Literatura Engleza Anul I, Sem. 2 Final

Universitatea Dunrea De Jos din Galai
Facultatea de Litere
ENGLISH RENAISSANE
LI!ERA!URE
"urs de literatura en#le$%
Anul I
Lect& univ& dr& Ga'riela Iuliana oli(c
Galai
)**+
2
!a'le o, ontents
!A-LE .F .N!EN!S
Section /0 Si1teent23entur4 En#lis2 5oetr4 4
1. 1. The Early Sonneteers: Thomas Wyatt. Henry Howard 6
1. 2. Sir Philip Sidney 9
1. 3. Edmund Spenser 12
1. 4. William Shaespeare: The !arrati"e Poems. The Sonnets 16
1. #. Pra$ti$al %ppli$ations. E&amination Tests. 21
Section )0 En#lis2 Dra6a in t2e Si1teent2 entur4 24
2. 1. The 'ise o( the Se$ular )rama 24
2. 1. 1. Eli*a+ethan Playhouses and Theatri$al Per(orman$es 24
2. 1. 2. The ,irst -omedies and Tra.edies 2/
2. 2. The 0ni"ersity Wits 31
2. 2. 1. Thomas 1yd. -ase Study: The Spanish Tragedy 31
2. 2. 2. -hristopher 2arlowe. -ase Study: The Tragicall History of
the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus
33
2. 3. Pra$ti$al %ppli$ations. E&amination Tests. 43
Section 70 8illia6 S2a9es(eare or Eli$a'et2an Dra6a at Its -est 43
3. 1. 4i(e and Wor 43
3. 2. The Shaespearean -ontro"ersy #2
3. 3. -hroni$le Plays. -ase Study: Richard III #3
3. 4. -omedies. -ase Study: The Taming of the Shrew 65
3. #. Tra.edies. -ase Study: Hamlet 6/
3. 6. 'oman$es. -ase Study: The Tempest 39
3. 3. Pra$ti$al %ppli$ations. E&amination Tests. /9
-i'lio#ra(24 93
En#lis2 Renaissance Literature
7
Section /0 Si1teent23entur4 En#lis2 5oetr4
6%s early as the 1#th $entury a (ew En.lish $leri$s and .o"ernment o((i$ials
had 7ourneyed to 8taly and had witnessed somethin. o( the intelle$tual
mo"ement (lourishin. there. 8nterest in $lassi$al learnin. +e$ame mani(est
when pri"ate donations o( an$ient manus$ripts to the 0ni"ersities o( 9&(ord
and -am+rid.e made them (amous seats o( humanisti$ learnin.. The
introdu$tion o( :ree studies into En.land initiated a permanent enthusiasm
(or $lassi$al learnin.. William :ro$yn; the (irst tea$her o( 9&(ord; Thomas
4ina$re; who tau.ht :ree to Erasmus and Thomas 2orus; <ohn -olet; the
(ounder o( St=Paul>s S$hool; the (irst En.lish se$ondary s$hool de"oted to the
!ew learnin.; esta+lished the tea$hin. o( :ree on sound prin$iples and
wrote .rammati$al wors and translations.
The .reat humanist o( the a.e; )esiderius Erasmus; li"ed in En.land
(or a num+er o( years and wrote his (amous wor Moriae Encomium ?Praise
of Folly@ in 1#15 at the 4ondon home o( Sir Thomas 2orus to whom the wor
is dedi$ated. Erasmus and Thomas 2ore were li(elon. (riends and their
(riendship is one o( the most tou$hin. in the history o( literature. Aesides his
position as a statesman Thomas 2orus was the .reat leader o( the
intelle$tual mo"ement nown as H02%!8S2. His literary (ame rests upon
topia; the (irst .reat humanisti$ wor +y an En.lishman.
The 16th $entury also witnessed the emer.en$e o( portrait paintin. as part
o( the intelle$tual renewin. o( the time. When the monasteries were dissol"ed
durin. the 'e(ormation; reli.ious paintin. ine"ita+ly disappeared as an anne& o(
-atholi$ism. Paintin. was $entrali*ed in 4ondon and in the ser"i$e o( $ourt. Henry
B888; an&ious to hei.hten his presti.e +y a +rilliant art $ir$le; too ad"anta.e o( the
presen$e in En.land o( Hans Hol+ein the Coun.er; who had (irst arri"ed with a
re$ommendation to Sir Thomas 2orus (rom Erasmus; stayin. at 2orus>s house
(rom 1#26 to 1#2/; to appoint him o((i$ial $ourt painter in 1#36.
The portrait o( Henry B888 +y Hol+ein; the same as the pre"ious ones o(
Thomas 2orus and the .roup o( 2orus and his (amily; re"eals the artist>s
super+ a+ility o( re$ordin. the a$$urate lieness and the stamp o( $hara$ter
whi$h only a .reat artisti$ .enius $an .i"e. Hol+ein>s in(luen$e on En.lish
paintin. e&erted throu.h the indi"idual portrait a+le to +rin. a li"in. person
authenti$ally +e(ore us $annot +e Duestioned.E
9"er the se$ond hal( o( the si&teenth $entury; the prosperity and
se$urity that the En.lish en7oyed under Fueen Eli*a+eth 8 allowed (or (urther
$ultural de"elopments as the En.lish 'enaissan$e rea$hed its $lima&. 6The
'enaissan$e meant literally Gre=+irth>; a return to the man=$entered learnin. o(
$lassi$al antiDuity. With its spirit o( inDuiry and its "ision o( the an$ient (reedom
o( :ree and 'oman thou.ht the 'enaissan$e had +een transplanted (rom
8taly to +loom a(resh in En.land. The 'enaissan$e attitudes mani(ested
themsel"es in humanism $hara$teri*ed +y interest in man assertin. the
intrinsi$ worth o( human li(e. Ay pla$in. man as an indi"idual at the $entre o(
human preo$$upation humanism .a"e him a new status in the uni"erse. 8t
emphasi*ed the study o( man and re.arded su$h study as the way to ele"ate
human $ulture and mae li(e on earth more en7oya+le.
The epo$h=main. astronomi$al dis$o"eries o( -operni$us; 1epler
and :alileo su+stituted (or the traditional Ptolemai$ $osmolo.y the new
ima.e o( the sun=$entered uni"erse. Aut Eli*a+ethan world pi$ture was still
lar.ely .eo$entri$ with the earth surrounded +y the nine spheres +eyond
:
whi$h the Gcoelum empireum! e&tended. The uni"erse was hierar$hi$ally
stru$tured; all the thin.s $onstitutin. one "reat #hain of $eing that rose (rom
the parti$les o( matter to the Power that had $reated them. -osmi$ hierar$hy
re(le$ted the prin$iple o( order whi$h in the 'enaissan$e $on$eption
.o"erned the uni"erse and pre"ented $haos in the so$iety. The :reat -hain
o( Aein. would pro"e a perennial $on$ept to lin.er on in the intelle$tual
mentality until late in the 1/th $entury.
The si.ni(i$ant wors o( 4atin; :ree and European literatures +e$ame
a"aila+le to the pu+li$ at lar.e throu.h translation into En.lish. %mon. these
mention should +e made o( Plutar$h>s Li%es of the &o'le "recians and
Romans; Homer>s Iliad; Ber.il>s (eneid; Sene$a>s Tragedies; 9"id>s
Metamorphoses +ut also 2ontai.ne>s Essays and -er"antes>s Don )ui*ote.
9ne o( the $hie( elements in the En.lish $ulture o( the 'enaissan$e was the
Ai+le whi$h +e$ame the +oo o( +oos (or the no+ility and the middle $lasses
alie. 8( at the +e.innin. o( the 16th $entury there were only two $omplete
En.lish "ersions o( the Ai+le; +oth o( whi$h were made +y (ollowers o( <ohn
Wy$li(; an in$reased demand (or new translations produ$ed in su$$essi"e
wa"es the "reat $i'le ?1#39@. -ranmer>s $i'le ?1#45@; the "ene%a $i'le
?1#65@ to $ulminate with the (uthori+ed ,ersion ?1611@ whi$h has e"er sin$e
in(luen$ed En.lish literature throu.h its per(e$tly +alan$ed ar$hai$ style.
The "iolent attitude taen a.ainst i$ons and o+7e$ts o( $ult durin. the
Tudor re(ormation that dis$oura.ed painters and s$ulptors to produ$e
reli.ious art $ontinued under Eli*a+eth. The most emotionally appealin.
produ$t o( the Eli*a+ethan %.e is the art o( the miniature. 8n its intimate
nature it was the opposite to the (ormali*ed ima.es o( the oil painters; a
de"elopment (rom the manus$ript illumination !i$holas 2illiard is remara+le
in the (resh and intimate $hara$ter o( his miniature portraits; and the poeti$
(eelin. whi$h maes him in o( the Eli*a+ethan sonneteers. His miniatures
were small 7ewels; re"elations o( $hara$ter and sentiment.
The unsurpassed a$hie"ements o( the Eli*a+ethan a.e were +y (ar in
the (ield o( poetry; drama and philosophy whi$h rea$hed unpre$edented
ori.inality and (orwardness o( e&pression in the wors o( Spenser;
Shaespeare and Aa$on.E ?:a"riliu; 2552: 33=/; /4=6@
The post=-hau$erian period was $hara$terised +y the lon. a+sen$e o(
$ulti"ated poetry. Cet; durin. the 'enaissan$e; espe$ially due to the
tremendous in(luen$e o( 8talian lyri$al poetry ?Petrar$h; Ao$$a$$io; %riosto;
Tasso@ widely nown either throu.h translation or adaptations; si.ni(i$ant
a$hie"ements mared the re"i"al and rapid de"elopment o( En.lish poetry.
Their study will allow modern readers to see in a di((erent li.ht a num+er o(
issues related; on the one hand; to $ourt $ulture in the 'enaissan$e times;
i.e. the relationships +etween humanism; $hi"alri$ "alues and $ourt $ulture;
with the related themes o( $ourtly and platoni$ lo"e; the way in whi$h the arts
were used +y rulers to pro7e$t ima.es and politi$al messa.es a+out
themsel"es; their $ourts; and the destiny o( their $ountries and in.doms; or
the role o( women in $ourt $ulture; +oth women as ornaments o( the $ourt
and women as rulers. 9n the other hand; howe"er; stress will +e laid on one
parti$ular aspe$t whi$h runs not only throu.h the $ourt $ulture material +ut
throu.h the wider dis$ussion o( humanism; ideas and the arts; namely the
relationship +etween European $ultural "alues and artisti$ models and the
produ$ts o( the emer.ent national $ultures. ?See :ri((iths; 199/@ %s the
;
(urther presentation attempts to demonstrate; drawin. on the models o(
8talian 'enaissan$e "erna$ular poetry H in parti$ular on Petrar$h H; imitatin.
or $riti$i*in. them; the most important o( the En.lish 'enaissan$e poets
?Thomas Wyatt; Henry Howard; Philip Sidney; Edmund Spenser; William
Shaespeare@ imposed on themsel"es an e&pli$it mission to re.enerate
En.lish as a literary lan.ua.e; to +la*on En.lish poetry (orth as worthy o(
$omparison with the +est o( 8taly and the +est o( :ree$e and 'ome; and
shaped up their wors a$$ordin. to their Protestant $on"i$tions and to their
opinions re.ardin. the position and the (un$tion o( the poet at $ourt.
