small dams :ill -ave maintenan0e roads t-at allo:
sin6le%file a00ess of ve-i0les onl!.
46
$ist of con'entional hydroelectric po)er stations
1-is arti0le lists -!droele0tri0 po:er stations t-at 6enerate po:er usin6 t-e 0onventional
dammed met-od. 1-is list in0ludes po:er stations t-at are lar6er t-an (2&&& M7 in ma9imum
net 0apa0it!2 and are 0urrentl! operational or under 0onstru0tion. 1-ose po:er stations t-at are
smaller t-an (2&&& M7 or t-ose t-at are onl! at a plannin6 Kproposal sta6e ma! be found in
re6ional lists2 listed at t-e end of t-e pa6e.
At present2 t-e lar6est -!droele0tri0 po:er station is t-e 1-ree Gor6es Dam in )-ina2
0urrentl! rated at /&2>&& M7 in total installed 0apa0it! but planned to rea0- //2,&& M7 in
t-e future. After passin6 t-e (*2&&& M7 mar8 of t-e Itaipu Dam2 t-e fa0ilit! :as ran8ed as
t-e lar6est po:er%6eneratin6 fa0ilit! ever built. 1-e dam is ('( m (,.* ft.) -i6-2 /2>>, m
(=2??( ft.) lon6 and ((, m (>== ft.) in :idt-. +o:er is 6enerated b! >/ turbines rated at =&&
M72 and t:o turbines rated ,& M72 :-i0- is used to po:er t-e fa0ilit! itself. )onstru0tion of
t-is dam 0ommen0ed in (..*2 and is e9pe0ted to be 0ompleted b! /&((2 nearl! t:o de0ades
after it started.
1-e ne9t t-ree lar6est dams after t-e 1-ree Gor6es Dam are t-e Itaipu Dam2 Guri Dam and
t-e 1u0urui Dam2 rated at (*2&&& M72 (&2/&& M7 and '2>=& M7 respe0tivel!. All four
dams are t-e lar6est po:er%6eneratin6 bodies respe0tivel!2 before t-e Kas-i:aAa8i%Kari:a
$u0lear +o:er +lant at '2/(/ M72 0urrentl! t-e lar6est non%rene:able ener6!%6eneratin6
fa0ilit! in t-e :orld. 1-e 0urrentl! planned Grand In6a Dam :ould be nearl! t:i0e t-e siAe of
t-e 1-ree Gor6es Dam at >.2&&& M72 surpassin6 all po:er%6eneratin6 fa0ilities on0e it passes
t-e 0urrent%-i6-est //2,&& M7 mar8.
47
Three 1orges 0am


Countr '#na
Lo!ation +ando)png( Hlng( >).e
2tatus Dperatonal
Constru!tion be
"an
Iece!.er 14( 1994
Openin" date 2008
Constru!tion !os
t
J180 .llon %K+L26 .llon&
Owner0s1 '#na HangtMe Power %s).sdary o$ '#na 4#ree Norges
'orporaton&
Tpe o% dam Nravty da!
Hei"ht 181 ! %594 $t&
Len"th 2(335 ! %7(661 $t&
Crest width 40 ! %131 $t&
;ase width 115 ! %377 $t&
6mpounds HangtMe Rver
2pillwa !apa!it

116(000 !
3
:s %4(100(000 c) $t:s&

Reser+oir
Creates 4#ree Norges Reservor
Capa!it 39.3 *!
3
%31(900(000 acreO$t&
Cat!hment area 1(000(000 *!= %390(000 s@ !&
2ur%a!e area 1(045 *!= %403 s@ !&
Normal ele+atio
n
175 ! %574 $t&
48
Reser+oir len"th 600 *! %370 !&
#a(< reser+oir w
idth
1.1 *! %0.68 !& avg.

Power station
Commission dat
e
2008P12
Tpe 'onventonal
Hdrauli! head RatedQ 80.6 ! %264 $t&
-a8!)!Q 113 ! %371 $t&
R1S
Turbines 30 T 700 -5
2 T 50 -5
6nstalled !apa!it

21 N5
#a(imum !apa!i
t
22.5 N5
Capa!it %a!tor 0.45
Annual "enerati
on
80 45# %290 P9&
Net "eneration 368 45# %1(320 P9& %2009&
The Three :or"es Dam( 0urrentl! t-e lar6est po:er%6eneratin6 fa0ilit! in t-e :orld.
1-e 1-ree Gor6es Dam is a -!droele0tri0 dam t-at spans t-e Han6tAe @iver b! t-e to:n of
Sandoupin62 lo0ated in t-e Hilin6 Distri0t of Hi0-an62 in Hubei provin0e2 )-ina. 1-e 1-ree
Gor6es Dam is t-e :orldEs lar6est po:er station in terms of installed 0apa0it! (/(2&&& M7)
but is se0ond to Itaipu Dam :it- re6ard to t-e 6eneration of ele0tri0it! annuall!.
1-e dam bod! :as 0ompleted in /&&?. E90ept for a s-ip lift2 t-e ori6inall! planned
0omponents of t-e pro4e0t :ere 0ompleted on O0tober >&2 /&&'2 :-en t-e /?t- turbine in t-e
s-ore plant be6an 0ommer0ial operation. Ea0- turbine -as a 0apa0it! of =&& M7. 1-e last t:o
turbines in t-e under6round po:er plant are not e9pe0ted to be0ome full! operational until
Ma! /&(/. )ouplin6 t-e damEs t-irt!%t:o main turbines :it- t:o smaller 6enerators (,& M7
ea0-) to po:er t-e plant itself2 t-e total ele0tri0 6eneratin6 0apa0it! of t-e dam :ill eventuall!
rea0- //2,&& M7.
As :ell as produ0in6 ele0tri0it!2 t-e dam is intended to in0rease t-e Han6tAe @iverEs s-ippin6
0apa0it! and redu0e t-e potential for floods do:nstream b! providin6 flood stora6e spa0e.
1-e )-inese 6overnment re6ards t-e pro4e0t as a -istori0 en6ineerin62 so0ial and e0onomi0
su00ess2 :it- t-e desi6n of state%of%t-e%art lar6e turbines2 and a move to:ard limitin6
6reen-ouse 6as emissions. Ho:ever2 t-e dam flooded ar0-aeolo6i0al and 0ultural sites and
displa0ed some (.> million people2 and is 0ausin6 si6nifi0ant e0olo6i0al 0-an6es2 in0ludin6 an
in0reased ris8 of landslides. 1-e dam -as been a 0ontroversial topi0 bot- in )-ina and abroad.
(istory
A lar6e dam a0ross t-e Han6tAe @iver :as ori6inall! envisioned b! Sun Hat%sen in 1-e
International Development of )-ina2 in (.(.. He stated t-at a dam 0apable of 6eneratin6
>& million -orsepo:er (// G7) :as possible do:nstream of t-e 1-ree Gor6es. In (.>/2 t-e
49
$ationalist 6overnment2 led b! )-ian6 Kai%s-e82 be6an preliminar! :or8 on plans in t-e
1-ree Gor6es. In (.>.2 Japanese militar! for0es o00upied Hi0-an6 and surve!ed t-e area. A
desi6n2 t-e Otani plan2 :as 0ompleted for t-e dam in anti0ipation of a Japanese vi0tor! over
)-ina.
In (.**2 t-e Bnited States ureau of @e0lamation 0-ief desi6n en6ineer2 Jo-n #. Sava6e2
surve!ed t-e area and dre: up a dam proposal for t-e EHan6tAe @iver +ro4e0tE. Some ,*
)-inese en6ineers :ent to t-e B.S. for trainin6. 1-e ori6inal plans 0alled for t-e dam to
emplo! a uni<ue met-od for movin6 s-ips; t-e s-ips :ould move into lo08s lo0ated at t-e
lo:er and upper ends of t-e dam and t-en 0ranes :it- 0ables :ould move t-e s-ips from one
lo08 to t-e ne9t. In t-e 0ase of smaller :ater 0raft2 6roups of 0raft :ould be lifted to6et-er for
effi0ien0!. It is not 8no:n :-et-er t-is solution :as 0onsidered for its :ater%savin6
performan0e or be0ause t-e en6ineers t-ou6-t t-e differen0e in -ei6-t bet:een t-e river above
and belo: t-e dam too 6reat for alternative met-ods. Some e9ploration2 surve!2 e0onomi0
stud!2 and desi6n :or8 :as done2 but t-e 6overnment2 in t-e midst of t-e )-inese )ivil 7ar2
-alted :or8 in (.*=.
After t-e (.*. )ommunist vi0tor!2 Mao Ledon6 supported t-e pro4e0t2 but be6an t-e
GeA-ouba Dam pro4e0t first2 and e0onomi0 problems in0ludin6 t-e Great #eap Cor:ard and
t-e )ultural @evolution slo:ed pro6ress. After t-e (.,* Han6tAe @iver Cloods2 in (.,?2 Mao
Ledon6 aut-ored IS:immin6I2 a poem about -is fas0ination :it- a dam on t-e Han6tAe @iver.
In (.,'2 after t-e Hundred Clo:ers )ampai6n2 some en6ineers :-o spo8e out a6ainst t-e
pro4e0t :ere imprisoned. Durin6 t-e (.'&s2 t-e idea of a dam reemer6ed. 1-e $ational
+eopleEs )on6ress approved t-e dam in (../: out of /2?>> dele6ates2 (2=?= voted in favour2
(== voted a6ainst2 ??* forfeited2 and /, members did not vote.

