The Republic

By Plato
Written 360 B.C.E
Translated by Benjamin Jowett
Book II

Socrates - AE!"A#T$S
Adeimant%s t&o%'&t t&at t&e en(%iry wo%ld be o) 'reat ser*ice to %s.
T&en+ ! said+ my dear )riend+ t&e tas, m%st not be 'i*en %-+ e*en i) somew&at lon'.
Certainly not.
Come t&en+ and let %s -ass a leis%re &o%r in story-tellin'+ and o%r story s&all be t&e
ed%cation o) o%r &eroes.
By all means.
And w&at s&all be t&eir ed%cation. Can we )ind a better t&an t&e traditional sort. --and
t&is &as two di*isions+ 'ymnastic )or t&e body+ and m%sic )or t&e so%l.
Tr%e.
S&all we be'in ed%cation wit& m%sic+ and 'o on to 'ymnastic a)terwards.
By all means.
And w&en yo% s-ea, o) m%sic+ do yo% incl%de literat%re or not.
! do.
And literat%re may be eit&er tr%e or )alse.
/es.
And t&e yo%n' s&o%ld be trained in bot& ,inds+ and we be'in wit& t&e )alse.
! do not %nderstand yo%r meanin'+ &e said.
/o% ,now+ ! said+ t&at we be'in by tellin' c&ildren stories w&ic&+ t&o%'& not w&olly
destit%te o) tr%t&+ are in t&e main )ictitio%s0 and t&ese stories are told t&em w&en t&ey are
not o) an a'e to learn 'ymnastics.
1ery tr%e.
T&at was my meanin' w&en ! said t&at we m%st teac& m%sic be)ore 'ymnastics.
2%ite ri'&t+ &e said.
/o% ,now also t&at t&e be'innin' is t&e most im-ortant -art o) any wor,+ es-ecially in
t&e case o) a yo%n' and tender t&in'0 )or t&at is t&e time at w&ic& t&e c&aracter is bein'
)ormed and t&e desired im-ression is more readily ta,en.
2%ite tr%e.
And s&all we j%st carelessly allow c&ildren to &ear any cas%al tales w&ic& may be de*ised
by cas%al -ersons+ and to recei*e into t&eir minds ideas )or t&e most -art t&e *ery
o--osite o) t&ose w&ic& we s&o%ld wis& t&em to &a*e w&en t&ey are 'rown %-.
We cannot.
T&en t&e )irst t&in' will be to establis& a censors&i- o) t&e writers o) )iction+ and let t&e
censors recei*e any tale o) )iction w&ic& is 'ood+ and reject t&e bad0 and we will desire
mot&ers and n%rses to tell t&eir c&ildren t&e a%t&orised ones only. 3et t&em )as&ion t&e
mind wit& s%c& tales+ e*en more )ondly t&an t&ey mo%ld t&e body wit& t&eir &ands0 b%t
most o) t&ose w&ic& are now in %se m%st be discarded.
4) w&at tales are yo% s-ea,in'. &e said.
/o% may )ind a model o) t&e lesser in t&e 'reater+ ! said0 )or t&ey are necessarily o) t&e
same ty-e+ and t&ere is t&e same s-irit in bot& o) t&em.
1ery li,ely+ &e re-lied0 b%t ! do not as yet ,now w&at yo% wo%ld term t&e 'reater.
T&ose+ ! said+ w&ic& are narrated by 5omer and 5esiod+ and t&e rest o) t&e -oets+ w&o
&a*e e*er been t&e 'reat story-tellers o) man,ind.
B%t w&ic& stories do yo% mean+ &e said0 and w&at )a%lt do yo% )ind wit& t&em.
A )a%lt w&ic& is most serio%s+ ! said0 t&e )a%lt o) tellin' a lie+ and+ w&at is more+ a bad lie.
B%t w&en is t&is )a%lt committed.
W&ene*er an erroneo%s re-resentation is made o) t&e nat%re o) 'ods and &eroes+ --as
w&en a -ainter -aints a -ortrait not &a*in' t&e s&adow o) a li,eness to t&e ori'inal.
/es+ &e said+ t&at sort o) t&in' is certainly *ery blamable0 b%t w&at are t&e stories w&ic&
yo% mean.