8n the spirit o( the 'enaissan$e; most o( the new poetry was
$ir$ulated; at (irst; in $olle$tions; in manus$ript (orm; to +e pu+lished (or the
pu+li$ at lar.e only at a later date. The (irst si.ni(i$ant $olle$tion o(
'enaissan$e "erse is Songes and Sonnets 'y the -right Honoura'le Lord
Henry Howard Late Earle of Surrey. and /thers; also nown as Songs and
Sonnets or Tottel!s Miscellany; as it was pu+lished +y the printer Henry Tottel
in 1##9. 8t was a hetero.eneous $olle$tion o( 315 poems; mainly lyri$s; +ut
also epi.rams; ele.ies; satires; pastorals; narrati"es. Hi.hly popular amon.
the poets and the readin. pu+li$ ?Shaespeare himsel( is said to ha"e owned
a $opy o( the $olle$tion and he does mae re(eren$e to it; more or less
e&pli$itly; in The Merry -i%es of -indsor and e"en in Hamlet@; Tottel!s
Miscellany was pu+lished in at least nine editions until the end o( the $entury.
The most remara+le $ontri+utions to the $olle$tion +elon.ed to the most
in(luential o( the indi"idual poets; the so=$alled 6pioneersE o( this poeti$ a.e;
namely Sir Thomas Wyatt ?93 poems@ and Henry Howard; Earl o( Surrey;
whose name appears on the title pa.e; pro+a+ly +e$ause o( his hi.h ran
and his $lose ties to the royal (amily ?45 poems@.
/& /& !2e Earl4 Sonneteers0 !2o6as 84att& Henr4 Ho<ard
When En.lish poetry re=emer.ed in the si&teenth $entury a(ter a lon. period
o( rather s$ar$e poeti$ a$hie"ements; it turned (or inspiration to the literature
o( another European $ultural spa$e where the 'enaissan$e had +een
(lourishin.; namely 8taly. Translations and adaptations played a "ery
important part in main. the humanisti$ literature o( 8taly widely nown and it
was in parti$ular to writers lie Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard; Earl o(
Surrey; that the a$$ulturation o( one o( the most popular (orms o( lyri$al
poetry; i.e. the sonnet; was possi+le; thus allowin. (or the de"elopment o( a
new tradition in poetry writin. in 'enaissan$e En.land.
Sir !2o6as 84att "/;*73/;:)%
Li,e. He li"ed a short; +ut e"ent(ul li(e amon. the aristo$rats o( Henry B888>s
$ourt; .ettin. o(ten in"ol"ed in dan.erous politi$al relationships or lo"e
a((airs. Ae(ore he was 2#; he was sent on diplomati$ missions in ,ran$e and
espe$ially in 8taly; where he .ot a$Duainted with Petrar$h>s and Sera(ino dell>
%Duila>s lo"e poetry. He was .ranted the ran o( ni.ht; +ut trou+les with the
women in his li(e H his hatred o( his wi(e and hopeless lo"e (or %nn Aoleyn H
would soon $ost him his (reedom: he was imprisoned under the suspi$ion o(
+ein. %nn Aoleyn>s lo"er. 'e.ainin. (a"our; he +e$ame an am+assador to
Spain; +ut he was imprisoned a.ain under the $har.e o( treason. ,inally;
appointed $ommander o( the En.lish (leet; he died at the a.e o( thirty=nine; o(
a (e"er durin. one o( his missions; at ,almouth.
=
8or9. He is the (irst to ha"e introdu$ed the 14=line 8talian sonnet into En.lish.
He is the (irst En.lish poet sin$e -hau$er to mae use o( 8talian models; in
parti$ular Petrar$h>s; $om+inin. the humanist and the "erna$ular modes o(
e&pression; i.e. on the one hand; the re$o"ery o( $lassi$al literature; history;
philosophy and "alue systems to.ether with the de"elopment o( the lin.uisti$
tools to a$$omplish this re$o"ery; and on the other hand; the (or.in. o( a
literature in a modern European lan.ua.e that would +e as ri$h and as lon.=
lastin. as that o( :ree$e and 'ome. 8t is true that the adoption o( the Petrar$han
sonnet; $onsistin. o( an o$ta"e; introdu$in. the statement; and a sestet;
presentin. the poet>s intelle$tual or emotional response; mainly dealin. with the
theme o( unreDuited lo"e; was in part moti"ated +y the (a$t that 8taly was
+e$omin. (ashiona+le as a sour$e o( $ourtly manners and a$$omplishments;
and it amused the in. to introdu$e it to the En.lish $ourt as well. Cet;
$onsiderin. Wyatt>s personality; s$holars ha"e stated that it was rather 6the
emotional and (ormal stru$ture o( Petrar$han lo"e poetry; its a+ility to e&press
$omple& emotional e&perien$e; the (eelin.s o( the lo"er torn +etween $on(li$tin.
impulses I human lo"e and se&ual .rati(i$ation on the one hand; and the
re7e$tion o( the world (or the di"ine; a $on(li$t produ$in. .uilt; shame; an&iety;
intolera+le tension and un$ertainty IE whi$h appealed to the poet and
determined him to tae up sonnet writin.. ?:ri((iths; 199/@ ,or Wyatt; Petrar$h
o((ered an eroti$ psy$holo.y use(ul (or $onstru$tin. his own eroti$ persona as
part o( the $ourtly .ame; and espe$ially (or transposin. in an artisti$ (orm an
emotional trauma to whi$h the poeti$ persona lent distan$e. The Petrar$han
themes o( eroti$ attra$tion to an ideali*ed +ut $ruel; allurin.; hard=hearted;
(rustratin.ly $haste mistress; (etishism H the male lo"er deals with the +elo"ed
+est throu.h eroti$ asso$iations with her shoes; $lothin. pets; portraits; lo$s o(
hair; smells and sounds; thus 6aestheti$isin. herE H and maso$histi$ally re$ei"ed
re7e$tion = the lo"er +urns; he (ree*es; he en7oys the pain o( denial and waitin.;
and the possi+ility that a(ter pain will $ome pleasure and .rati(i$ation H are all
preser"ed in some o( Wyatt>s +est sonnets; in (a$t; translationsJ adaptations
(rom 8talian; e... The Lo%er #ompareth His State to a Ship in Impetuous Storm
Tossed on the Sea ?Petrar$h>s Sonnet 1#6@; Description of the #ontrarious
Passions in a Lo%er ?Petrar$h>s Sonnet 154@; The Lo%er for Shamefastness
Hideth His Desire -ithin His Faithful Heart ?Petrar$h>s Sonnet 159@.
64ie Petrar$h in(atuated with 4aura; +ut (rom a +leaer and more
pessimisti$ point o( "iew; Wyatt was trapped +y an eroti$ $ompulsion
(rom whi$h he $ould +rea not himsel( (ree. What is interestin. is how
Wyatt; whose attitude to his G+elo"ed> was predominantly an.er and
s$orn; does not simply imitate or $opy Petrar$h +ut $reati"ely trans(orms
his model in a way that re(le$ts his di((erent per$eption o( the +elo"ed
and; as )ay emphasises; $on"eys a sense o( Tudor politi$al realities
and the reDuirements and e"asions o( sur"i"al at $ourt.E ?:ri((iths; 199/@
Petrar$han ideali*ation o( the +elo"ed is thus o(ten repla$ed with de+ased
alternati"es: ima.es o( sprin. (reshness are repla$ed with sordid antitheses
and o+s$ene allusionsK while 4aura>s $hastity meant that she +elon.ed to
:od; in the $ase o( Wyatt>s mistress an em+lem o( stead(astness and
$hastity is transmuted into one o( $upidityK et$.
%ll in all; Wyatt>s poetry; and espe$ially his ori.inal lyri$s ?son.s or
sonnets@; pro"ide an e&$ellent illustration o( the way in whi$h 'enaissan$e
and humanist "alues ena+led poets to e&press a 6hei.htened o( su+7e$ti"ity
and indi"iduality;E in"ertin. the Petrar$han style; with its sophisti$ated
>
$on$eits; and su+7e$t matter and su+7e$tin. the persona>s assumptions a+out
women to a +itter interro.ation. ?:ri((iths; 199/@ ,urthermore; speain. o(
(orm; spe$ial mention should +e made to the inno"ation displayed in Wyatt>s
last three sonnets in Tottle!s Miscellany whi$h was later to +e re(erred to as
the En.lish or Shaespearean sonnet: the 14 lines o( the sonnet are
distri+uted into three Duatrains $ontainin. the statement; the ampli(i$ation
and the $lima&; and; respe$ti"ely; a $on$ludin. $ouplet; while the rhymin.
pattern is a'a' cdcd efef gg.
Henr4 Ho<ard? Earl o, Surre4 "/;/>3/;:>%
Li,e. )es$ri+ed in the histori$al do$uments o( the time as 6the most relish
prowde +oye that ys in En.landE ?Aerdan; 1925: #11@; he li"ed a short and
e&$itin.ly e"ent(ul li(e. Aorn in a (amily o( the hi.hest aristo$ra$y; he spent his
$hildhood and early youth in $lose $onne$tion with the royal (amilies o(
En.land and ,ran$e. Politi$ally a$ti"e in o"erthrowin. Thomas -romwell;
Henry B888>s 4ord -han$ellor; in de(eatin. the S$ots at ,lodden ,ield and in
the war with ,ran$e; he remained essentially a re$less youn. man; o(ten
em+arin.; to.ether with his (riends ?here in$ludin. Thomas Wyatt>s son@
upon 6lewde and unseemly ?L@ walin. in the ni.ht a+ow.ht the stretes and
+reain. with stone+ows o(( $erteyne wyndowes.E ?Aerdan; 1925: #12@ 8t was
in (a$t his re$lessness; all the more dan.erous in the tense atmosphere o(
the dyin. in.>s $ourt; that +rou.ht a+out his death: $har.ed with treason; as
result o( his .ettin. in"ol"ed in the dispute o"er Henry B888>s su$$essor; he
was +eheaded; at the a.e o( 35; 7ust one wee +e(ore the monar$h>s death.
8or9. ,rom his early $hildhood; 6the most +rilliant; the most spe$ta$ular; the
most $ulti"ated no+le o( En.landE; as some s$holars $all him ?Aerdan; 1925:
#16@; was en$oura.ed to study and to translate (rom the $lassi$s and the
,ren$h poets. Cet; Petrar$h and Wyatt seem to ha"e most stron.ly in(luen$ed
him in his $areer as a sonneteer.
8n dealin. with the Petrar$han model; in his translations; he showed
te$hni$al sill and produ$ed (luent; musi$al; attra$ti"e "erse o( .enuine lyri$
Duality; without Petrar$han $on"entionality or ha$neyed phrasin.; thou.h
o(ten less "i.orous and "i"id than Wyatt>s. To .i"e +ut some e&amples; his
sonnet Description of Spring; a translation o( Petra$h>s sonnet 43; pi$tures a
lo"ely En.lish lands$ape in sprin. time; while (las0 so all things now do hold
their peace; an adaptation o( Petrar$h>s sonnet 113 ?( #omplaint 'y &ight of
the Lo%er not $elo%ed@; displays .enuine e((usion and a surer hand ?to +e
analysed@. %s (ar as the sonnet (orm $ulti"ated is $on$erned; he (ollowed in
Wyatt>s (ootsteps and esta+lished the En.lish sonnet (orm; de"oid o( the
me$hani$al +rea o( the Petrar$han one; 6a (orm more $onsonant with the
.enius o( his lan.ua.eE to whi$h he .a"e $urren$y. ?Aerdan; 1925: #22=#23@
Themati$ally; he was in (a$t at his +est when e&altin. male (riendship and
mas$uline "irtues rather than the lo"e o( women.