)onstru0tion started on
De0ember (*2 (..*. 1-e dam :as e9pe0ted to be full! operational in /&&.2 but additional
pro4e0ts2 su0- as t-e under6round po:er plant :it- si9 additional 6enerators2 are e9pe0ted to
dela! full operation until mid%/&(/. 1-e s-ip lift is e9pe0ted to be 0ompleted in /&(*.1-e
dam -ad raised t-e :ater level to (=/., m (,?? ft.) above sea level b! t-e end of /&&' and t-e
ma9imum level of (=, m (,=* ft.) b! O0tober /&(&.
50
The Itaipu 0am




51
.fficial name )entral HidroelD0tri0a ItaipY ina0ional
Bsina HidrelDtri0a Itaipu ina0ional
Country raAil
+ara6ua!
$ocation CoA do I6uaZu
Hernandarias
Status Operational
Construction %egan Januar! (.=&
.pening date , Ma! (.'*
Construction cost BS[(..? billion
.)ner(s! Itaipu ina0ional
0am and spill)ays
Type of dam )ombination 6ravit!2 buttress and emban8ment se0tions
(eight (.? m (?*> ft)
$ength =2.(. m (/,2.'( ft)
#olume (/2>&&2&&& m\ (*>&2&&&2&&& 0u ft)
Impounds +aran] @iver
Spill)ay capacity ?/2/&& m
>
Ks (/2(.?2,=/ 0u ftKs)
Reser'oir
Creates Itaipu @eservoir
Capacity /.2&&&2&&&2&&& m\ (/*2&&&2&&& a0reQft)
Catchment area (2>,&2&&& 8m^ (,/&2&&& s< mi)
Surface area (2>,& 8m^ (,/& s< mi)
Reser'oir length (=& 8m (((& mi)
Ma=. reser'oir )idth (/ 8m (=., mi)
*o)er station
Type )onventional
(ydraulic head ((' m (>'= ft)
Tur%ines /& _ =&& M7 Cran0is%t!pe
Installed capacity (*2&&& M7
Annual generation .(.? 17- (/&&.)
-et generation (2=?( 17- (/&&.)
52
1-e Itaipu 0am is a -!droele0tri0 dam on t-e +aran] @iver lo0ated on t-e border bet:een
raAil and +ara6ua!. 1-e name IItaipuI :as ta8en from an isle t-at e9isted near t-e
0onstru0tion site. In t-e Guaran` lan6ua6e2 Itaipu means It-e sound of a stoneI.
1-e dam is t-e lar6est operatin6 -!droele0tri0 fa0ilit! in terms of annual 6eneratin6 0apa0it!2
6eneratin6 .*.= 17- in /&&' and .(.? 17- in /&&.2 :-ile t-e annual 6eneratin6 0apa0it! of
t-e 1-ree Gor6es Dam :as '&.' 17- in /&&' and =..* 17- in /&&..
S(T
1-e damEs
(*2&&& M7 installed 0apa0it! is se0ond to t-e 1-ree Gor6es DamEs //2,&& M72 t-ou6-. It is
a binational underta8in6 run b! raAil and +ara6ua! at t-e +aran] @iver on t-e border se0tion
bet:een t-e t:o 0ountries2 (, 8m (..> mi) nort- of t-e Criends-ip rid6e. 1-e pro4e0t ran6es
from CoA do I6uaZu2 in raAil2 and )iudad del Este in +ara6ua!2 in t-e sout- to Gua`ra and
Salto del Guair] in t-e nort-. 1-e installed 6eneration 0apa0it! of t-e plant is (* G72 :it- /&
6eneratin6 units providin6 =&& M7 ea0- :it- a -!drauli0 desi6n -ead of ((' m. In /&&' t-e
plant 6enerated a re0ord .*.?' 17-2 suppl!in6 .&F of t-e ele0tri0it! 0onsumed b! +ara6ua!
and (.F of t-at 0onsumed b! raAil.
Of t-e t:ent! 6enerator units 0urrentl! installed2 ten 6enerate at ,& HA for +ara6ua! and ten
6enerate at ?& HA for raAil. 1:o ?&& 8" H"D) lines2 ea0- appro9imatel! '&& 8m lon62
0arr! bot- raAilian and +ara6ua!an ener6! to Sao +aulo :-ere t-e terminal e<uipment
0onverts t-e po:er to ?& HA.
(istory
Negotiations between Brail and !araguay
1-e 0on0ept be-ind Itaipu +o:er +lant :as t-e result of -eav! ne6otiations bet:een t-e t:o
0ountries durin6 t-e (.?&s. 1-e IAta do I6uaZuI (I6uaZu A0t) :as si6ned on Jul! //2 (.??2 b!
t-e raAilian and +ara6ua!an Ministers of Corei6n Affairs2 Jura0! Ma6al-aes and Sapena
+astor2 respe0tivel!. 1-is :as a 4oint de0laration of t-e mutual interest in stud!in6 t-e
e9ploitation of t-e -!dri0 resour0es t-at t-e t:o 0ountries s-ared in t-e se0tion of t-e +aran]
@iver startin6 from2 and in0ludin62 t-e Salto de Sete Quedas2 to t-e Iguau River's :aters-ed.
1-e 1reat! t-at 6ave ori6in to t-e po:er plant :as si6ned in (.=>.
53
1-e terms of t-e treat!2 :-i0- e9pires in /&/>2 -ave been t-e sub4e0t of :idespread dis0ontent
in +ara6ua!. 1-e 6overnment of +resident #u6o vo:ed to rene6otiate t-e terms of t-e treat!
:it- raAil2 :-i0- lon6 remained -ostile to an! rene6otiation.
In /&&.2 raAil a6reed to a fairer pa!ment of ele0tri0it! to +ara6ua! and also allo:ed
+ara6ua! to sell e90ess po:er dire0tl! to raAilian 0ompanies instead of solel! t-rou6- t-e
raAilian ele0tri0it! monopol!.
Construction starts
In (.=&2 t-e 0onsortium formed b! t-e 0ompanies IE)O (from t-e Bnited States of Ameri0a)
and E#) Ele0tro0onsult S.p.A. (from Ital!) :on t-e international 0ompetition for t-e
realiAation of t-e viabilit! studies and for t-e elaboration of t-e 0onstru0tion pro4e0t. 7or8
be6an in Cebruar! (.=(. On April /?2 (.=>2 raAil and +ara6ua! si6ned t-e Itaipu 1reat!2 t-e
le6al instrument for t-e -!droele0tri0 e9ploitation of t-e +aran] @iver b! t-e t:o 0ountries.
On Ma! (=2 (.=*2 t-e Itaipu ina0ional entit! :as 0reated to administer t-e plantEs
0onstru0tion. 1-e :or8s be6an in Januar! of t-e follo:in6 !ear. raAilEs (and #atin Ameri0aEs)
first ele0tri0 0ar :as introdu0ed in late (.=*; it re0eived t-e name IItaipuI in -onor of t-e
pro4e0t.
!aran" #iver rerouted
On O0tober (*2 (.='2 t-e +aran] @iver -ad its route 0-an6ed2 :-i0- allo:ed a se0tion of t-e
riverbed to dr! so t-e dam 0ould be built t-ere.
Agreement by Brail, !araguay, and Argentina
An important diplomati0 settlement :as rea0-ed :it- t-e si6nin6 of t-e Acordo Tripartite b!
raAil2 +ara6ua! and Ar6entina2 on O0tober (.2 (.=.. 1-is a6reement establis-ed t-e allo:ed
river levels and -o: mu0- t-e! 0ould 0-an6e as a result of t-e various -!droele0tri0al
underta8in6s in t-e :aters-ed t-at :as s-ared b! t-e t-ree 0ountries. At t-at time2 t-e t-ree
0ountries :ere ruled b! militar! di0tators-ips. Ar6entina :as 0on0erned t-at2 in t-e event of a
0onfli0t2 raAil 0ould open t-e flood6ates2 raisin6 t-e :ater level in t-e @`o de la +lata and
0onse<uentl! floods t-e 0apital 0it! of uenos Aires.
$ormation of the la%e
1-e plantEs reservoir be6an its formation on O0tober (>2 (.'/2 :-en t-e dam :or8s :ere
0ompleted and t-e side 0analEs 6ates :ere 0losed. 1-rou6-out t-is period2 -eav! rains and
floodin6 a00elerated t-e fillin6 of t-e reservoir as t-e :ater rose (&& meters (>>& ft.) and
rea0-ed t-e 6ates of t-e spill:a! at (& a.m. on O0tober /=.
&tart of operations
On Ma! ,2 (.'*2 t-e first 6eneration unit started runnin6 in Itaipu. 1-e first (' units :ere
installed at t-e rate of t:o to t-ree a !ear; t-e last t:o of t-ese started runnin6 in t-e !ear
(..(.
54
The -armada 0am
Uocaton o$ +ardar +arovar Ia!
55
Countr Vnda
Lo!ation Wavaga!( N)jarat
2tatus Dperatonal
Owner0s1 War!ada 'ontrol A)t#orty
Dam and spillwas
Tpe o% dam Nravty( concrete
Hei"ht 0%oundation1 163 ! %535 $t&
Len"th 1(210 ! %3(970 $t&
6mpounds War!ada Rver
2pillwa !apa!it 84(949 !
3
:s %2(999(900 c) $t:s&
Reser+oir
Capa!it 9(500(000(000 !< %7(701(775 acreO$t&
A!ti+e !apa!it 5(800(000(000 !< %4(702(137 acreO$t&
Cat!hment area 88(000 *!= %34(000 s@ !&
2ur%a!e area 375.33 *!= %144.92 s@ !&
Normal ele+ation 138 ! %453 $t&
Reser+oir len"th 214 *! %133 !&
#a(< reser+oir width 16.10 *! %10.00 !&
Power station
Operator0s1 +ardar +arovar War!ada Wga! U!ted
Commission date 9)ne 2006
Turbines Ia!Q 6 8 200 -5 ?rancs p)!p"t)r.ne
'analQ 5 8 50 -5 Xaplan"type
6nstalled !apa!it 1(450 -5