6irst o) all+ ! said+ t&ere was t&at 'reatest o) all lies+ in &i'& -laces+ w&ic& t&e -oet told
abo%t $ran%s+ and w&ic& was a bad lie too+ --! mean w&at 5esiod says t&at $ran%s did+
and &ow Cron%s retaliated on &im. T&e doin's o) Cron%s+ and t&e s%))erin's w&ic& in t%rn
&is son in)licted %-on &im+ e*en i) t&ey were tr%e+ o%'&t certainly not to be li'&tly told to
yo%n' and t&o%'&tless -ersons0 i) -ossible+ t&ey &ad better be b%ried in silence. B%t i)
t&ere is an absol%te necessity )or t&eir mention+ a c&osen )ew mi'&t &ear t&em in a
mystery+ and t&ey s&o%ld sacri)ice not a common 7Ele%sinian8 -i'+ b%t some &%'e and
%n-roc%rable *ictim0 and t&en t&e n%mber o) t&e &earers will be *ery )ew indeed.
W&y+ yes+ said &e+ t&ose stories are e9tremely objectionable.
/es+ Adeimant%s+ t&ey are stories not to be re-eated in o%r State0 t&e yo%n' man s&o%ld
not be told t&at in committin' t&e worst o) crimes &e is )ar )rom doin' anyt&in'
o%tra'eo%s0 and t&at e*en i) &e c&astises &is )at&er w&en does wron'+ in w&ate*er
manner+ &e will only be )ollowin' t&e e9am-le o) t&e )irst and 'reatest amon' t&e 'ods.
! entirely a'ree wit& yo%+ &e said0 in my o-inion t&ose stories are (%ite %n)it to be
re-eated.
#eit&er+ i) we mean o%r )%t%re '%ardians to re'ard t&e &abit o) (%arrellin' amon'
t&emsel*es as o) all t&in's t&e basest+ s&o%ld any word be said to t&em o) t&e wars in
&ea*en+ and o) t&e -lots and )i'&tin's o) t&e 'ods a'ainst one anot&er+ )or t&ey are not
tr%e. #o+ we s&all ne*er mention t&e battles o) t&e 'iants+ or let t&em be embroidered on
'arments0 and we s&all be silent abo%t t&e inn%merable ot&er (%arrels o) 'ods and &eroes
wit& t&eir )riends and relati*es. !) t&ey wo%ld only belie*e %s we wo%ld tell t&em t&at
(%arrellin' is %n&oly+ and t&at ne*er %- to t&is time &as t&ere been any+ (%arrel between
citi:ens0 t&is is w&at old men and old women s&o%ld be'in by tellin' c&ildren0 and w&en
t&ey 'row %-+ t&e -oets also s&o%ld be told to com-ose )or t&em in a similar s-irit. B%t
t&e narrati*e o) 5e-&aest%s bindin' 5ere &is mot&er+ or &ow on anot&er occasion ;e%s
sent &im )lyin' )or ta,in' &er -art w&en s&e was bein' beaten+ and all t&e battles o) t&e
'ods in 5omer --t&ese tales m%st not be admitted into o%r State+ w&et&er t&ey are
s%--osed to &a*e an alle'orical meanin' or not. 6or a yo%n' -erson cannot j%d'e w&at is
alle'orical and w&at is literal0 anyt&in' t&at &e recei*es into &is mind at t&at a'e is li,ely
to become indelible and %nalterable0 and t&ere)ore it is most im-ortant t&at t&e tales
w&ic& t&e yo%n' )irst &ear s&o%ld be models o) *irt%o%s t&o%'&ts.
T&ere yo% are ri'&t+ &e re-lied0 b%t i) any one as,s w&ere are s%c& models to be )o%nd
and o) w&at tales are yo% s-ea,in' --&ow s&all we answer &im.
! said to &im+ /o% and !+ Adeimant%s+ at t&is moment are not -oets+ b%t )o%nders o) a
State< now t&e )o%nders o) a State o%'&t to ,now t&e 'eneral )orms in w&ic& -oets s&o%ld
cast t&eir tales+ and t&e limits w&ic& m%st be obser*ed by t&em+ b%t to ma,e t&e tales is
not t&eir b%siness.
1ery tr%e+ &e said0 b%t w&at are t&ese )orms o) t&eolo'y w&ic& yo% mean.
Somet&in' o) t&is ,ind+ ! re-lied< --=od is always to be re-resented as &e tr%ly is+
w&ate*er be t&e sort o) -oetry+ e-ic+ lyric or tra'ic+ in w&ic& t&e re-resentation is 'i*en.
>i'&t.
And is &e not tr%ly 'ood. and m%st &e not be re-resented as s%c&.
Certainly.
And no 'ood t&in' is &%rt)%l.
#o+ indeed.
And t&at w&ic& is not &%rt)%l &%rts not.
Certainly not.
And t&at w&ic& &%rts not does no e*il.
#o.