Aut sonnet writin. represents only a part o( his a$ti"ity as a humanist
writer. He also had the merit o( ha"in. introdu$ed the +lan "erse in En.lish
prosody in his 1##4 translation o( the (eneid ?Aoos 2 and 4@. These were as
many reasons (or his $ontemporaries and su$$essors ?here in$ludin. Sir
Philip Sidney@ to $onsider him the representati"e o( the a.e H 6the a.e when
(or the (irst time sin$e -hau$er; the lan.ua.e had +e$ome relati"ely (i&ed in
the (orms o( the words; and when the poeti$ te$hniDue had passed +eyond
the o+"iously e&perimental sta.e.E ?Aerdan; 1925: #23@
+
/& )& Sir 52ili( Sidne4 "/;;:3/;+=%
%(ter Thomas Wyatt and Henry Howard; the literary interest in 8taly and its
$ourt poetry went in hi+ernation until the 1#65s; and e"en when it was
re"i"ed; En.lish poets remained mainly imitators o( the Petrar$han sonnet.
Thus; the "erse produ$tions under Edward B8; his sister 6AloodyE 2ary and
the youth(ul Eli*a+eth 8; were o( rather poor Duality. 9nly Geor#e Gascoi#ne
"/;:)3/;>>% mi.ht +e worth mentionin.. He was (or a short while the most
important man o( letters in En.land. His $ontri+ution to the de"elopment o(
'enaissan$e literature mi.ht +e summarised as (ollows:
- 'emara+le translations (rom 8talian drama ?%riosto@K
- The (irst En.lish 6no"el;E The (d%entures of Master F1 21 ?1#33@K
- The earliest treatise on En.lish prosody; #ertayne &otes of
Instruction #oncerning the Ma3ing of ,erse or Rhyme in English; in$luded
in his $olle$tion o( writin.s The Poesies of "eorge "ascoigne.
- The (irst En.lish satire in +lan "erse; The Steele "lass ?1#36@;
e&posin. the moral dissolution in e"ery wal o( so$iety.
8t was only in the 1#/5s and 1#95s; at a time when Eli*a+eth had mana.ed
to $onsolidate her position on the throne; that o( %n.li$anismJ Protestantism
in the in.dom and that o( her in.dom amon. the European powers;
espe$ially +y the .reat "i$tory o"er the Spanish %rmada in <uly 1#//; that the
de"elopment o( poetry; in parti$ular; mo"ed +eyond translation and te$hni$al
imitation into true $reati"ity; a phase in whi$h Philip Sidney; Edmund Spenser
and William Shaespeare are the leadin. (i.ures. The Eli*a+ethan response
to 8talian in(luen$es is di((erent (rom that o( the 6pioneersE o( the En.lish
'enaissan$e and somewhat $ontradi$tory: on the one hand; 8taly was seen
as a sour$e o( sensuality; re7e$ted +y Protestant austerity; as well as a
sym+ol o( Papism and "i$eK on the other hand; the edu$ated humanists o( the
time (ound it di((i$ult to +rea with the human "alues and sensual $ontent o(
8talian (i$tion and poetry. ,urthermore; a "ery important (a$tor in(luen$in.
artisti$ produ$tion in the Eli*a+ethan En.land was the 6desire to de(ine an
En.lish literary identity that enshrined "isions o( national; politi$al and
reli.ious "alues that they MpoetsN sou.ht to identi(y and shapeKE or; to put in
di((erent words; poets aspired to tae an a$ti"e part in the
6$reation o( a national literary; moral and reli.ious identity in a way that
would +uttress state; Fueen and $hur$h. 8n so doin.; they sou.ht to
inte.rate 'enaissan$e literary ideals and humane "alues with their
Protestant +elie(s and the impli$ations o( these (or their souls and their
per$eption o( the sel(. Tena+ly the imitation and trans(ormation o( 8talian
writin. was an e((ort Oto $onstru$t an illuminated understandin. o( the
ri.ht relationship +etween worldly and spiritual .oodsP. They +orrowed
the themes; e&pressi"e desires and preo$$upations o( 8talian poetry with
real human li"es and lo"es; whether in the (orm o( the Petrar$han sonnet
seDuen$e I where the $on(li$t +etween eroti$ desire and reli.ious
pres$ription made the lo$ation o( sel( pro+lemati$alK I or in the (orm o(
the epi$ roman$e pioneered +y %riosto and Tasso I where heroi$
a$tions are per(ormed +y no+le $hara$ters humanised +y lo"e and
.o"erned +y $hi"alri$ .allantryK I or in the pastoral mode I whi$h
$ounterpoised the muta+ility o( worldly trou+les with the ima.inati"e
possi+ility o( a .olden world o( idealised simpli$ity and harmony. Aut they
@
modi(ied the assumptions o( ea$h model to mae them $onsistent with
the Protestant sense o( human nature and spiritual responsi+ilityK they
stru..led with the En.lish lan.ua.e to mae it o( literary worth in an a.e
when the less restri$ti"e and less insular traditions su..ested writin. in
4atinK and they did this in a manner whi$h sou.ht to ser"e the needs o(
Fueen and $ourtLE Thus; +oth Sir Philip Sidney and Edmund Spenser
appear as 6leadin. e&amples o( those who wished +oth to parti$ipate in
the "alue systems represented +y 8talian and $lassi$al literature at the
same as they endorsed Protestant "aluesK they wanted ?L@ to $ele+rate
their (aith and retain the aestheti$ and humane appeal o( 8talian literary
modelsK their pro7e$t $on$erned +oth literary and national identity and the
relationship +etween the $ultural impli$ations o( +ein. Protestant and
En.lish and a wider European $ons$iousness.E ?:ri((iths; 199/@
Li,e& Sir Philip Sidney>s $ontemporaries $onsidered him the em+odiment o(
the 'enaissan$e ideal: the per(e$t .entleman +y +irth and +y nature. %
warrior; a statesman; a s$holar and a poet; he was a (a"ourite o( the Dueen
and presuma+ly at the heart o( $ourt politi$s in the 1#35s and the early
1#/5s. He en$oura.ed youn. Edmund Spenser to pu+lish the Shepherd!s
#alendar ?to pay homa.e to his patron Sidney; Spenser dedi$ated the wor
to him as 6the president o( no+lesse and $he"alreeE.@ % .o"ernor in the
!etherlands; he was +adly wounded on the +attle(ield at Qutpen; in a (i.ht
a.ainst -atholi$ Spain; and he died 26 days a(ter. The manner o( his death
made him a (i.ure o( myth. They say that; while lyin. on the +attle(ield
wounded; he .a"e up the water he had reDuested in (a"our o( another
wounded soldier with these words: 6Thy ne$essity is yet .reater than mine.E
8or9& Sidney H the man o( letters did not seem to tae the literary $areer
"ery seriously; yet his (ame rests upon three ma7or wors whi$h were
pu+lished posthumously: the no"el (rcadia; the sonnet seDuen$e (strophel
and Stella and the essay (n (pologie for Poetry.
To +rie(ly des$ri+e his no"el; re(eren$e must +e made to the (a$t that
he wrote it (or the amusement o( his sister; the -ountess o( Pem+roe; while
stayin. at her estate to $ure (rom his lo"e (or Penelope )e"ereu&; and that
he introdu$ed in it a (airy world o( en$hanted +eauty depi$ted throu.h a
master(ully e&Duisite lan.ua.e.
Cet; at this point; more stress should +e laid; in parti$ular; on his
sonnet seDuen$e (strophel and Stella; whi$h re"eals him to +e one o( the
.reatest sonneteers in En.land. ?Pu+lished in 1#91; at (irst under the
editorship o( Thomas !ashe; in a $olle$tion to.ether with Samuel )aniel>s
sonnets; and then in a $orre$ted indi"idual edition; Sidney>s sonnet seDuen$e
ser"ed as a sour$e o( inspiration (or other sonneteers; lie Edmund Spenser
and William Shaespeare.@ 8t epitomi*ed Sidney>s attempt to $on(ront and
trans$end his personal and pu+li$ situation. The emotional atta$hment o(
%strophel; 6the star lo"eE; to Stella; 6the starE; transposes; in (a$t; Sidney>s
lo"e (or Penelope )e"ereu& whom he $ouldn>t marry.
64ady Penelope; sister o( the un(ortunate Earl o( Esse&; was some nine
years youn.er than her distin.uished lo"er. Her (ather had (ormed a
hi.h opinion o( Sir Philip>s promise; and on his death+ed e&pressed a
wish (or their union: +ut her .uardians were in (a"our o( a wealthier
mat$h; and two or three years a(ter the old Earl>s death; she was
/*
married at the a.e o( se"enteen; mu$h a.ainst her own wishes; to an
unattra$ti"e youn. no+leman; 4ord 'i$h.E ?2into; 1//#@
Sidney>s re"i"al o( the Petrar$han patterns in this sonnet seDuen$e .oes mu$h
(urther than mere imitation to parody and $ritiDue and displays layers o(
am+i.uity; $ontradi$tion and reasonin. whi$h are not ne$essarily resol"ed. 8n
(a$t; rea$tin. to the lon. line o( imitations +etween Henry Howard; Earl o( Surrey
and himsel(; Sidney prides himsel( on +ein. ori.inal and $laims that he will not
adopt the praises; "ows; and 6deplorin. dumpsE o( other amorous sin.ers; +ut
use as his only sour$e o( inspiration 6Stella>s issE. ?Sonnet 1@ %nd indeed; most
o( the $on$eptions and $on$eits in Sidney>s sonnets are really his ownK and they
display "ery e&Duisite su+tlety and tenderness o( (an$y; o(ten reltin. on
dialo.ue; $olloDuial tone and e"en puns ?on the name 'i$h; (or instan$e@.
8n the li.ht o( the impa$t o( Protestant (aith and -al"inist assumptions
a+out the sel( and the soul; his sonnets appear as a means o( pur.in. his
moral +ein.; re$on$ilin. himsel( to unattaina+le desire and $lari(yin. the moral
meanin. o( his e&perien$e. The strate.y (ollowed is to e&plore the ways in
whi$h %strophel>s e&perien$es as a lo"er had +een (aulty. ?:ri((iths; 199/@
6The (irst (i(ty or si&ty sonnets e&hi+it %strophel>s lo"e in what may +e
$alled in (ashiona+le mathemati$al lan.ua.e the stati$al sta.e: the
su+seDuent dynami$al sta.e +ein. $omposed o( sonnets des$ripti"e o(
moods and $on$eits o$$asioned +y a seDuen$e o( in$idents +etween the
lo"ers==supposed en$oura.ement; "enturous li+erties; dis$oura.ement;
despair; and so (orth. )urin. the stati$al or +roodin. sta.e; the poet=lo"er>s
mind is o$$upied with similitudes and all sorts o( (an$i(ul in"entions to set
(orth the in$ompara+le $harms o( his mistress and the une&ampled (or$e o(
his passion. )urin. that period his lo"e is su+7e$t to no (lu$tuations; no
dynami$ $han.eK it su((ers neither in$rease nor a+atement. 8t is $hie(ly in
this sta.e that the so(t .ra$e(ulness and ethereal rea$h o( Sidney>s (an$y
are displayed.E ?2into; 1//#@
Cet; ha"in. $onDuered +ut the lady>s indi((eren$e; the lo"er turns out .uilty o(
will(ul sel(=de$eption and immaturity. 8n "ain does she warn him a+out the need
o( sel(=restraintK %strophel>s per$eption o( lo"e is distorted +y his own $arnality
?unlie Petrar$h>s persona whi$h; despite the $on(usion o( the eroti$ and the
spiritual; is; ne"ertheless; aware o( 4aura>s pursuit o( "irtue and the di"ine@.