1-e Sardar Saro'ar 0am is a 6ravit! dam on t-e $armada @iver near $ava6am2 Gu4arat2
India. It is t-e lar6est dam and part of t-e $armada "alle! +ro4e0t2 a lar6e -!drauli0
en6ineerin6 pro4e0t involvin6 t-e 0onstru0tion of a series of lar6e irri6ation and -!droele0tri0
multi%purpose dams on t-e $armada @iver. 1-e pro4e0t too8 form in (.=. as part of a
development s0-eme to in0rease irri6ation and produ0e -!droele0tri0it!.
It is t-e >&t- lar6est dams planned on river $armada2 Sardar Sarovar Dam (SSD) is t-e lar6est
stru0ture to be built. It -as a proposed final -ei6-t of (?> m (,>, ft) from foundation. 1-e
pro4e0t :ill irri6ate more t-an ('2&&& 8m^ (?2.&& s< mi)2 most of it in drou6-t prone areas of
Kut0- and Sauras-tra. 1-e damEs main po:er plant -ouses si9 /&& M7 Cran0is pump%
turbines to 6enerate ele0tri0it! and afford a pumped%stora6e 0apabilit!. Additionall!2 a po:er
plant on t-e inta8e for t-e main 0anal 0ontains five ,& M7 Kaplan turbine%6enerators. 1-e
total installed 0apa0it! of t-e po:er fa0ilities is (2*,& M7. )riti0s maintain t-at its ne6ative
environmental impa0ts out:ei6- its benefits. It -as 0reated dis0ord bet:een its 6overnment
planners and t-e 0itiAens 6roup $armada a0-ao Andolan.
Contro'ersy
56
1-e dam is one of IndiaEs most 0ontroversial dam pro4e0ts and its environmental impa0t and
net 0osts and benefits are :idel! debated. 1-e 7orld an8 :as initiall! a founder of t-e SSD2
but :it-dre: in (..*. 1-e $armada Dam -as been t-e 0enter of 0ontrovers! and protest sin0e
t-e late (.'&s.
One su0- protest ta8es 0enter sta6e in t-e Spanner films do0umentar! Dro:ned Out (/&&/)2
:-i0- follo:s one tribal famil! :-o de0ide to sta! at -ome and dro:n rat-er t-an ma8e :a!
for t-e $armada Dam.