And can t&at w&ic& does no e*il be a ca%se o) e*il.
!m-ossible.
And t&e 'ood is ad*anta'eo%s.
/es.
And t&ere)ore t&e ca%se o) well-bein'.
/es.
!t )ollows t&ere)ore t&at t&e 'ood is not t&e ca%se o) all t&in's+ b%t o) t&e 'ood only.
Ass%redly.
T&en =od+ i) &e be 'ood+ is not t&e a%t&or o) all t&in's+ as t&e many assert+ b%t &e is t&e
ca%se o) a )ew t&in's only+ and not o) most t&in's t&at occ%r to men. 6or )ew are t&e
'oods o) &%man li)e+ and many are t&e e*ils+ and t&e 'ood is to be attrib%ted to =od
alone0 o) t&e e*ils t&e ca%ses are to be so%'&t elsew&ere+ and not in &im.
T&at a--ears to me to be most tr%e+ &e said.
T&en we m%st not listen to 5omer or to any ot&er -oet w&o is '%ilty o) t&e )olly o) sayin'
t&at two cas,s 3ie at t&e t&res&old o) ;e%s+ )%ll o) lots+ one o) 'ood+ t&e ot&er o) e*il lots+
and t&at &e to w&om ;e%s 'i*es a mi9t%re o) t&e two Sometimes meets wit& e*il )ort%ne+
at ot&er times wit& 'ood0 b%t t&at &e to w&om is 'i*en t&e c%- o) %nmin'led ill+
5im wild &%n'er dri*es o?er t&e bea%teo%s eart&. And a'ain
;e%s+ w&o is t&e dis-enser o) 'ood and e*il to %s. And i) any one asserts t&at t&e *iolation
o) oat&s and treaties+ w&ic& was really t&e wor, o) Pandar%s+ was bro%'&t abo%t by
At&ene and ;e%s+ or t&at t&e stri)e and contention o) t&e 'ods was insti'ated by T&emis
and ;e%s+ &e s&all not &a*e o%r a--ro*al0 neit&er will we allow o%r yo%n' men to &ear t&e
words o) Aesc&yl%s+ t&at =od -lants '%ilt amon' men w&en &e desires %tterly to destroy a
&o%se. And i) a -oet writes o) t&e s%))erin's o) #iobe --t&e s%bject o) t&e tra'edy in
w&ic& t&ese iambic *erses occ%r --or o) t&e &o%se o) Pelo-s+ or o) t&e Trojan war or on
any similar t&eme+ eit&er we m%st not -ermit &im to say t&at t&ese are t&e wor,s o) =od+
or i) t&ey are o) =od+ &e m%st de*ise some e9-lanation o) t&em s%c& as we are see,in'0
&e m%st say t&at =od did w&at was j%st and ri'&t+ and t&ey were t&e better )or bein'
-%nis&ed0 b%t t&at t&ose w&o are -%nis&ed are miserable+ and t&at =od is t&e a%t&or o)
t&eir misery --t&e -oet is not to be -ermitted to say0 t&o%'& &e may say t&at t&e wic,ed
are miserable beca%se t&ey re(%ire to be -%nis&ed+ and are bene)ited by recei*in'
-%nis&ment )rom =od0 b%t t&at =od bein' 'ood is t&e a%t&or o) e*il to any one is to be
stren%o%sly denied+ and not to be said or s%n' or &eard in *erse or -rose by any one
w&et&er old or yo%n' in any well-ordered commonwealt&. S%c& a )iction is s%icidal+
r%ino%s+ im-io%s.
! a'ree wit& yo%+ &e re-lied+ and am ready to 'i*e my assent to t&e law.
3et t&is t&en be one o) o%r r%les and -rinci-les concernin' t&e 'ods+ to w&ic& o%r -oets
and reciters will be e9-ected to con)orm --t&at =od is not t&e a%t&or o) all t&in's+ b%t o)
'ood only.
T&at will do+ &e said.
And w&at do yo% t&in, o) a second -rinci-le. S&all ! as, yo% w&et&er =od is a ma'ician+
and o) a nat%re to a--ear insidio%sly now in one s&a-e+ and now in anot&er --sometimes
&imsel) c&an'in' and -assin' into many )orms+ sometimes decei*in' %s wit& t&e
semblance o) s%c& trans)ormations0 or is &e one and t&e same imm%tably )i9ed in &is own
-ro-er ima'e.
! cannot answer yo%+ &e said+ wit&o%t more t&o%'&t.
Well+ ! said0 b%t i) we s%--ose a c&an'e in anyt&in'+ t&at c&an'e m%st be e))ected eit&er
by t&e t&in' itsel)+ or by some ot&er t&in'.