9n$e Stella has (inally re(used %strophel; the (inal part o( the seDuen$e
emphasises his sel(=re.ardin. despairK he is 6li"in. throu.h the sel(=puniti"e
$onseDuen$es o( remainin. in an unre.enerate $ondition.E The result is the
spiritual paralysis do$umented in the (inal sonnet. ?:ri((iths; 199/@
%s (ar as the sonnet (orm is $on$erned; the (a$t must +e mentioned
that Sidney o+ser"es the Petrar$han (orm o( the sonnet in the sense o( the
di"ision o( the stan*a into two sta"es; the (irst o( ei.ht lines with two rhymes;
the se$ond o( si& lines with three rhymes. Whether (or ease or (or "ariety; he
is not parti$ular a+out the arran.ement o( the rhymes within these limits.
,urthermore; he o$$asionally su+di"ides the last sta"e into a Duatrain
(ollowed +y a $ouplet; $omin. thus $loser to the En.lish manner.
(n (pologie for Poetrie; reprinted with the title o( The Defense of
Poetrie in 1#9#; is a treatise inau.uratin. modern En.lish literary $riti$ism.
2eant as retort to Stephen :osson>s atta$ on all (i$tion writin. in The
School of ('use; this essay de(ends ima.inati"e literature and pro$laims the
poet>s superiority o"er the philosopher and the historian throu.h his $apa$ity
to imitate not merely what is; +ut also what mi.ht +e. Enlar.in. upon the
//
(un$tion o( the poet in the Eli*a+ethan so$iety; Sidney $laims that poetry
should ser"e moral and reli.ious purposes and it should o((er 6sills and
moral insi.hts important to monar$h; nation and manind. %nd the main. o(
a new En.lish poetry would demonstrate that the $ulture o( the new
Protestant nation was as sophisti$ated as the $ultures o( the old European
order; its lan.ua.e; newly wrou.ht and de(ined throu.h $omposition; as
+eauti(ul and e&pressi"e as 8talian and the an$ient ton.ues. Thus; (or Sir
Philip Sidney; the role o( the poet was not 7ust to imitate the e&ternal world;
+ut to emulate :od in $reatin. one that was new. MLN (strophel and Stella
may su..est an unsta+le .ap +etween the poet>s persona and the writer
himsel(; +ut Sidney>s mani(esto (or poetry and nation was in part a produ$t o(
the e&perien$e o( his own writin. as mu$h as o( his mem+ership o( a politi$al
(a$tion. The sonnet seDuen$e ena+led him to $onstitute himsel( as indi"idual;
-hristian and poet in a way that was a preparation (or the pu+li$ statements o(
the Defence and the alle.ori$al messa.e to the nation o( his pastoral roman$e
(rcadia1 His aim was dida$ti$; that o( translatin. the poet>s "isions into
e"eryday li(e.E ?:ri((iths; 199/@
Ha"in. dis$ussed the mission o( the poet; Sidney also sur"eys the
En.lish literary s$ene and (inds little to praise: Surrey>s lyri$s; Spenser>s
Shepherd!s #alendar. 8n $onsiderin. drama; he is $hie(ly interested in the
way in whi$h playwri.hts mana.e to uphold the unities and atta$s the
mi&ed (orms o( tra.i=$omedy.
Sidney $on$ludes +y a .eneral de(ense o( En.lish as a lan.ua.e
suita+le (or poetry and a humorous de(ian$e o( those who will not +e
$on"erted +y his wor.
%lthou.h the modern reader $annot wholly a.ree to some o( Sidney>s
de(initions; he is impressed +y his enthusiasti$ de"otion to the $ause o(
poetry; +y the sin$ere words used in analy*in. the ori.in; stru$ture and o+7e$t
o( poetry; +y the .ra$e(ul and easy manner.
/& 7& Ed6und S(enser "/;;)3/;@@%
6Li,e& Edmund Spenser; whose name is usually asso$iated with Wyatt;
Surrey and Sidney; $ame (rom a so$ial +a$.round whi$h had "ery little in
$ommon with his aristo$rati$ $ontemporaries. His (ather was <ohn Spen$er
pro+a+ly a te&tile worer in 4ondon +ut the +oy en7oyed a (irst ran edu$ation
in the .reatest 'enaissan$e tradition at 2er$hant Taylors> S$hool and at
-am+rid.e where he re$ei"ed his A % and 2 %. 8n 4ondon he entered the
ser"i$e o( 4ei$ester and made the a$Duaintan$e o( Sidney and 'ale.h. 8n
1#/5 he was appointed se$retary to 4ord :ray o( Wilton lord deputy o(
8reland; and he resided in 8reland (or most o( his li(e. Sir Walter 'ale.h "isited
him at his residen$e at -or and at the (ormer>s insisten$e the poet went to
4ondon to super"ise the pu+li$ation o( the (irst three +oos o( the Faerie
)ueene in 1#95. The pension o( R #5 .ranted +y the Fueen was (ar less than
the poet>s e&pe$tations who returned to 8reland the (ollowin. year. %nother
"isit to 4ondon in 1#94 with three +oos o( the Fairie )ueene a.ain produ$ed
no politi$al ad"an$ement. Aa$ to 8reland the Spenser (amily were (or$ed to
(lee to En.land +y TyroneSs re+ellion. % (ew days a(ter their arri"al to 4ondon;
Spenser died under "ery poor $ir$umstan$es. His (uneral was paid (or +y the
earl o( Esse& and he was +uried in Westminster %++ey near -hau$erSs .ra"e.
!o monument was ere$ted to him until in 1625 when the -ountess o( )orset
made a .esture o( pri"ate .enerosity.
/)
8or9& The poetry o( Spenser is the $ulmination o( the alle.ori$al "erse tradition;
this old +ut important stream in En.lish literature. Spenser pro"ed to +e the
poeti$ master En.lish "erse needed. His (a$ility in lan.ua.e +lended the +est o(
the ar$hai$ and o( the new "o$a+ulary while his (luen$y in "ersi(i$ation de=
monstrated that En.lish was at least the eDual to any other lan.ua.e as a
"ehi$le o( .reat poetry. To su+seDuent .enerations Spenser was the 6Poets>
PoetE; +e$ause so many En.lish poets ha"e learned the art o( "ersi(i$ation (rom
him: 2ilton; Thomson; Wordsworth; Ayron; 1eats; 'ossetti; Tennyson.
The Shepherd!s #alendar is a series o( 12 e$lo.ues; one (or ea$h
month; pu+lished in 1#39 and dedi$ated to T2aister Philip SidneyT who
en$oura.ed the poet. The e$lo.ue was a $lassi$ (orm presentin. a dialo.ue
+etween shepherds and praisin. simple li(e. 8n Spenser the e$lo.ue
+e$omes dida$ti$ or satiri$al. Aeyond the dominant theme whi$h is the
unhappy lo"e o( -olin -lout ?taen (rom Selton@ who is re7e$ted +y
'osalinde; $omments on politi$al and reli.ious disputes ?+etween
Protestants and -atholi$s@ or tri+utes paid to (riends and patrons are also
inserted. The lan.ua.e in The Shepherd4s #alendar is SpenserSs own $rea=
tion employin. phoneti$; .rammati$al and "o$a+ulary elements (rom all the
diale$ts o( the a.e ?!orthern; 2idlands and Southern@; $olloDuial terms;
8talian loans ?e... stan$ U weary; (rom the 8t. stan$o@; 4atin neolo.isms and
o+solete .rammati$al (orms whi$h all result in a lan.ua.e that made Aen
<onson .rowl that Spenser Twrit no lan.ua.eT. Spenser used this deli+erately
ar$hai$ lan.ua.e; partly out o( a homa.e to -hau$er; partly to .et a rusti$
e((e$t. )espite the $on"entionality o( the $ontent the wor $ontains +eauti(ul
des$riptions o( the hilly areas o( 4an$ashire and was the (irst demonstration
+y a modern En.lish poet o( (inished sill and authority. SpenserSs sil(ul use
o( many "erse (orms and his e&traordinary musi$al e((e$ts indi$ate in him Tthe
new poetT o( the Eli*a+ethan a.e.
%(ter the pu+li$ation o( the (irst three +oos o( the Faerie )ueene
whi$h won Spenser instant (ame; the poet pu+lished -omplaints -ontainin.
Sundrie Small Poems of the -orlds ,anitie ?1#91@; a $olle$tion o( lyri$al
poems some o( whi$h lie The Ruins of Time display SpenserSs s$holarly
arti(i$iality. Mother Hu''ard4s Tale is a satire on the $orrupt $ler.y; sel(ish o(=
(i$ials and o((endin. military men. #olin #louts #ome Home ?1#9#@ is an
iam+i$ pentameter re$ord o( SpenserSs return to 8reland a(ter his "isit to
4ondon under the prote$tion o( Sir Walter 'ale.h. The $orruption o( the
4ondon $ourt is $ontrasted with the simple li(e in 8reland and most o( the
politi$al and literary (i.ures o( the time appear $on$ealed under pastoral
names: -olin ?Spenser@; The Shepherd o( the 9$ean ?'ale.h@; -ynthia
?Fueen Eli*a+eth@; %strophel ?Sidney@.
(morettti and Epithalamion ?1#9#@ are a sonnet seDuen$e; %moretti;
$ele+ratin. the poet>s $ourtship o( Eli*a+eth Aoyle $ulminatin. with the
waddin. hymn; Epithalamion. %lmost all the // sonnets demonstrate .enuine
personal e&perien$e and the Spenserian master(ul lan.ua.e and $alm purity.
The Epithalamion is the most +eauti(ul nuptial poem in En.lish and perhaps
in any lan.ua.e. The poetSs weddin. to Eli*a+eth Aoyle is sym+oli$ally
$ele+rated as the eternal spirit o( nature and (ertility. The 23 stan*as; ea$h
endin. with a uni(yin. re(rain; $ele+rate the weddin. day (rom dawn to ni.ht
throu.h traditional rites and (ol pra$ti$es still in use. ?:a"riliu; 2555: /#=3@
%.ain; the point o( departure (or the poem is a real=li(e $ourtship;
Spenser>s relationship with Eli*a+eth AoyleK +ut; 7ust as this $ourtship ended;
/7
not in despair and dissolution; +ut in marria.e; the (moretti are a+le to
su..est how the sins o( e.otism and desire $an +e inter$epted and
le.itimi*ed. 8n the (moretti the male lo"er $omes to terms with the
inadeDua$y o( Petrar$han e&pe$tationsK whereas %strophel remains lo$ed
up in sel(=hood; Spenser>s poeti$ persona trans$ends e.otism and (inds a
sel(=less and -hristian lo"e. 8n the pro$ess he interwea"es Protestant moral
"alues into the poetry in a way that ena+le +oth lo"er and lady to +e 7ud.edK
his ima.es are those o( sin and damnation; hea"en and hell; "irtue and
sal"ation. 8n the pro$ess; Spenser>s lo"er; ,lorinell; $on(ronts and o"er$omes
the traditional; per"erted; per$eptions o( the Petrar$han lo"er: idolisation and
o"er="aluation o( the +elo"ed; oppressi"e re7e$tion and sti.matisation; sel(=
re.ardin. pain; the maso$histi$ en7oyment o( a+sen$e; the possessi"e; and
"oyeuristi$ $ate.orisation o( the +elo"ed>s physi$al attra$tions 4ie Wyatt and
Sidney +e(ore him; there are sonnets in this seDuen$e that draw dire$tly on
Petrar$han ori.inals; rewored (rom a (resh and $riti$al perspe$ti"e. The +est
e&ample mi.ht +e Sonnet 5L,II. where Spenser hars +a$ to Wyatt>s
TWhose list to huntT and its Petrar$han model; T0na $andida $er"a.T
Spenser $learly new +oth the ori.inal; and Wyatt>s $yni$al in"ersion
o( Petrar$h>s sonnet. His aim may there(ore ha"e +een to show how loss $an
+e made into .ain throu.h the .i"in. o( sel(. The deli+erate e$hoes o( Wyatt
emphasise the trans(ormati"e di((eren$e that a surrender o( sel( $an mae.