An earlier do0umentar! film is 0alled A $armada Diar!.
i6 Dams are to a $ationEs EDevelopmentE :-at $u0lear ombs are to its Militar! Arsenal.
1-e!Ere bot- :eapons of mass destru0tion. 1-e!Ere bot- :eapons Governments use to 0ontrol
t-eir o:n people. ot- 1:entiet- )entur! emblems t-at mar8 a point in time :-en -uman
intelli6en0e -as outstripped its o:n instin0t for survival. 1-e!Ere bot- mali6nant indi0ations of
0iviliAation turnin6 upon it. 1-e! represent t-e severin6 of t-e lin82 not 4ust t-e lin8 % t-e
understandin6 % bet:een -uman bein6s and t-e planet t-e! live on. 1-e! s0ramble t-e
intelli6en0e t-at 0onne0ts e66s to -ens2 mil8 to 0o:s2 food to forests2 :ater to rivers2 air to life
and t-e eart- to -uman e9isten0e.
(eight issues
4#e +ardar +arovar Ia!(
)ndergong #eg#t ncrease n 2006.
Vn ?e.r)ary 1999( t#e +)pre!e 'o)rt o$ Vnda gave t#e go a#ead $or t#e
da!Ys #eg#t to .e rased to 88 ! %289 $t& $ro! t#e ntal 80 ! %260 $t&.
Vn Dcto.er 2000 agan( n a 2 to 1 !ajorty j)dg!ent n t#e +)pre!e 'o)rt(
t#e govern!ent was allowed to constr)ct t#e da! )p to 90 ! %300 $t&.
Vn -ay 2002( t#e War!ada 'ontrol A)t#orty approved ncreasng t#e
#eg#t o$ t#e da! to 95 ! %312 $t&.
Vn -arc# 2004( t#e A)t#orty allowed a 15 ! %49 $t& #eg#t ncrease to
110 ! %360 $t&.
Vn -arc# 2006( t#e War!ada 'ontrol A)t#orty gave clearance $or t#e
#eg#t o$ t#e da! to ncrease $ro! 110.64 ! %363.0 $t& to 121.92 !
%400.0 $t&. 4#s ca!e a$ter 2003 w#en t#e +)pre!e 'o)rt o$ Vnda re$)sed
allow t#e #eg#t o$ t#e da! to ncrease agan.
The 2upreme Court de!ision
Despite popular protest2 t-e Supreme )ourt 6ave 0learan0e for t-e -ei6-t to be in0reased to
(/(../ m (*&& ft)2 but in t-e same 4ud6ment Justi0e Mr. -aru0-a 6ave dire0tions to Mad-!a
+rades- and Ma-aras-tra (t-e Grievan0e @edressal Aut-orities of Gu4arat) t-at before furt-er
0onstru0tion be6ins2 t-e! s-ould 0ertif! (after inspe0tion) t-at all t-ose displa0ed b! t-e raise
in -ei6-t of , meters -ave alread! been satisfa0toril! re-abilitated2 and also t-at suitable
va0ant land for re-abilitatin6 t-em is alread! in t-e possession of t-e respe0tive States. 1-is
pro0ess s-all be repeated for ever! su00essive five meter in0rease in -ei6-t.
57
Report o% the #inistr o% En+ironment and &orests 0#oE&1
1-e Se0ond Interim @eport of t-e E9pertsE )ommittee set up b! t-e Ministr! of Environment
and Corests (MoEC) of t-e Government of India to assess t-e plannin6 and implementation of
environmental safe6uards :it- respe0t to t-e Sardar Sarovar (SS+) and Indira Sa6ar pro4e0ts
(IS+) on t-e $armada @iver. It is a 0lear findin6 of t-e e6re6ious failure of t-e 6overnment
ma0-iner! on virtuall! all t-e aspe0ts studied.
1-e report 0overs t-e status of 0omplian0es on 0at0-ment area treatment ()A1)2 flora and
fauna and 0arr!in6 0apa0it! upstream2 0ommand area development ()AD)2 0ompensator!
afforestation and -uman -ealt- aspe0ts in pro4e0t impa0t areas. 1-e report is a severe
indi0tment of t-e 6overnments of Gu4arat2 Mad-!a +rades- and Ma-aras-tra and of t-e
bodies set up b! t-ese 6overnments to implement t-e pro4e0ts for t-e binte6rated developmentE
of t-e $armada "alle!. 1-e report is peppered :it- p-rases li8e b6ross violationE2 bne6li6en0eE2
b-i6-l! unsatisfa0tor!2E binade<uate2E bserious lapseE and bnon0omplian0eE.
It states in stron6 and une<uivo0al terms t-at2 :it- respe0t to virtuall! all of t-e aspe0ts under
0onsideration2 0omplian0e is eit-er -i6-l! inade<uate or absent alto6et-er. A partial e90eption
is 0ompensator! afforestation. )onstru0tion2 on t-e ot-er -and2 -as been pro0eedin6 apa0e:
t-e IS+ is 0omplete and t-e SS+ nearin6 0ompletion. 1-e report re0ommends t-at no furt-er
reservoir%fillin6 be done at eit-er SS+ or IS+; t-at no furt-er :or8 is done on 0anal
0onstru0tion; and t-at even irri6ation from t-e e9istin6 net:or8 is stopped fort-:it- until
failures of 0omplian0e on t-e various environmental parameters -ave been full! remedied.
*roected %enefits
1-e benefits of t-e dam as listed in t-e Jud6ment of Supreme )ourt of India in /&&& :ere:
I1-e ar6ument in favor of t-e Sardar Sarovar +ro4e0t is t-at t-e benefits are so lar6e t-at t-e!
substantiall! out:ei6- t-e 0osts of t-e immediate -uman and environmental disruption.
7it-out t-e dam2 t-e lon6 term 0osts for people :ould be mu0- 6reater and la08 of an in0ome
sour0e for future 6enerations :ould put in0reasin6 pressure on t-e environment. If t-e :aters
of t-e $armada river 0ontinuous to flo: to t-e sea unused t-ere appears to be no alternative to
es0alatin6 -uman deprivation2 parti0ularl! in t-e dr! areas of Gu4arat.
1-e pro4e0t -as t-e potential to feed as man! as /& million people2 provide domesti0 and
industrial :ater for about >& million2 emplo! about ( million2 and provide valuable pea8
ele0tri0 po:er in an area :it- -i6- unmet po:er demand (farm pumps often 6et onl! a fe:
-ours po:er per da!). In addition2 re0ent resear0- s-o:s substantial e0onomi0 multiplier
effe0ts (investment and emplo!ment tri66ered b! development) from irri6ation development.
Set a6ainst t-e futures of about =&2&&& pro4e0t affe0ted people2 even :it-out t-e multiplier
effe0t2 t-e ratio of benefi0iaries to affe0ted persons is :ell over (&&:(.I
-armada Canal
1-e dam :ill irri6ate (=2./& 8m^ (?2./& s< mi) of land spread over (/ distri0ts2 ?/ talu8as and
>>.> villa6es (=,F of :-i0- is drou6-t%prone areas) in Gu4arat and =>& 8m^ (/'& s< mi) in
58
t-e arid areas of armer and Jalore distri0ts of @a4ast-an. 1-e dam :ill also provide flood
prote0tion to riverine rea0-es measurin6 >&2&&& -a (=*2&&& a0res) 0overin6 /(& villa6es and
-aru0- 0it! and a population of *&&2&&& in Gu4arat.
2olar power "eneration
Government of Gu4arat plans to 6enerate solar po:er from pla0in6 solar panels over t-e 0anal
ma8in6 it benefi0ial for t-e villa6es around to 6et po:er and also -elpin6 to redu0e t-e
evaporation of pre0ious :ater. 1-e first p-ase 0onsists of 0overin6 /, 8m to 6enerate /,M7
of po:er.
1-is lists ran8s t-e :orldEs 0onventional -!droele0tri0 po:er stations t-at -ave
an installed or under 0onstru0tion ele0tri0 po:er 6eneration 0apa0it! of at least
(2&&& M7.
2tation Country Capacity (M/!
(. c6ua "ermel-a Dam
raAil
(2>.?
/. A-ai Dam
)-ina
/2&&&
59
>. A8osombo Dam
G-ana
(2&/&
*. Alberto #leras (Guavio) Dam
)olombia
(2(,&
,. Aldead]vila Dam
Spain
(2/&&
?. Ali0ur] Dam
Ar6entina
(2&&&
=. As:an Hi6- Dam
E6!pt
/2(&&
'. Atatdr8 Dam
1ur8e!
/2*&&
.. ai-etan DamA
)-ina
(>2&,&
(&. ais-an Dam
)-ina
(2'&&
((. a8un H!droele0tri0 +o:er Station Mala!sia /2*&&
(/. ento Mun-oA (CoA do Areia) Dam
raAil
(2?=*
(>. ersimis%( 6eneratin6 station )anada (2(='
(*. -a8ra Dam
India
(2>/,
(,. o6u0-an! H!droele0tri0 +o:er Station
@ussia
>2&&&
Maor proects under construction
Name #a(im
um
Capa!it