"ost certainly.
And t&in's w&ic& are at t&eir best are also least liable to be altered or discom-osed0 )or
e9am-le+ w&en &ealt&iest and stron'est+ t&e &%man )rame is least liable to be a))ected by
meats and drin,s+ and t&e -lant w&ic& is in t&e )%llest *i'o%r also s%))ers least )rom winds
or t&e &eat o) t&e s%n or any similar ca%ses.
4) co%rse.
And will not t&e bra*est and wisest so%l be least con)%sed or deran'ed by any e9ternal
in)l%ence.
Tr%e.
And t&e same -rinci-le+ as ! s&o%ld s%--ose+ a--lies to all com-osite t&in's --)%rnit%re+
&o%ses+ 'arments0 w&en 'ood and well made+ t&ey are least altered by time and
circ%mstances.
1ery tr%e.
T&en e*eryt&in' w&ic& is 'ood+ w&et&er made by art or nat%re+ or bot&+ is least liable to
s%))er c&an'e )rom wit&o%t.
Tr%e.
B%t s%rely =od and t&e t&in's o) =od are in e*ery way -er)ect.
4) co%rse t&ey are.
T&en &e can &ardly be com-elled by e9ternal in)l%ence to ta,e many s&a-es.
5e cannot.
B%t may &e not c&an'e and trans)orm &imsel).
Clearly+ &e said+ t&at m%st be t&e case i) &e is c&an'ed at all.
And will &e t&en c&an'e &imsel) )or t&e better and )airer+ or )or t&e worse and more
%nsi'&tly.
!) &e c&an'e at all &e can only c&an'e )or t&e worse+ )or we cannot s%--ose &im to be
de)icient eit&er in *irt%e or bea%ty.
1ery tr%e+ Adeimant%s0 b%t t&en+ wo%ld any one+ w&et&er =od or man+ desire to ma,e
&imsel) worse.
!m-ossible.
T&en it is im-ossible t&at =od s&o%ld e*er be willin' to c&an'e0 bein'+ as is s%--osed+
t&e )airest and best t&at is concei*able+ e*ery 'od remains absol%tely and )or e*er in &is
own )orm.
T&at necessarily )ollows+ &e said+ in my j%d'ment.
T&en+ ! said+ my dear )riend+ let none o) t&e -oets tell %s t&at
T&e 'ods+ ta,in' t&e dis'%ise o) stran'ers )rom ot&er lands+ wal, %- and down cities in all
sorts o) )orms0 and let no one slander Prote%s and T&etis+ neit&er let any one+ eit&er in
tra'edy or in any ot&er ,ind o) -oetry+ introd%ce 5ere dis'%ised in t&e li,eness o) a
-riestess as,in' an alms
6or t&e li)e-'i*in' da%'&ters o) !nac&%s t&e ri*er o) Ar'os0 --let %s &a*e no more lies o)
t&at sort. #eit&er m%st we &a*e mot&ers %nder t&e in)l%ence o) t&e -oets scarin' t&eir
c&ildren wit& a bad *ersion o) t&ese myt&s --tellin' &ow certain 'ods+ as t&ey say+ ?=o
abo%t by ni'&t in t&e li,eness o) so many stran'ers and in di*ers )orms?0 b%t let t&em ta,e
&eed lest t&ey ma,e cowards o) t&eir c&ildren+ and at t&e same time s-ea, blas-&emy
a'ainst t&e 'ods.
5ea*en )orbid+ &e said.
B%t alt&o%'& t&e 'ods are t&emsel*es %nc&an'eable+ still by witc&cra)t and dece-tion
t&ey may ma,e %s t&in, t&at t&ey a--ear in *ario%s )orms.
Per&a-s+ &e re-lied.
Well+ b%t can yo% ima'ine t&at =od will be willin' to lie+ w&et&er in word or deed+ or to
-%t )ort& a -&antom o) &imsel).
! cannot say+ &e re-lied.
o yo% not ,now+ ! said+ t&at t&e tr%e lie+ i) s%c& an e9-ression may be allowed+ is &ated
o) 'ods and men.
W&at do yo% mean. &e said.
! mean t&at no one is willin'ly decei*ed in t&at w&ic& is t&e tr%est and &i'&est -art o)
&imsel)+ or abo%t t&e tr%est and &i'&est matters0 t&ere+ abo*e all+ &e is most a)raid o) a lie
&a*in' -ossession o) &im.
Still+ &e said+ ! do not com-re&end yo%.