4ie Wyatt he $on"erts Petrar$h>s pursuit o( a white doe into a huntsman
$hasin. a hind; and the lo"er e&perien$es a similar weariness (rom this T"ain
assayeT. Aut whereas Wyatt>s deer; %nne Aoleyn; is $orrupted +y her own
lust; Spenser>s is a .entle TdeareT who returns the way she has (led and is
willin. to entrust hersel( to her lo"er>s power. The lo"er has $ome to $ontrol
his desire and she has the $on(iden$e to allow her own desire to mae her
responsi"e to him. She trusts in the "ision o( married lo"e that the (moretti
a((irm. 8n no. 6#; Spenser sets out his answer to the Petrar$han dilemmaK
desire $an +e (ul(illed only when e.otism and lust are repla$ed +y mutual
.ood will and loyalty within a san$ti(ied unionK at that point desire $an +e
.rat(ied in spotless pleasure en7oyed in mutual (aith. %ppropriately; the
Epithalamion that a$ts as the $oda to the pu+lished (moretti. $onsummates
a Protestant "ision o( Eros (ul(illed and $ele+rates Spenser>s marria.e to
Eli*a+eth Aoyle in 1#94. ?:ri((iths; 199/@
The Faerie )ueene $onsists o( 6 +oos pu+lished +etween 1#95 ?+oos
8=888 and 1#96 ?+oos 8B=B8@ and #antos of Muta'ilite pu+lished posthumously in
1659. The modern literary tastes ha"e re.arded The Faerie )ueene as a hi.hly
arti(i$ial $reation too lon. to +e read (or entertainment and +orin.ly $ompli$ated
in its layers o( alle.ory. While the modern reader is ea.er to read The Faerie
)ueene purely as a poeti$ roman$e he will miss mu$h o( SpenserSs intent.
Spenser made his intentions $lear in a letter en$losed to the "olume $ontainin.
the initial three +oos o( the wor and addressed to Sir Walter 'ale.h; SThe .e=
neral endT; Spenser wrote to 'ale.h; To( all the +oos is to (ashion a .entleman
or no+le person in "irtuous and .entle dis$iplineT +y e&hi+itin. the traits that
su$h a person should ha"e. Spenser (urther des$ri+es his poem as 6a $ontinued
alle.ory or dare $on$eitT and alle.ory it is indeed +ut (ar more than that.
1
1
%lle.ory is a (orm o( e&tended metaphor in whi$h o+7e$ts and persons within a narrati"e are
eDuated with meanin.s that lie outside the narrati"e. %lle.ory implies two le"els o( meanin.
== the literal ?what happens in the narrati"e@ and the sym+oli$ ?what the e"ents stand (or;
outside the narrati"e@. 8t e"oes a dual interest: in the e"ents; $hara$ters and settin.
presentedK and in the ideas they represent or the si.ni(i$an$e they +ear. %lle.ory may
in"ol"e the personi(i$ation o( a+stra$t Dualities ?e... Pride; Aeauty; )eath@K it $an also
/:
Spenser attempted a uni(ied presentation o( romanti$ ideas within a $lassi$
stru$ture; nationalisti$ (eelin.s and idealisti$ e&pression; the spirit o( the
'e(ormation and 'enaissan$e humanism.
The models whi$h must ha"e in(luen$ed Spenser were %riostoSs
/rland Furioso and TassoSs "erusaleme Li'erata whi$h pro"ided the intri$ate
s$heme and the $om+ination o( a$tion and philosophi$al $omment +ut also
su$h En.lish +oos as SeltonSs Magnificence; Elyot>s "o%ernour or
%s$ham>s Scholemaster whi$h set (orth the 'enaissan$e $on$ept o( 6the
per(yte manE ?per(e$t man@.T The same letter to Walter 'ale.h re"eals
SpenserSs o"erall plan as re.ards the stru$ture o( the poem. The (ramewor
was to +e the 12 days -hristmas $ele+rations at the -ourt o( :loriana; the
,aerie Fueene. 9n ea$h o( these twel"e days a petitioner will present at the
$ourt his or he reDuest (or help. The ,aerie Fueen will assi.n in turn ea$h o(
the 12 ni.hts at her $ourt sym+oli*in. a .entlemanly "irtue ea$h to destroy
12 "i$es and e"ils a1so alle.ori$ally presented. The di((erent ni.htly (i.ures
are summed up in the person o( %rthur himsel( +e(ore he +e$ame a in..
%rthur typi(ies ma.ni(i$en$e in the %ristotelian sense o( the per(e$tion o(
all the other "irtues i.e. per(e$t "irtue. He (alls in lo"e with :loriana; the ,aerie
Fueen; who re"eals hersel( to him in a dream; %rthur .oes to :loriana>s $ourt in
,airy land where she is holdin. her annual 12 days> (esti"al. :loriana stands (or
the national splendour o( En.land as em+odied +y Fueen Eli*a+eth.
Presuma+ly the entire narrati"e was meant to $o"er a whole $alendar
year +ut the poem has +een le(t un(inished and the 6 +oos that ha"e $ome
down to us deal with the ad"entures o( the 'ed -ross 1ni.ht; representin.
the "irtue o( Holiness; o( Sir :uyon ?Temperan$e@; o( Aritomart and
Aelphae+e ?-hastity@; o( Triamond and -am+ell ?,riendship@; o( %rte.all
?<usti$e@; o( -alidore ?-ourtesy@.
SpenserSs poem is (ull o( ad"enture and mar"els; dra.ons; en$hanted
trees; .iants; 7oustin. ni.hts; $astles. The heroes do not ha"e the "irtues
they represent at the +e.innin. o( their ad"entures +ut a$Duire them in the
$ourse o( the +oo.
The poem $an +e en7oyed on many le"els and it may wor on se"eral
o( these le"els at a time.
The moral le"el a$hie"es the author>s intent to (orm the ideal puritan
humanist in the spirit o( the per(e$t morals; reli.ion and philosophy.
The histori$al le"el $o"ers the whole o( Western $i"ili*ation (rom the
outset o( the -hristian era throu.hout the 16th $entury; re(errin. to
$ontemporary e"ents in ,ran$e; 8taly; and En.land ?the massa$re on St.
Aartholomew>s E"e; the de(eat o( the Spanish %rmada; the e&e$ution o( 2ary
represent a histori$al persona.e ?e... :loriana U Fueen Eli*a+eth@; a $ate.ory o( indi"idual
?e... E"eryman U all manind@; or another sort o( a+stra$tion ?0na U the True -hur$h@.
-hara$ters; e"ents and settin. may +e histori$al; (i$titious; or (a+ulousK the ey is that they
ha"e meanin.s independent o( the a$tion in the sur(a$e story. 9n the sur(a$e; E%eryman is
a+out a man a+out to lea"e on a trip and the people he meetsK the Faerie )ueene a+out a
ni.ht illin. a dra.on and res$uin. a prin$ess. 9n the alle.ori$al le"el; howe"er; +oth are
a+out the duties o( a -hristian and the way to a$hie"e sal"ation.
!ote that the simple use o( personi(i$ation ?e... talin. animals or teapots@ does not
$onstitute alle.ory in and o( itsel(K in an alle.ory; $hara$ters and o+7e$ts usually sym+oli*e
a+stra$t Dualities; and the e"ents re$ounted $on"ey a $oherent messa.e $on$ernin. those
a+stra$tions. %lle.ory is (reDuently; +ut not always; $on$erned with matters o( .reat import:
li(e and deathK damnation and sal"ationK so$ial or personal morality and immorality. 8t $an
also +e used (or satiri$ purposes.?S$hwart*; http:JJ$la.$alpoly.eduJVds$hwartJen.l331J(D.html@
/;
o( the S$ots; the re"olts in 8reland@. The s$ope o( the alle.ory at
this le"el has not +een a.reed upon sin$e the poet is rather $rypti$
and the alle.ory itsel( is not omnipresent.
The personal le"el is the most disputed o( all althou.h there are
many who insist that e"ery si.ni(i$ant (i.ure in the literary and politi$al li(e
o( the time was pro7e$ted in The Faerie )ueene. Spenser does not
e&plain what would +e o+"ious to e"ery $ontemporary reader; the many
$on"entional sym+ols and attri+utes whi$h would identi(y his $hara$ters.
The lan.ua.e o( the poem was still SpenserSs own $on$o$tion in
point o( "o$a+ulary with less emphasis on the +i*arre. 2ost o( the ar$hai$
+orrowin.s are (rom the !orthern diale$t $onsidered as more %n.lo=Sa&on
than 4ondon En.lish.
The TesT; TsT endin.s (or the 3rd person sin.ular o( the "er+ were
pre(erred to the traditional 2idlands TethT. The .eniti"e sin.ular in TesT (ully
pronoun$ed; the noun plural in TenT ?e... (oen@; the TyT pre(i& (or the past
tense and the past parti$iple ?e... y+uilded@; the (reDuent omission o( arti$les
and pronouns; the use o( the in(initi"e (or the past ?e... Tand they to (i.htT@
the ar$hai$ )ati"e ?e ... Tenou.h is himT@ are other instan$es o( ar$hai$
(orms deli+erately used +y the poet.
Spenser in"ented (or his poem a stan*a (orm a(terwards re(erred to as
the Spenserian stan*a $onsistin. o( ei.ht iam+i$ pentameters with a
$on$ludin. %le&andrine ?iam+i$ he&ametre@ rhymin. a + a + + $ + $ $. The
Spenserian stan*a is the +est "ehi$le to $on"ey an en$hanted pi$ture o( the
(airy land. )i((i$ult as this stan*a=(orm appears to +e; En.lish literature has
re$orded memora+le poeti$ a$hie"ements in this (orm as AyronSs #hild
Harold4s Pilgrimage and 1eats>s E%e of St1 (gnes.
SpenserSs des$ripti"e .i(t displays an ornate style o(ten o"er+urdened
with a mass o( enumerations and also a mass o( sensuous ima.ery and o(
e"ery e((e$t o( the lan.ua.e. Spenser>s is a $omple& .enius who $annot +e put
into neatly la+elled $ate.ories. Thou.h stron.ly in(luen$ed +y 'enaissan$e
!eoplatonism; he remains (irmly .rounded in pra$ti$ality. He remains sternly
moral thou.h a lo"er and $ele+rator o( physi$al +eauty. His morality implies
awareness o( the temptations that entrap man as he tries to a$t ri.htly.
)espite his lo"e o( -hau$er and his de1i+erate ar$hai$ lan.ua.e;
Spenser>s lins are not with the past +ut with the (uture. His $losest a((inity is
with 2ilton who re$o.ni*ed Spenser his .reat prede$essor; a humanist and a
poet=$iti*en.E ?:a"riliu; 2555: /3=95@
/& :& 8illia6 S2a9es(eare0 !2e Narrative 5oe6s& !2e Sonnets
!2e Narrative 5oe6s. The $losin. o( the theatres in 1#92=1#93 +e$ause o(
the pla.ue epidemi$ interrupted Shaespeare>s $areer as an a$tor=playwri.ht
and presented him with +oth the opportunity and the ne$essity to apply his
.i(ts to other literary spe$ies. The two narrati"e poems ,enus and (donis
and The Rape of Lucrece appeared in 1#93 and respe$ti"ely 1#94 and were
the only wors whose pu+li$ation was super"ised +y the writer himsel(.