Countr

Constru!
tion
started
2!hedul
ed
!omplet
ion
Comments
Zl)od) Ia! 12(600
-5
'#na Iece!.er
26( 2005
2015 'onstr)cton once stopped
d)e to lac* o$ envron!ental
!pact st)dy.
7elo -onte
Ia!
11(181
-5
7raMl -arc#(
2011
2015 Prel!nary constr)cton
)nderway.
+ang Kpper 11(000 Vnda Aprl( 2024 -)lt"p#ase constr)cton over
60
>6 Project -5 2009 a perod o$ 15 years.
'onstr)cton was delayed
d)e to dsp)te wt# '#na.
4a+ang Ia! 7(110
-5
7)r!a -arc#(
2007
2022 'ontroversal 228 !eter tall
da! wt# capacty to prod)ce
35(446 N#w ann)ally.
Zangja.a
Ia!
6(400
-5
'#na Wove!.er
26( 2006
2015
W)oM#ad)
Ia!
5(850
-5
'#na 2006 2017
9npng 2
>ydropower
+taton
4(800
-5
'#na 9an)ary
30( 2007
2014 4o .)ld t#s da!( 23 $a!les
and 129 local resdents need
to .e !oved. Vt wor*s wt#
9npng 1 >ydropower +taton
as a gro)p.
Ia!er"
7#as#a Ia!
4(500
-5
Pa*stan Dcto.er
18( 2011
2023
9npng 1
>ydropower
+taton
3(600
-5
'#na Wove!.er
11( 2005
2014
9ra) Ia! 3(300
-5
7raMl 2008 2012 'onstr)cton #alted n -arc#
2011 d)e to wor*er rots.
P).)go)
Ia!
3(300
-5
'#na -arc# 30(
2004
2010
No)ptan
Ia!
3(000
-5
'#na Wove!.er
8( 2003
2011
N)anynyan
Ia!
3(000
-5
'#na 2008 2015 'onstr)cton o$ t#e roads and
spllway started.
Uang#e*o)
Ia!
3(000
-5
'#na 2009 2015
7og)c#an
Ia!
3(000
-5
R)ssa 1980 2013
Iagangs#an
Ia!
2(600
-5
'#na A)g)st
15(
2008
R38S
2014
+[n Ua Ia! 2(400
-5
\etna! Iece!.er
2( 2005
2012
N)and Ia! 2(400
-5
'#na Wove!.er
11( 2007
2012
Uy)an Ia! 2(400
-5
'#na 2008
R39S
4oco!a
Ia! 7ol]var
+tate
2(160
-5
\eneM)
ela
2004 2014 4#s power plant wo)ld .e
t#e last develop!ent n t#e
Uow 'aron 7asn( .rngng
t#e total to s8 power plants
on t#e sa!e rver( ncl)dng
t#e 10(000-5 N)r Ia!.
Ad'antages and disad'antages of hydroelectricity
61
$le'ibility
H!dro is a fle9ible sour0e of ele0tri0it! sin0e plants 0an be ramped up and do:n ver! <ui08l!
to adapt to 0-an6in6 ener6! demands.
Low power costs
1-e ma4or advanta6e of -!droele0tri0it! is elimination of t-e 0ost of fuel. 1-e 0ost of
operatin6 a -!droele0tri0 plant is nearl! immune to in0reases in t-e 0ost of fossil fuels su0- as
oil2 natural 6as or 0oal2 and no imports are needed. 1-e avera6e 0ost of ele0tri0it! from a
-!dro plant lar6er t-an (& me6a:atts is > to , B.S. 0ents per 8ilo:att%-our.
H!droele0tri0 plants -ave lon6 e0onomi0 lives2 :it- some plants still in servi0e after ,&N(&&
!ears.

Operatin6 labor 0ost is also usuall! lo:2 as plants are automated and -ave fe:
personnel on site durin6 normal operation.
7-ere a dam serves multiple purposes2 a -!droele0tri0 plant ma! be added :it- relativel! lo:
0onstru0tion 0ost2 providin6 a useful revenue stream to offset t-e 0osts of dam operation. It
-as been 0al0ulated t-at t-e sale of ele0tri0it! from t-e 1-ree Gor6es Dam :ill 0over t-e
0onstru0tion 0osts after , to ' !ears of full 6eneration.
&uitability for industrial applications
7-ile man! -!droele0tri0 pro4e0ts suppl! publi0 ele0tri0it! net:or8s2 some are 0reated to
serve spe0ifi0 industrial enterprises. Dedi0ated -!droele0tri0 pro4e0ts are often built to provide
t-e substantial amounts of ele0tri0it! needed for aluminium ele0trol!ti0 plants2 for e9ample.
1-e Grand )oulee Dam s:it0-ed to support Al0oa aluminium in ellin6-am2 7as-in6ton2
Bnited States for Ameri0an 7orld 7ar II airplanes before it :as allo:ed to provide irri6ation
and po:er to 0itiAens (in addition to aluminium po:er) after t-e :ar. In Suriname2 t-e
ro8opondo @eservoir :as 0onstru0ted to provide ele0tri0it! for t-e Al0oa aluminium
industr!. $e: LealandEs Manapouri +o:er Station :as 0onstru0ted to suppl! ele0tri0it! to t-e
aluminium smelter at 1i:ai +oint.
Environmentally $riendly
Sin0e -!droele0tri0 dams do not burn fossil fuels2 t-e! do not dire0tl! produ0e 0arbon
dio9ide. 7-ile some 0arbon dio9ide is produ0ed durin6 manufa0ture and 0onstru0tion of t-e
pro4e0t2 t-is is a tin! fra0tion of t-e operatin6 emissions of e<uivalent fossil%fuel ele0tri0it!
6eneration. One measurement of 6reen-ouse 6as related and ot-er e9ternalit! 0omparison
bet:een ener6! sour0es 0an be found in t-e E9ternE pro4e0t b! t-e +aul S0-errer Institut and
t-e Bniversit! of Stutt6art :-i0- :as funded b! t-e European )ommission.