T&e reason is+ ! re-lied+ t&at yo% attrib%te some -ro)o%nd meanin' to my words0 b%t ! am
only sayin' t&at dece-tion+ or bein' decei*ed or %nin)ormed abo%t t&e &i'&est realities in
t&e &i'&est -art o) t&emsel*es+ w&ic& is t&e so%l+ and in t&at -art o) t&em to &a*e and to
&old t&e lie+ is w&at man,ind least li,e0 --t&at+ ! say+ is w&at t&ey %tterly detest.
T&ere is not&in' more &ate)%l to t&em.
And+ as ! was j%st now remar,in'+ t&is i'norance in t&e so%l o) &im w&o is decei*ed may
be called t&e tr%e lie0 )or t&e lie in words is only a ,ind o) imitation and s&adowy ima'e
o) a -re*io%s a))ection o) t&e so%l+ not -%re %nad%lterated )alse&ood. Am ! not ri'&t.
Per)ectly ri'&t.
T&e tr%e lie is &ated not only by t&e 'ods+ b%t also by men.
/es.
W&ereas t&e lie in words is in certain cases %se)%l and not &ate)%l0 in dealin' wit&
enemies --t&at wo%ld be an instance0 or a'ain+ w&en t&ose w&om we call o%r )riends in a
)it o) madness or ill%sion are 'oin' to do some &arm+ t&en it is %se)%l and is a sort o)
medicine or -re*enti*e0 also in t&e tales o) myt&olo'y+ o) w&ic& we were j%st now
s-ea,in' --beca%se we do not ,now t&e tr%t& abo%t ancient times+ we ma,e )alse&ood as
m%c& li,e tr%t& as we can+ and so t%rn it to acco%nt.
1ery tr%e+ &e said.
B%t can any o) t&ese reasons a--ly to =od. Can we s%--ose t&at &e is i'norant o)
anti(%ity+ and t&ere)ore &as reco%rse to in*ention.
T&at wo%ld be ridic%lo%s+ &e said.
T&en t&e lyin' -oet &as no -lace in o%r idea o) =od.
! s&o%ld say not.
4r -er&a-s &e may tell a lie beca%se &e is a)raid o) enemies.
T&at is inconcei*able.
B%t &e may &a*e )riends w&o are senseless or mad.
B%t no mad or senseless -erson can be a )riend o) =od.
T&en no moti*e can be ima'ined w&y =od s&o%ld lie.
#one w&ate*er.
T&en t&e s%-er&%man and di*ine is absol%tely inca-able o) )alse&ood.
/es.
T&en is =od -er)ectly sim-le and tr%e bot& in word and deed0 &e c&an'es not0 &e decei*es
not+ eit&er by si'n or word+ by dream or wa,in' *ision.
/o%r t&o%'&ts+ &e said+ are t&e re)lection o) my own.
/o% a'ree wit& me t&en+ ! said+ t&at t&is is t&e second ty-e or )orm in w&ic& we s&o%ld
write and s-ea, abo%t di*ine t&in's. T&e 'ods are not ma'icians w&o trans)orm
t&emsel*es+ neit&er do t&ey decei*e man,ind in any way.
! 'rant t&at.
T&en+ alt&o%'& we are admirers o) 5omer+ we do not admire t&e lyin' dream w&ic& ;e%s
sends to A'amemnon0 neit&er will we -raise t&e *erses o) Aesc&yl%s in w&ic& T&etis says
t&at A-ollo at &er n%-tials
Was celebratin' in son' &er )air -ro'eny w&ose days were to &e lon'+ and to ,now no
sic,ness. And w&en &e &ad s-o,en o) my lot as in all t&in's blessed o) &ea*en &e raised a
note o) tri%m-& and c&eered my so%l. And ! t&o%'&t t&at t&e word o) P&oeb%s bein'
di*ine and )%ll o) -ro-&ecy+ wo%ld not )ail. And now &e &imsel) w&o %ttered t&e strain+ &e
w&o was -resent at t&e ban(%et+ and w&o said t&is --&e it is w&o &as slain my son.
T&ese are t&e ,ind o) sentiments abo%t t&e 'ods w&ic& will aro%se o%r an'er0 and &e w&o
%tters t&em s&all be re)%sed a c&or%s0 neit&er s&all we allow teac&ers to ma,e %se o) t&em
in t&e instr%ction o) t&e yo%n'+ meanin'+ as we do+ t&at o%r '%ardians+ as )ar as men can
be+ s&o%ld be tr%e wors&i--ers o) t&e 'ods and li,e t&em.
! entirely a'ree+ be said+ in t&ese -rinci-les+ and -romise to ma,e t&em my laws.