)edi$ated to the Earl o( Southampton; they paraphrase 9"idian sour$es in
the ri$h style o( the En.lish 'enaissan$e.
,enus and (donis is a narrati"e o( 1;194 lines disposed in se&tains o(
iam+i$ pentameters rhymin. a+a+$$. 8t relates the unreDuited lo"e o( Benus (or
the handsome mortal %donis; a +oar hunter. 8n "ain does the .oddess use all
her $harms to $onDuer the $old handsome youth. She +e.s him to meet her the
/=
ne&t day early in the mornin. +ut he pre(ers to .o huntin. only to .et illed +y a
wild +oar. 8n despair the .oddess trans(orms the dead youth into anemone.
Shaespeare>s sour$e is Metamorphoses ?Aoo W@ whi$h modern
$riti$ism $on$ei"es o( as a myth o( the "e.etation $y$le. With Shaespeare it
has +e$ome a lo"e story in whi$h %donis is shy and +oyish; while Benus
em+odies e&perien$ed womanhood.
Some $riti$s e&plain that Benus and %donis emphasise the $ontrast
+etween sa$red and pro(ane lo"e. Benus represents naed passion that
destroys all that it tou$hes; while %donis stands (or $haste lo"e. %nother "iew is
that %donis represents; in (a$t; the insepara+le union o( lo"e and +eauty. %s in
the sonnets; Shaespeare assumes that +eauty must +e (ore"er re$reated.
Benus is the stimulus (or that re=$reation throu.h the propa.ation o( o((sprin..
)espite the $on"entional poeti$ lan.ua.e; the poem displays mu$h
personal o+ser"ation and a .enuine (eelin. o( nature in super+ des$riptions o( the
En.lish $ountryside. ,enus and (donis pro"ed Shaespeare>s most popular wor
durin. his li(etime ?15 editions +y 1616; Duoted in 34 $ontemporary writin.s@.
The Rape of Lucrece is a mu$h 6.ra"erE ?as promised in the dedi$ation
to ,enus and (donis@ and lon.er poem; +ut its more am+itious purpose is not
(ully a$hie"ed. Written in rhyme royal ?a (orm o( "erse introdu$ed into En.lish
+y -hau$er; $onsistin. o( se"en=line stan*as o( iam+i$ pentameter in whi$h
there are three rhymes; the (irst line rhymin. with the third; the se$ond with the
(ourth and (i(th; and the si&th with the se"enth H a+a++$$@ and inspired (rom
9"id>s Fasti; the poem e&alts the spiritual "irtues o( $hastity and (aith(ulness.
4u$re$ia is "iolently assaulted +y the de+au$hed Se&tus; the son o( 1in.
TarDuin in an$ient 'ome. 0r.in. her (ather 4u$retius and her hus+and
-ollatinus to a"en.e her; 4u$retia $ommits sui$ide. The deed o( Se&tus
$auses the people to re"olt a.ainst TarDuin and to esta+lish the 'epu+li$.
The poem depi$ts the disastrous (all o( a sla"e o( passion. TarDuin is
o( the (amily o( tyrants. To satis(y his lust; he riss and loses e"erythin. and
.ains only dis.ust and despair. 4u$re$e is the tyrant>s helpless "i$tim; who
awaens the same sort o( pity as )esdemona does. Shaespeare relates his
story in a re"erent; so+er tone minutely dwellin. upon details. The master(ul
use o( lyri$al lan.ua.e is marred +y the lon. spee$hes and e&tended
rhetori$. ?:a"riliu; 2555: 114=#@
!2e Sonnets. 8t is liely that Shaespeare $omposed his sonnets +etween
1#92 and 1#9/ and they were $ir$ulated in manus$ript +y 1#9/ when ,ran$is
2eres praised Shaespeare>s 6su.ared sonnets amon. his pri"ate (riends.E
%ll the 1#4 sonnets +y Shaespeare were pu+lished only later; in 1659; +y
Thomas Thorpe; apparently without the writer>s authorisation; in a $olle$tion
entitled Sha3espeare!s Sonnets &e%er $efore Imprinted. The printed te&t
opens with the (ollowin. dedi$ation:
T9 THE 9!48E AE:ETTE' 9,
THESE 8!S08!: S9!!ETS
2'. W.H. %44 H%PP8!ESSE
%!) TH%T ETE'!8T8E
P'928SE) AC
90' EBE'=48B8!: P9ET
W8SHETH
THE WE44=W8SH8!:
%)BE!T0'E' 8!
SETT8!:
,9'TH
T.T.
/>
The wordin. o( su$h a dedi$ation seems so $learly to +e an address (rom one
real person to another; espe$ially when $ompared to other Shaespearean
dedi$ations; whi$h are (ar less $rypti$ and more aimed at thanin. a patron (or
support. ?The dedi$ation o( ,enus and (donis $learly addresses the 6'i.ht
Honoura+le Henry WriothesleyE with many mentions o( 6honour;E 6duty;E and
6no+leLE@ %s to the si.nature 6T.T.;E this set o( initials mi.ht seem rather easy
to de$ode; indi$atin. that the dedi$ation does not +elon. to Shaespeare; +ut
to Thorpe. The other set o( initials 6W.H.E raises; howe"er; more Duestions;
espe$ially +e$ause o( the am+i.uity o( the word 6+e.etterE whi$h; in
Eli*a+ethan En.lish; $ould also mean 6transmitterE; i.e. perhaps the supplier o(
the manus$ript. William Hall was su$h a supplier o( manus$ripts to pu+lishers.
9ther $riti$s e"en ha"e su..ested that W.H. mi.ht ha"e meant William Himsel(
?i.e. Shaespeare@; whi$h is a witty solution; +ut perhaps not so (ittin. i( one
taes into a$$ount a possi+le relation +etween these initials and the identity o(
the (air (riend who the (irst sonnet seDuen$e is dedi$ated to. ?9r Shaespeare
did not really (it the des$ription: +eauti(ul; sin.le and +lond.@ ,rom the same
perspe$ti"e; (urther possi+le interpretations o( these initials ha"e su..ested: a@
William Her+ert; Earl o( Pem+roe H a +rilliant youth; (ond o( arts and prote$tor
o( a literary .roup. +@ Henry Wriothesley; Earl o( Southampton = Shaespeare>s
only nown prote$tor a$nowled.ed as su$h +y the poet himsel(K a youn. man
o( e&Duisite +eauty; the (a"ourite o( Eli*a+eth>s $ourt and later in 1659 o(
<ames 8>s; the Earl o( Southampton too pride in playin. the 2e$enas to the
poets that surrounded him. 8( this +e the $ase; the in"ersion o( the initials mi.ht
+e a$$ounted (or +y the pu+lisher>s $aution who (eared the earl>s indisposition
$@ in the li.ht o( the more re$ent identi(i$ation o( presuma+ly homose&ual
o"ertones in some o( the sonnets; a third "ariant mi.ht +e William Hu.hes; a
homose&ual ship>s $oo and +oy a$tor; who all the physi$al des$riptions; when
applied to the ima.e o( a rather andro.ynous and (air youn. man; seem to (it
per(e$tly. ?<ohnston; 1999 and
www.nyu.eduJ$lassesJ7e((reysJ.ay+wayJ.ay+ardJwh.htm)
That Thorpe pu+lished the sonnets without the poet>s permission is
now a $ertain (a$t. 9win. to their intimate $hara$ter; the poet delayed their
pu+li$ation whi$h; had it e"er +een in his intention; he would ha"e
undou+tedly sele$ted and rearran.ed the sonnets; pro+a+ly pla$in. them
under an uneDui"o$al dedi$ation to ser"e his literary $areer. Thorpe;
howe"er; .rouped the sonnets as (ollows: the (irst 126 sonnets H dedi$ated to
the (air (riend; sonnets 123=1#2 dedi$ated to the )ar 4ady; while the last two
sonnets 1#3=1#4; representin. modern "ariants o( epi.ram 623 (rom
2arianos> 8Wth +oo; were le(t (or the end o( the $olle$tion.
%nd i( se"eral su..estions ha"e already +een ad"an$ed re.ardin. the
potential identity o( the (air (riend; re(eren$e should also +e made to the
possi+le answers to the )ar 4ady eni.ma in Shaespeare>s sonnets. %s
pre"iously mentioned; sonnets 123=1#2 re(er to a +runette; the poet>s
+elo"ed who +rin.s o"erwhelmin. passion into his mature a.e. Some
s$holars ad"an$e 2ary ,itton; the Earl o( Pem+roe>s mistress ?and one o(
the sonnets maes re(eren$e to his (riend tain. his +elo"ed away (rom him@
and lady=in=waitin. (or the Fueen; +ut her sur"i"in. portraits depi$t her as a
+londe. 9thers; supporters o( the Earl o( Southampton theory; su..est 2rs.
)a"enant; wi(e o( an 9&(ord inneeper whose son; the dramatist William
)a"enant; Shaespeare>s .odson; was a$$ordin. to some rumours (athered
+y Shaespeare himsel(. % third solution was put (orth une&pe$tedly in 1963
+y the 9&(ord historian %.4.'owse who su..ested that the )ar 4ady o( the
/+
sonnets mi.ht ha"e +een; in (a$t; Emilia Aassano; the dau.hter o( the 8talian
Aaptist Aassano; a musi$ian at Eli*a+eth>s $ourt. )ar=haired; uns$rupled
and am+itious; Emilia was said to ha"e +een the mistress o( many no+lemen
at the $ourt. The (a$t that her hus+and was William 4anier; a $ourt musi$ian;
mi.ht $ast a new li.ht upon sonnets 13#; 136; and 143 whi$h in$lude puns
+ased on the word will: Will H the $u$old hus+andK Will H the lo"er and will H
the $ommon noun with an o+s$ene meanin. ?U wish or desire@.
Sometimes; Thorpe>s arran.ement mi.ht appear unsatis(a$tory as
sonnets lie 33=3# and 45=42 mi.ht perhaps (ind a +etter pla$e in the )ar
4ady sonnet seDuen$e than in the ,air ,riend one. Aesides; many sonnets
$ould +e eDually applied to the (air (riend; the )ar 4ady or to neither o( them.
4ater attempts at re"isin. the order o( Shaespeare>s sonnets were made +y
<ohn Aenson ?1625@; 2alone ?133/@ or Samuel Autler ?the 19
th
$entury@. Cet;
the Thorpe seDuen$e is still $on"entionally a$$epted nowadays.
Thou.h he used +oth the 8talian ?Petrar$han@ and the En.lish stru$ture
in his sonnets; Shaespeare de(initely pre(erred the latter whi$h o((ered him a
wider ran.e o( possi+ilities: the pattern introdu$es an idea in the (irst
Duatrain; $ompli$ates it in the se$ond; $ompli$ates it still (urther in the third;
and resol"es the issue in the (inal epi.rammati$ $ouplet.
%s pre"iously stated; the (irst seDuen$e H sonnets 1=126 H is
addressed to or $on$erns a youn.; handsome; +lond (riend. Shaespeare
$on$ei"es male (riendship as a (eelin. ain to lo"e; su+mitted to the same
raptures and torments.
Summary of the first se6uence:
- Sonnets 1=13 H the poet>s persona ur.es the youn. man to .et married; so
that he will lea"e the world a $opy o( his +eauty in his o((sprin.; whi$h will
there(ore not su((er the ra"a.es o( time. The youn. man is $learly sin.le;
"ery a$$omplished; .ood looin.; and o( no+le +irth.