A00ordin6 to t-at
stud!2 -!droele0tri0it! produ0es t-e least amount of 6reen-ouse 6ases and e9ternalit! of an!
ener6! sour0e
.
)omin6 in se0ond pla0e :as :ind2 t-ird :as nu0lear ener6!2 and fourt- :as
solar p-otovoltai0. 1-e e9tremel! positive 6reen-ouse 6as impa0t of -!droele0tri0it! is found
espe0iall! in temperate 0limates. 1-e above stud! :as for lo0al ener6! in Europe; presumabl!
similar 0onditions prevail in $ort- Ameri0a and $ort-ern Asia2 :-i0- all see a re6ular2 natural
freeAeKt-a: 0!0le (:it- asso0iated seasonal plant de0a! and re6ro:t-).
62
Alon6 :it- not emittin6 0arbon dio9ide2 -!droele0tri0 dams are also environmentall! friendl!
be0ause t-e :ater t-at is used 0an be re0!0led. 1-e :ater from t-ese -!droele0tri0 plants is
often reused for re0reational purposes. @eservoirs 0reated b! -!droele0tri0 s0-emes often
provide fa0ilities for :ater sports2 and be0ome tourist attra0tions t-emselves. In some
0ountries2 a<ua0ulture in reservoirs is 0ommon. Multi%use dams installed for irri6ation support
a6ri0ulture :it- a relativel! 0onstant :ater suppl!. #ar6e -!dro dams 0an 0ontrol floods2
:-i0- :ould ot-er:ise affe0t people livin6 do:nstream of t-e pro4e0t.
0isad'antages
Ecosystem damage and loss of land
H!droele0tri0 po:er stations t-at use dams :ould submer6e lar6e areas of land due to t-e
re<uirement of a reservoir. #ar6e reservoirs re<uired for t-e operation of -!droele0tri0 po:er
stations result in submersion of e9tensive areas upstream of t-e dams2 destro!in6 biolo6i0all!
ri0- and produ0tive lo:land and riverine valle! forests2 mars-land and 6rasslands. 1-e loss of
land is often e9a0erbated b! -abitat fra6mentation of surroundin6 areas 0aused b! t-e
reservoir.
H!droele0tri0 pro4e0ts 0an be disruptive to surroundin6 a<uati0 e0os!stems bot- upstream and
do:nstream of t-e plant site. Cor instan0e2 studies -ave s-o:n t-at dams alon6 t-e Atlanti0
and +a0ifi0 0oasts of $ort- Ameri0a -ave redu0ed salmon populations b! preventin6 a00ess to
spa:nin6 6rounds upstream2 even t-ou6- most dams in salmon -abitat -ave fis- ladders
installed. Salmon spa:n are also -armed on t-eir mi6ration to sea :-en t-e! must pass
t-rou6- turbines. 1urbine and po:er%plant desi6ns t-at are easier on a<uati0 life are an a0tive
area of resear0-. Miti6ation measures su0- as fis- ladders ma! be re<uired at ne: pro4e0ts or
as a 0ondition of re%li0ensin6 of e9istin6 pro4e0ts.
Generation of -!droele0tri0 po:er 0-an6es t-e do:nstream river environment. 7ater e9itin6
a turbine usuall! 0ontains ver! little suspended sediment2 :-i0- 0an lead to s0ourin6 of river
beds and loss of riverban8s.

Sin0e turbine 6ates are often opened intermittentl!2 rapid or even
dail! flu0tuations in river flo: are observed. Cor e9ample2 in t-e Grand )an!on2 t-e dail!
0!0li0 flo: variation 0aused b! Glen )an!on Dam :as found to be 0ontributin6 to erosion of
sand bars. Dissolved o9!6en 0ontent of t-e :ater ma! 0-an6e from pre%0onstru0tion
0onditions. 7ater e9itin6 turbines 0an be :armer or 0older t-an do:nstream2 due to it bein6
pulled from a -i6-er or lo:er part in t-e reservoir level. 1-is 0an 0-an6e a<uati0 faunal
populations2 in0ludin6 endan6ered spe0ies2 and prevent natural freeAin6 pro0esses from
o00urrin6. Some -!droele0tri0 pro4e0ts also use 0anals to divert a river at a s-allo:er 6radient
to in0rease t-e -ead of t-e s0-eme. In some 0ases2 t-e entire river ma! be diverted leavin6 a
dr! riverbed. E9amples in0lude t-e 1e8apo and +u8a8i @ivers in $e: Lealand.
&iltation and fow shortage
7-en :ater flo:s it -as t-e abilit! to transport parti0les -eavier t-an itself do:nstream. 1-is
-as a ne6ative effe0t on dams and subse<uentl! t-eir po:er stations2 parti0ularl! t-ose on
rivers or :it-in 0at0-ment areas :it- -i6- siltation. Siltation 0an fill a reservoir and redu0e its
0apa0it! to 0ontrol floods alon6 :it- 0ausin6 additional -oriAontal pressure on t-e upstream
63
portion of t-e dam. Eventuall!2 some reservoirs 0an be0ome 0ompletel! full of sediment and
useless or over%top durin6 a flood and fail.
)-an6es in t-e amount of river flo: :ill 0orrelate :it- t-e amount of ener6! produ0ed b! a
dam. #o:er @iver flo:s be0ause of drou6-t2 0limate 0-an6e or upstream dams and diversions
:ill redu0e t-e amount of live stora6e in a reservoir t-erefore redu0in6 t-e amount of :ater
t-at 0an be used for -!droele0tri0it!. 1-e result of diminis-ed river flo: 0an be po:er
s-orta6es in areas t-at depend -eavil! on -!droele0tri0 po:er. 1-e ris8 of flo: s-orta6e ma!
in0rease as a result of 0limate 0-an6e.

Studies from t-e )olorado @iver in t-e Bnited States
su66est t-at modest 0limate 0-an6es2 su0- as an in0rease in temperature in / de6ree )elsius
resultin6 in a (&F de0line in pre0ipitation2 mi6-t redu0e river run%off b! up to *&F. raAil in
parti0ular is vulnerable due to its -eavin6 relian0e on -!droele0tri0it!2 as in0reasin6
temperatures; lo:er :ater eo: and alterations in t-e rainfall re6ime 0ould redu0e total ener6!
produ0tion b! =F annuall! b! t-e end of t-e 0entur!.
En'ironmental impact of reser'oirs
1-e environmental impa0t of reservoirs 0omes under ever in0reasin6 s0rutin! as t-e 6lobal
demand for :ater and ener6! in0reases and t-e number and siAe of reservoirs in0reases.
Dams and reservoirs 0an be used to suppl! drin8in6 :ater2 6enerate -!droele0tri0 po:er2
in0rease t-e :ater suppl! for irri6ation2 provide re0reational opportunities2 and improve
0ertain aspe0ts of t-e environment. Ho:ever2 adverse environmental and so0iolo6i0al impa0ts
-ave been identified durin6 and after man! reservoir 0onstru0tions. 7-et-er reservoir pro4e0ts
are ultimatel! benefi0ial or detrimental to eit-er t-e environment or surroundin6 -uman
populations -as been debated sin0e t-e (.?&s and li8el! before t-en2 as :ell.

In (.?& t-e
0onstru0tion of #l!n )el!n and t-e floodin6 of )apel )el!n provo8ed politi0al uproar :-i0-
0ontinues to t-is da!. More re0entl!2 t-e 0onstru0tion of 1-ree Gor6es Dam and ot-er similar
pro4e0ts t-rou6-out Asia2 Afri0a and #atin Ameri0a -ave 6enerated 0onsiderable
environmental and politi0al debate.

2pstream impacts
Creation o% a reser+oir
1-e dammin6 of a river 0reates a reservoir upstream from t-e dam. 1-e reservoir :aters spill
out into t-e surroundin6 environments2 floodin6 t-e natural -abitats t-at e9isted before t-e
damUs 0onstru0tion. 1o date2 over *&&2&&& 8m
/
of t-e eart- -ave been flooded due to
dammin6. 1-e ne:l! 0reated reservoir -as more surfa0e area t-an t-e river :ould -ave -ad2
and t-erefore more evaporation o00urs t-an previousl!. 1-is 0an lead to a loss of up to /.(
meters in dept- per !ear in some 0limates. @eservoirs 0an also 0ontribute to 6reen-ouse 6as
emissions.
64
1-e initial fillin6 of a reservoir floods t-e e9istin6 plant material2 leadin6 to t-e deat- and
de0omposition of t-e 0arbon%ri0- plants and trees. 1-e rottin6 or6ani0 matter releases lar6e
amounts of 0arbon into t-e atmosp-ere. 1-e de0a!in6 plant matter itself settles to t-e non%
o9!6enated bottom of t-e reservoir2 and t-e de0ompositionVunmiti6ated b! a flo: pattern
t-at :ould o9!6enate t-e :aterVprodu0es and eventuall! releases dissolved met-ane.
&ra"mentation o% ri+er e!osstems
A dam also a0ts as a barrier bet:een t-e upstream and do:nstream movement of mi6rator!
river animals2 su0- as salmon and trout.
Some 0ommunities -ave also be6un t-e pra0ti0e of transportin6 mi6rator! fis- upstream to
spa:n via a bar6e.
Reser+oir sedimentation
@ivers 0arr! four different t!pes of sediment do:n t-eir riverbeds2 allo:in6 for t-e formation
of riverban8s2 river deltas2 alluvial fans2 braided rivers2 o9bo: la8es2 levees and 0oastal
s-ores. 1-e 0onstru0tion of a dam blo08s t-e flo: of sediment do:nstream2 leadin6 to
do:nstream erosion of t-ese Sedimentar! depositional environment2 depositional
environments2 and in0reased sediment build%up in t-e reservoir. 7-ile t-e rate of
sedimentation varies for ea0- dam and ea0- river2 eventuall! all reservoirs develop a redu0ed
:ater%stora6e 0apa0it! due to t-e e90-an6e of stora6e spa0e for sediment.