- Sonnet 1/=26 = the theme shi(ts sli.htly; as the persona $laims that the
youn. man will a$hie"e immortality throu.h these "ery sonnets; whi$h will
preser"e his +eauty (or all time. 2any o( the terms o( addressJ endearment
in these sonnets ?and not only@ appear somewhat pro+lemati$ and modern
readers are tempted to (ind in them the tra$es o( homose&uality. Aut that is
not ne$essarily the only e&planation as the 'enaissan$e morals permitted;
howe"er; su$h lo"in. e&pressions o( normal male (riendship.
- Aut the tone o( the sonnets Dui$ly +e$omes mu$h more personal as the
speaer e&plores his lo"e (or the youn. man and; at times; his despair at
a+sen$es (rom the youn. man and at the youn. manSs un(aith(ulness. ,or
instan$e; sonnets 23=32 spea at the poet>s sorrow at the en(or$ed
separation (rom his (riend.
- Sonnets 33=3# and 45=42 (oreshadow the idea o( +itter disappointment
$aused +y his (riend ha"in. an a((air with the woman lo"ed +y the speaer=
poet as well. E"entually; lo"e (or his (riend is stron.er than his su((erin. and
the poet a$$epts the un(aith(ulness o( +oth (riend and mistress as
somethin. natural and ine&ora+le. ?see espe$ially; sonnet 33@
- ,urther $on(li$ts are also re$orded in the $olle$tion. Sonnets 3/=/5; /2=/6;
/3=93 show the poet>s $on$ern and sorrow (or +ein. repla$ed +y a 'i"al
poet H presuma+ly :eor.e -hapman; mentioned (or his translations (rom
Homer H who has en.a.ed the attention and the a((e$tion o( the youn.
man. What the poet seems to re.ret most is the loss o( $on(iden$e rather
than that o( (inan$ial patrona.e.
/@
- Sonnets 94=9# su..est e"en "enereal in(e$tion; the un(aith(ulness o( the
youn. man leadin. the speaer to Duestion his moral $hara$ter with "ery
spe$i(i$ ima.es o( in(e$tion and disease.
- Sonnets 111 and 121 .i"e "oi$e to the poet>s re"olt a.ainst hostile (ate or
su((erin. (or +ein. slandered.
- Sonnets 93=153 and 113=114 re$ount the a+sen$e o( the poet (rom his
(riend; while the poet had +een wanderin. throu.h the $ountry with his
troupe o( a$tors.
- Sonnets 159 =112 and 11#=116 see a restoration o( the poet in his (riend>s
heart. The ties o( a((e$tion are stron.ly a((irmed and misrepresentations denied.
Ma7or themes and motifs in the first se6uence:
- the perisha+ility o( +eauty whi$h de$lines 6+y $han$e or nature>s $han.in.
$ourse untrimmedE ?Sonnet 1/@K
- the power o( art to mae +eauty last (ore"er. Shaespeare seems to ha"e
(ound with 9"id and Hora$e the notion that a poet>s praise o( his patron
$on(ers upon the .reat man earthly immortality. 8t is this immortalisin. $apa$ity
o( art that prote$ts him (rom the ra"a.es o( time.
- the o+session with the passa.e o( time and with death. 8n Sonnet 4W8B;
(or instan$e; Shaespeare (ollows 9"id in $hoosin. the $easeless
en$roa$hment o( the sea upon the land as a striin. e&ample o( the ruin
(ollowin. in the wae o( eternal $han.e:
6When 8 ha"e seen the hun.ry o$ean .ain
%d"anta.e on the in.dom o( the shore; MLN
'uin hath tau.ht me thus to ruminate;
That Time will $ome and tae my lo"e away.E
The only $om(ort (or the (utility o( man>s endea"ours is art>s $apa$ity to (i&
them in eternal (orms.
- $riti$ism o( the literary and so$ial li(e o( the a.e. Shaespeare opposes the
rhetori$al e&$esses o( the literary (ashion ?Sonnets 21 and 36@ and
disappro"es o( his $ontemporaries> e&tra"a.ant $lothin. or wi.s made o(
dead people>s hair. Sonnets 66=35 and 94=96 treat o( the world>s $orruption
pi$turin. $ontemporary li(e with its li(e (or pro(its; its a+uses and $orruption.
8n sonnets 123=1#2; the poet>s relationship with the )ar 4ady +e$omes the
main $on$ern. 8n dealin. with the )ar 4ady theme; Shaespeare mer$i(ully
spares his readers the tiresome Petrar$han $on"entions. He does not
lu&uriate in the woe o( the re7e$ted suitor. He seldom laments the a.ony o( a
sleepless ni.ht. He a"oids $omparisons o( the lady>s $harms with o+7e$ts o(
natural +eauty:
62y mistress> eyes are nothin. lie the sun;
-oral is (ar more red; than her lips red;
8( snow +e white; why then her +reasts are dun:
8( hairs +e wires; +la$ wires .row on her head...E
8n lo"in. this dar=haired woman; the poet is aware o( his de.radation +oth
as hus+and and man and; in praisin. a dar +eauty; he diso+eys the
Eli*a+ethan poeti$al standards (i&ed upon a +lond ideal. The whole seDuen$e
re$ords the inner torments e&perien$ed +y the poet torn +etween passion
and lu$idity. 4o"e appears as an almi.hty (or$e that inspires +oth (as$ination
and hatred. Sonnets lie 135 that e&tol the mistress>s +eauty oppose other
sonnets lie 129; 146; 143 or 1#2; whi$h e&press; in an o((endin. tone; the
poet>s re7e$tion o( the )ar 4ady and o( e"erythin. she stands (or.
The metaphori$al style o( the sonnets is e&tremely ri$h despite the
relati"e simpli$ity o( "o$a+ulary. The stru$ture o( the sonnet (reDuently
)*
rein(or$es the power o( the metaphors: ea$h Duatrain de"elops an ima.e o(
approa$hin. e&tin$tion o( a season; o( a day; o( a (ire; +ut also o( human
e&isten$e. The three Duatrains are eDually and su$$essi"ely at wor
preparin. (or the $on$lusion in the $ouplet.
The rhetori$al strate.y in the sonnets is e&tremely "aried. Some sonnets
+e.in with 6a remem+ran$e o( thin.s pastEK others are $ommandin. in toneK
others introdu$e .eneral statements to (urther illustrate them. The ima.ery $omes
(rom a wide "ariety o( sour$es: .ardenin.; na"i.ation; law; +usiness; paintin.;
astrolo.y; (amily li(e. The moods .o +eyond those o( the Petrar$han lo"er. They
in$lude deli.ht; pride; melan$holy; shame; dis.ust or (ear.
%ll these Dualities o( the Shaespearean sonnets entitle modern
s$holarship; in parti$ular; and readership; in .eneral; to $onsider them the
(inest lo"e sonnets e"er written in the En.lish lan.ua.e ?i( not in any
lan.ua.e.@ ?:a"riliu; 2555: 11#=125@
/& ;& 5ractical A((lications& E1a6ination !ests&
1. %nswer the (ollowin. Duestions:
a. Who introdu$ed (or the (irst time the 8talian sonnet in En.lish literatureX
+. What are the di((eren$es in stru$ture +etween the 8talian and the En.lish
sonnetX
$. What was the (irst si.ni(i$ant $olle$tion o( 'enaissan$e "erse pu+lished in
En.landX
d. What is a sonnet seDuen$eX !ame the 'enaissan$e poets who wrote
sonnet seDuen$es.
e.What is an alle.oryX What alle.ori$al elements $an +e identi(ied in
Spenser>s The Fairie )ueene8
(. Who are the histori$al $hara$ters whom William Shaespeare dedi$ated his
sonnets toX
.. What are the main themes o( William Shaespeare>s sonnetsX
2. 8denti(y the most important inno"ations in poetry writin. o( the (ollowin.
'enaissan$e writers: a. Sir Thomas WyattK +. Henry Howard; Earl o( SurreyK
$. Sir Philip SidneyK d. Edmund SpenserK e. William Shaespeare.
3. 'ead the (ollowin. sonnets and $ompare them in terms o(:
a. themati$ $ontentK +. stylisti$ pe$uliaritiesK $. (orm ?sonnet type and stru$ture;
rhyme; rhythm@.
Ed6und S(enser
Sonnet LAAB
9ne day 8 wrote her name upon the strand;
Aut $ame the wa"es and washed it away:
%.ain 8 wrote it with a se$ond hand;
Aut $ame the tide; and made my pains his prey.
TBain man;T said she; Tthat dost in "ain assay;
% mortal thin. so to immortali*eK
,or 8 mysel( shall lie to this de$ay;
%nd ee my name +e wiped out liewise.T
T!ot so;T ?Duod 8@ Tlet +aser thin.s de"ise
To die in dust; +ut you shall li"e +y (ame:
2y "erse your "ertues rare shall eterni*e;
%nd in the hea"ens write your .lorious name:
Where whenas death shall all the world su+due;
9ur lo"e shall li"e; and later li(e renew.T
Sonetul LAAB
8=am s$ris alesei numele=n nisip;
)ar "alul nY"Ylind; l=a Zters pe datY:
[i iar l=am s$ris; \ntru a$elaZi $hip;
)ar marea Zi=a (Y$ut din truda=mi pradY.
-opile; spuse ea; $e=n$er$i \n "an
S=n"eZni$eZti un lu$ru pieritor;
Eu \nsYmi "a la (el sY mY destram;
4a (el s=o Zter.e numele=mi uZor.
!u; nu] stri.ai; $e=i $alp \n ^Yr_nY moarY;
-i tu prin har "ei dYinui \n lumeK
Boi nemuri \n "ers (Yptura=î rarY;
[i=n $er "oi dYltui $eres$u=î nume.
[=a$olo; $_nd peri="a lumea toatY
TrYi="om $u iu+ire=mprospYtatY
)/
8illia6 S2a9es(eare
Sonnet LA
4ie as the wa"es mae towards the pe++led shore;
So do our minutes hasten to their end;
Ea$h $han.in. pla$e with that whi$h .oes +e(ore;
8n seDuent toil all (orwards do $ontend.
!ati"ity on$e in the main o( li.ht;
-rawls to maturity; wherewith +ein. $rowned;
-rooed e$lipses S.ainst his .lory (i.ht;
%nd Time that .a"e; doth now his .i(t $on(ound.
Time doth trans(i& the (lourish set on youth;
%nd del"es the parallels in +eautySs +row;
,eeds on the rarities o( natureSs truth;
%nd nothin. stands +ut (or his s$ythe to mow.
%nd yet to times in hope; my "erse shall stand
Praisin. thy worth; despite his $ruel hand.
Sonetul LA
-um "alurile $res$ peste prundiZuri
minute $ur. spre moartea=n *+or ne+un;
lo$ul Zi=l lasY (YrY o$oliZuri
$elor din urmY; $are le rYpun.
Te naZti \ntr=a o$eanului splendoare;
prin "_rste $ur.i dar Timpul î=a sortit
e$lipse; lupte laZe Zi surpare
de"YlmYZind tot $e î=a dYruit.
Tot $e=i "i.oare Timpul \n$o"oaie;
(runtea î=o taie $u \n$reîturi
$u=a"eri se=ndoapY; "iaâ o despoaie
iar $oasa lun.Y n=ai $um sY i=o (uri.
)oar "ersul meu prin "remi se mai aude;
slY"indu=te \n $iuda m_inii $rude...
4. %nalyse the (ollowin. sonnets:
Sir !2o6as 84att
I Find No 5eace
/
8 (ind no pea$e; and all my war is done:
8 (ear; and hopeK 8 +urn; and (ree*e lie i$eK
8 (ly a+o"e the wind; yet $an 8 not ariseK
%nd nou.ht 8 ha"e; and all the world 8 sei*e onK
That lo$eth nor loseth holdeth me in prison;
%nd holdeth me not; yet $an 8 Ss$ape nowise:
!or letteth me li"e; nor die at my de"ise;
%nd yet o( death it .i"eth me o$$asion.