Diminis-ed stora6e
0apa0it! results in de0reased abilit! to produ0e -!droele0tri0 po:er2 redu0ed availabilit! of
:ater for irri6ation2 and if left unaddressed2 ma! ultimatel! result in t-e e9piration of t-e dam
and river.
Impact %elo) dam
Ri+erline and !oastal erosion
As all dams result in redu0ed sediment load do:nstream2 a dammed river is said to be
5-un6r!W for sediment. e0ause t-e rate of deposition of sediment is 6reatl! redu0ed sin0e
t-ere is less to deposit but t-e rate of erosion remains nearl! 0onstant2 t-e :ater flo: eats
a:a! at t-e river s-ores and riverbed2 t-reatenin6 s-oreline e0os!stems2 deepenin6 t-e
riverbed2 and narro:in6 t-e river over time. 1-is leads to a 0ompromised :ater table2 redu0ed
:ater levels2 -omo6eniAation of t-e river flo: and t-us redu0ed e0os!stem variabilit!2
redu0ed support for :ildlife2 and redu0ed amount of sediment rea0-in6 0oastal plains and
deltas. 1-is prompts 0oastal erosion2 as bea0-es are unable to replenis- :-at :aves erode
:it-out t-e sediment deposition of supportin6 river s!stems. )-annel erosion of rivers -as its
o:n set of 0onse<uen0es. 1-e eroded 0-annel 0ould 0reate a lo:er :ater table level in t-e
affe0ted area2 impa0tin6 bottomland 0rops su0- as alfalfa or 0orn2 and resultin6 in a smaller
suppl!.
65
Water temperature
1-e :ater of a deep reservoir in temperate 0limates t!pi0all! stratifies :it- a lar6e volume of
0old2 o9!6en poor :ater in t-e -!polimnion. If t-is :ater is released to maintain river flo:2 it
0an 0ause adverse impa0ts on t-e do:nstream e0os!stem in0ludin6 fis- populations.
Effects %eyond the reser'oir
E=e!ts on humans
Diseases
7-ilst reservoirs are -elpful to -umans2 t-e! 0an also be -armful as :ell. One ne6ative effe0t
is t-at t-e reservoirs 0an be0ome breedin6 6rounds for disease ve0tors. 1-is -olds true
espe0iall! in tropi0al areas :-ere mos<uitoes (:-i0- are ve0tors for malaria) and snails
(:-i0- are ve0tors for S0-istosomiasis) 0an ta8e advanta6e of t-is slo: flo:in6 :ater.
Resettlement
Dams and t-e 0reation of reservoirs also re<uire relo0ation of potentiall! lar6e -uman
populations if t-e! are 0onstru0ted 0lose to residential areas. 1-e re0ord for t-e lar6est
population relo0ated belon6s to t-e 1-ree Gor6es dam built in )-ina. Its reservoir submer6ed
a lar6e area of land2 for0in6 over a million people to relo0ate. IDam related relo0ation affe0ts
so0iet! in t-ree :a!s: an e0onomi0 disaster2 -uman trauma2 and so0ial 0atastrop-eI2 states Dr.
Mi0-ael )ernea of t-e 7orld an8 and Dr. 1-a!er S0udder2 a professor at t-e )alifornia
Institute of 1e0-nolo6!.
E(ects on food)dependent ecology/agriculture
In man! developin6 0ountries t-e savanna and forest e0olo6! of t-e floodplains depend on
seasonal floodin6 from rivers. Also2 flood re0ession 0roppin6 is pra0ti0ed e9tensivel! :-ereb!
t-e land is 0ultivated ta8in6 advanta6e of t-e residual soil moisture after floods re0ede. Dams
attenuate floods :-i0- ma! affe0t t-e e0olo6! and a6ri0ulture seriousl!.
Case studies
4#e -anatal reservor $or!ed .y t#e -anantal da! n -al ntersects t#e
!graton ro)tes o$ no!adc pastoralsts and destroyed 43000 #a o$ savanna#(
pro.a.ly leadng to overgraMng and sol eroson elsew#ere. ?)rt#er( t#e reservor
destroyed 120 *!= o$ $orest. 4#e depleton o$ gro)ndwater a@)$ers( w#c# s
ca)sed .y t#e s)ppresson o$ t#e seasonal 2ood cycle( s da!agng t#e $orests
downstrea! o$ t#e da!.
After t-e 0losure of t-e Kain4i dam2 $i6eria2 ,& to =& per 0ent of t-e do:nstream area
of flood%re0ession 0roppin6 :as lost.
66
E=e!ts on the Earth itsel%
@eservoirs ma! 0ontribute to 0-an6es in t-e Eart-Es 0limate. 7arm 0limate reservoirs 6enerate
met-ane2 a 6reen-ouse 6as :-en t-e reservoirs are stratified2 in :-i0- t-e bottom la!ers are
ano9i0 (i.e. t-e! la08 o9!6en)2 leadin6 to de6radation of biomass t-rou6- anaerobi0 pro0esses.
In some 0ases2 :-ere flooded basins are :ide and biomass volumes are -i6- t-e amount of
biomass 0onverted to met-ane results in pollution potential >., times more t-an an oil%fired
po:er plant :ould for t-e same 6eneration 0apa0it!.


Appendi=
Appendi9 E(: Generator )ondition Assessment
E6.6 1E-ERA$
H!droele0tri0 6enerators are 8e! 0omponents in t-e po:er train at -!droele0tri0 po:er plants and
are appropriate for anal!sis under a 0ondition assessment pro6ram. Bne9pe0ted 6enerator failure
)an -ave a si6nifi0ant e0onomi0 impa0t due to t-e -i6- 0ost of emer6en0! repairs and lost
revenues durin6 an e9tended for0ed outa6e.
Determinin6 t-e present 0ondition of a 6enerator is an essential step in anal!Ain6 t-e ris8 of
failure. 1-is appendi9 provides a pro0ess for arrivin6 at a Generator )ondition Inde9 :-i0- ma!
be used to develop a business 0ase addressin6 ris8 of failure2 e0onomi0 0onse<uen0es2 and ot-er
fa0tors.
E6.> SC.*E ? A**$ICATI.-
1-e 0ondition assessment met-odolo6! outlined in t-is appendi9 applies to -!droele0tri0
6enerators2 motorK6enerators2 and motors rated / M7 (me6a:atts) or -i6-er. 1-e 0ondition
assessment primaril! fo0uses on t-e 6enerator stator :indin6 and 0ore2 rotor2 and field and
amortisseur :indin6s. Au9iliar! 0omponents su0- as fans2 0oolers2 fire suppression s!stems2
6enerator prote0tion rela!s2 et0. are not 0onsidered durin6 t-is assessment.
1-is appendi9 is not intended to define 6enerator maintenan0e pra0ti0es or des0ribe in detail
6enerator inspe0tions2 tests2 or measurements. Btilit!%spe0ifi0 maintenan0e poli0ies and
pro0edures must be 0onsulted for su0- information.
E6.@ C.-0ITI.- A-0 0ATA A2A$IT9 I-0ICAT.RS& A-0 1E-ERAT.R
67
C.-0ITI.- I-0EB
1-is appendi9 des0ribes t-e 0ondition indi0ators 6enerall! re6arded b! -!dro plant en6ineers as
providin6 t-e initial basis for assessin6 6enerator 0ondition. 1-e follo:in6 indi0ators are used to
separatel! evaluate t-e 0ondition of t-e stator and rotor:

+-!si0al Inspe0tion
Insulation @esistan0e and +olariAation Inde9 (stator and field :indin6s)
Operation 3 Maintenan0e Histor!
A6e
68
1-ese 0ondition indi0ators are initiall! evaluated usin6 1ier ( inspe0tions2 tests2 and
measurements2 :-i0- are 0ondu0ted b! utilit! staff or 0ontra0tors over t-e 0ourse of time and as
a part of routine maintenan0e a0tivities. $umeri0al s0ores are assi6ned to ea0- stator and rotor
0ondition indi0ator2 :-i0- are t-en :ei6-ted and summed to determine t-e Stator and @otor
)ondition Indi0es. 1-e lo:er of t-e t:o indi0es is sele0ted to represent t-e overall Generator
)ondition Inde9.
An additional stand%alone indi0ator is used to refle0t t-e <ualit! of t-e information available for
s0orin6 t-e 6enerator 0ondition indi0ators. In some 0ases2 data ma! be missin62 out%of%date2 or
of <uestionable inte6rit!. An! of t-ese situations 0ould affe0t t-e a00ura0! of t-e asso0iated
0ondition indi0ator s0ores as :ell as t-e validit! of t-e overall )ondition Inde9. Given t-e
potential impa0t of poor or missin6 data2 t-e Data Gualit! Indi0ator is used as a means of
evaluatin6 and re0ordin6 0onfiden0e in t-e final Generator )ondition Inde9.
Additional information re6ardin6 6enerator 0ondition ma! be ne0essar! to improve t-e a00ura0!
and reliabilit! of t-e Generator )ondition Inde9. 1-erefore2 in addition to t-e 1ier ( 0ondition
indi0ators2 t-is appendi9 des0ribes a 5toolbo9W of 1ier / inspe0tions2 tests2 and measurements
t-at ma! be applied to t-e Stator and @otor )ondition Indi0es2 dependin6 on t-e spe0ifi0 issue or
problem bein6 addressed. 1ier / tests are 0onsidered non%routine. Ho:ever2 if 1ier / data is
readil! available2 it ma! be used to supplement t-e 1ier ( assessment. Alternativel!2 1ier / tests
ma! be deliberatel! performed to address 1ier ( findin6s. @esults of t-e 1ier / anal!sis ma!
eit-er in0rease or de0rease t-e s0ore of t-e Generator )ondition Inde9. 1-e Data Gualit!
Indi0ator s0ore ma! also be revised durin6 t-e 1ier / assessment to refle0t t-e availabilit! of
additional information or test data.
1-e Generator )ondition Inde9 ma! indi0ate t-e need for immediate 0orre0tive a0tions andKor
follo:%up 1ier / testin6. 1-e Generator )ondition Inde9 ma! also be used as an input to a
0omputer model t-at assesses ris8 and performs e0onomi0 anal!ses.
$ote: A severel! ne6ative result of A$H inspe0tion2 test2 or measurement ma! be ade<uate in
itself to re<uire immediate de%ener6iAation or prevent re%ener6iAation of t-e 6enerator2
re6ardless of t-e Generator )ondition Inde9 s0ore.
E6.7 I-S*ECTI.-S& TESTS& A-0 MEAS2REME-TS
Inspe0tions2 tests2 and measurements s-ould be 0ondu0ted and anal!Aed b! staff suitabl! trained
and e9perien0ed in 6enerator dia6nosti0s. Gualified staff t-at is 0ompetent in t-ese routine
pro0edures ma! 0ondu0t t-e basi0 tests and inspe0tions. More 0omple9 inspe0tions and
measurements ma! re<uire a 6enerator dia6nosti0s e9pert.
Inspe0tions2 tests2 and measurements s-ould be performed on a fre<uen0! t-at provides t-e
a00urate and 0urrent information needed b! t-e assessment.
Generator 0ondition assessment ma! 0ause 0on0erns t-at 4ustif! more fre<uent monitorin6.
Btilities s-ould 0onsider t-e possibilit! of ta8in6 more fre<uent measurements or installin6 on%
line monitorin6 s!stems t-at :ill 0ontinuousl! tra08 0riti0al parameters. 1-is :ill provide
additional data for 0ondition assessment and establis- a 0ertain amount of reassuran0e as
6enerator alternatives are bein6 e9plored.
Details of t-e inspe0tion2 testin62 and measurement met-ods and intervals are des0ribed in
te0-ni0al referen0es spe0ifi0 to t-e ele0tri0 utilit!.
E6.5 SC.RI-1
)ondition indi0ator s0orin6 is some:-at sub4e0tive2 rel!in6 on t-e e9perien0e and opinions of
plant staff and 6enerator e9perts. @elative terms su0- as 5@esults $ormalW and 5De6radationW
refer to results t-at are 0ompared to industr! a00epted levels; or to baseline or previousl!
a00eptable levels on t-is e<uipment; or to e<uipment of similar desi6n2 0onstru0tion2 or a6e
operatin6 in a similar environment.
E6.C /EI1(TI-1 "ACT.RS
7ei6-tin6 fa0tors used in t-e 0ondition assessment met-odolo6! re0o6niAe t-at some )ondition
Indi0ators affe0t t-e Generator )ondition Inde9 to a 6reater or lesser de6ree t-an ot-er
indi0ators. 1-ese :ei6-tin6 fa0tors :ere arrived at b! 0onsensus amon6 6enerator desi6n and
maintenan0e personnel :it- e9tensive e9perien0e.
E6.D MITI1ATI-1 "ACT.RS
Ever! 6enerator is uni<ue and2 t-erefore2 t-e met-odolo6! des0ribed in t-is 6uide 0annot
<uantif! all fa0tors t-at affe0t individual 6enerator 0ondition. If t-e Generator )ondition Inde9
tri66ers si6nifi0ant follo:%up a0tions (e.6.2 ma4or repairs or a 1ier / assessment)2 it ma! be
prudent to first -ave t-e inde9 revie:ed b! 6enerator e9perts. Miti6atin6 fa0tors spe0ifi0 to t-e
utilit! ma! affe0t t-e final Generator )ondition Inde9 and t-e final de0ision on 6enerator
repla0ement or re-abilitation.
E6.4 0.C2ME-TATI.-
Substantiatin6 do0umentation is essential to support findin6s of t-e assessment2 parti0ularl!
:-ere a 1ier ( 0ondition indi0ator s0ore is less t-an > (i.e.2 less t-an normal) or :-ere a 1ier /
test results in subtra0tions to t-e Generator )ondition Inde9. 1est reports2 p-oto6rap-s2 O 3 M
re0ords2 and ot-er do0umentation s-ould a00ompan! t-e Generator )ondition Assessment
Summar! Corm.

References
7orld :at0- Institute (Januar! /&(/). IBse and )apa0it! of Global H!dropo:er
In0reasesI
@ene:ables /&(( Global Status @eport2 pa6e /,2 H!dropo:er @E$/(2 publis-ed
/&((2 a00essed /&((%((%=.
5Histor! of H!dropo:erI B.S. Department of Ener6!.
7ater En0!0lopedia. Industrial ar0-aeolo6! revie:2 "olumes (&%((
O9ford Bniversit! +ress. (.'=. pp. ('=.