Without eyen 8 see; and without ton.ue 8 SplainK
8 desire to perish; and yet 8 as healthK
8 lo"e another; and thus 8 hate mysel(K
8 (eed me in sorrow; and lau.h in all my pain.
4iewise displeaseth me +oth death and li(e;
%nd my deli.ht is $auser o( this stri(e.
5ierdut36i este (acea
PierdutY=mi este pa$ea: n=am arme sY mY +at;
[i sper; Zi ard; Zi=s .hea^Y; Zi mY $uprinde (ri$a;
[i=n $eruri *+or; Zi=n ^YrnY *a$ pururi nemiZ$atK
4a piept str_n. humea=ntrea.Y Zi n=am la piept
nimi$a.
2=a prins \ntr=o=n$hisoare (Yr> de *Y"or la poartYK
!i$i li+er un mY lasY; ni$i nu mY=n$hide=n ea.
!u "rea sY mY u$idY %mor; ni$i nu mY iartY;
!i$i "iu nu mY doreZte; ni$i $hinul nu mi=l ia.
!=am o$hi Zi "Yd; Zi; (YrY de lim+Y stri. la $erK
[i mY urYs$ pe mine pe $_t mi=i ea de dra.Y.
`mi pla$e $Y mY doare Zi "esel sunt pl_n._ndK
)e "ia^Y Zi de moarte sunt de*.ustat de r_nd...
)in "ina ta; 2adonY; mY $hinui "iaâ=ntrea.Y]
1
8n imitation o( Petrar$h; Sonnet 154: 6)es$ription o( the -ontrarious Passions in a 4o"erE.
Henr4 Ho<ard? Earl o, Surre4
!2e Soote Season
/
The soote season; that +ud and +loom (orth +rin.s;
With .reen hath $lad the hill and ee the "aleK
The ni.htin.ale with (eathers new she sin.sK
The turtle to her mae hath told her tale.
Summer is $ome; (or e"ery spray now sprin.s;
The hart hath hun. his old head on the paleK
The +u$ in +rae his winter $oat he (lin.sK
The (ishes (lete with new repaired s$aleK
The adder all her slou.h away she slin.sK
The swi(t swallow pursueth the (lyes smaleK
The +usy +ee her honey now she min.s;
Winter is worn that was the (lowersS +ale.
%nd thus 8 see amon. these pleasant thin.s
Ea$h $are de$ays; and yet my sorrow sprin.s.
Descrierea (ri6verii
)ul$e=anotimp $_nd mu.uri ies; Zi (lori;
-_nd "Yi primes$ strai "erde; Zi mun$ele.
-_nd $_ntY nou penet; pri"i.hetori
8ar turtureii "in la turturele.
Se (a$e $ald; $res$ lu7erii priori K
Prin strun.i pierd $er+ii $oarne "e$hi Zi .rele K
[i nYp_rles$ prin $Ytini $YprioriK
`noatY Ztiu$i; \n *ale noi Zi ele.
Be*i iuî lYstuni de ._*e "_nYtoriK
`Zi leapYdY nYp_r$a=ntrea.a=i pieleK
E dusY iarna H ._de=al (lorilorK
Str_n. miere=a$um al+ine harni$ele.
[i=n raiu=a$esta ori$e pYsuri mor H
)oar eu rYm_n aleanului dator ...
1
Tottel>s title: 6)es$ription o( Sprin.; wherin e$he thin. renewes; saue onelie the louer.E %dapted (rom Petrar$h>s
315th ?269th@ sonnet ?in some editions the 42nd sonetto in Morte@. Surrey>s sprin. is En.lish rather than 8talian.
Sir 52ili( Sidne4
With how sad steps; 9 2oon; thou $lim+Sst the
sies]
How silently; and with how wan a (a$e]
What; may it +e that e"en in hea"Snly pla$e
That +usy ar$her his sharp arrows tries]
Sure; i( that lon.=with lo"e=a$Duainted eyes
With how sad steps; 9 2oon; thou $lim+Sst the
sies]
How silently; and with how wan a (a$e]
What; may it +e that e"en in hea"Snly pla$e
That +usy ar$her his sharp arrows tries]
Sure; i( that lon.=with lo"e=a$Duainted eyes
))
-an 7ud.e o( lo"e; thou (eelSst a lo"erSs $ase;
8 read it in thy loosK thy lan.uishSd .ra$e
To me; that (eel the lie; thy state des$ries.
Then; e"Sn o( (ellowship; 9 2oon; tell me;
8s $onstant lo"e deemSd there +ut want o( witX
%re +eauties there as proud as here they +eX
)o they a+o"e lo"e to +e lo"Sd; and yet
Those lo"ers s$orn whom that lo"e doth possessX
)o they $all "irtue there un.rate(ulnessX
?Sonnet WWW8@
-an 7ud.e o( lo"e; thou (eelSst a lo"erSs $ase;
8 read it in thy loosK thy lan.uishSd .ra$e
To me; that (eel the lie; thy state des$ries.
Then; e"Sn o( (ellowship; 9 2oon; tell me;
8s $onstant lo"e deemSd there +ut want o( witX
%re +eauties there as proud as here they +eX
)o they a+o"e lo"e to +e lo"Sd; and yet
Those lo"ers s$orn whom that lo"e doth possessX
)o they $all "irtue there un.rate(ulnessX
?Sonnet WWW8@
8illia6 S2a9es(eare
Sonnet ABIII
Shall 8 $ompare thee to a summerSs dayX
Thou art more lo"ely and more temperate:
'ou.h winds do shae the darlin. +uds o( 2ay;
%nd summerSs lease hath all too short a date:
Sometime too hot the eye o( hea"en shines;
%nd o(ten is his .old $omple&ion dimmed;
%nd e"ery (air (rom (air sometime de$lines;
Ay $han$e; or natureSs $han.in. $ourse untrimmed:
Aut thy eternal summer shall not (ade;
!or lose possession o( that (air thou owSst;
!or shall death +ra. thou wandSrest in his shade;
When in eternal lines to time thou .rowSst;
So lon. as men $an +reathe or eyes $an see;
So lon. li"es this; and this .i"es li(e to thee.
Sonetul ABIII
-u=o *i a "erii poate sY te semuiX
Tu eZti mai plin de (arme$ Zi mai +l_nd]
0n "_nt do+oarY $rean.a Zi +lestemu=i
$Y (run*a "erii moare prea $ur_nd.
%des e o$hiul $erului (ier+inte
Zi aur \l pre$ede=ntune$at
pre$um (rumosul din (rumos des$inde
su+ $erul simplei (iri; netul+urat.
)ar "ara ta eternY nu pYleZte
Zi n=ai sY pier*i $e astY*i stYp_neZti
\n um+ra morîi n=ai sY plim+i $aleZte
$_nd \ntr=un "ers etern î=e dat sY $reZti.
-_t oamenii pri"es$ Zi $_t respirY
trYieZti Zi \n $_ntu=n$his \n lirY.
2. 'ead the (ollowin. (ra.ment (rom Edmund Spenser>s The Fairie )ueene
and answer the (ollowin. Duestions: a. Who is the $hara$ter re(erred toXK +.
How is he portrayedXK $. How does the (ra.ment anti$ipate the (urther
de"elopment o( the main plot line in Aoo 8XK d. How $an the alle.ori$al
pattern en$losed in the (ra.ment +e de$odedXK e. What (eatures o( ar$hai$
lan.ua.e $an +e identi(iedXK (. How would you des$ri+e the te&t in terms o(
(orm ?stan*a type; rhythm; rhyme@X
1 % :entle 1ni.ht was pri$in. on the plaine;
2 C $ladd in mi.htie armes and sil"er shielde;
3 Wherein old dints o( deepe wounds did remaine;
4 The $ruell mares o( manyS a +loudy (ieldeK
# Cet armes till that time did he ne"er wield:
6 His an.ry steede did $hide his (omin. +itt;
3 %s mu$h disdaynin. to the $ur+e to yield:
/ ,ull iolly ni.ht he seemd; and (aire did sitt;
9 %s one (or ni.htly .iusts and (ier$e en$ounters (itt.
15 Aut on his +rest a +loudie -rosse he +ore;
11 The deare remem+ran$e o( his dyin. 4ord;
12 ,or whose sweete sae that .lorious +ad.e he
wore;
13 %nd dead as li"in. e"er him adorSd:
14 0pon his shield the lie was also s$orSd;
1# ,or so"eraine hope; whi$h in his helpe he had:
16 'i.ht (aith(ull true he was in deede and word;
13 Aut o( his $heere did seeme too solemne sad;
1/ Cet nothin. did he dread; +ut e"er was ydrad.
19 0pon a .reat ad"enture he was +ond;
25 That .reatest "loriana to him .a"e;
21 That .reatest :lorious Fueene o( Faerie land;
22 To winne him worship; and her .ra$e to ha"e;
23 Whi$h o( all earthly thin.s he most did $ra"eK
24 %nd e"er as he rode; his hart did earne
2# To pro"e his puissan$e in +attell +ra"e
26 0pon his (oe; and his new (or$e to learneK
0n m_ndru ,Yt da pinteni peste plai;
`n"eZm_ntat \n (ier; $u s$ut de=ar.hir
Pe $are *imî de rYni ad_n$i "edeai
Tot semn de=n$r_n$enate=mpotri"iriK
,ier nu purtase \n$Y \n turnirK
Sirep (u.a$i; muZ$a *Y+ala .rea
!e=nduple$at sY ra+de (r_ul=*+ir
,rumosul ,Yt; $e (alni$ se înea
-a unul "redni$ de=n$leZtYri; \n(iorate prea.
Purta pe pieptu=i $ru$e s_n.erie;
)ra. su"enir murindului )omn s(_nt;
[i=n dra.ul 408 purta el $ru$ea "ie;
)ra. sus \n $er; pre$um Zi pe pYm_nt.
Pe s$ut a$elaZi semn Zi=a (ost sYp_nd;
!Yde7de=naltY=n naltul a7utor:
-instit era \n (aptY Zi=n $u"_nt;
)ar $hipu=i prea \nne.urat de=un norK
El $el mereu temut; $i ni$i$_nd temYtor.
-u mare (aptY se Ztia dator
)omniêi :loriana $ea $rYias$Y;
'e.ina=n .lorii=a aYrii Q_nelor H
4ui sla"Y Zi=al ei har sY=Zi do+_ndeas$Y;
-ea mai r_"nitY a"ere pYm_nteas$YK
[i tot .onind; .onind; simêa ardoare
2ult sY strYlu$e=n luptY "oini$eas$Y
,r_n._nd "rYZmaZ; $u +raûl sY=Zi mYsoare;
,r_n._nd "rYZmaZ; Aalaur; (iarY=n.ro*itoare.
)7
23 0pon his (oe; a )ra.on horri+le and stearne.
):
Section )0 En#lis2 Dra6a in t2e Si1teent2 entur4
)& /& !2e Rise o, t2e Secular Dra6a
)& /& /& Eli$a'et2an 5la42ouses and !2eatrical 5er,or6ances
When Eli*a+eth +e$ame Fueen o( En.land in 1##/; there were no spe$ially
desi.ned theatre +uildin.s. -ompanies o( a$tors ?usually small; made o( # to
/ mem+ers@ toured the $ountry and per(ormed in a wide "ariety o( temporary
a$tin. spa$es; mainly in inn yards; +ut also in $hur$hes; Town Halls; Town
SDuares; .reat halls o( 'oyal Pala$es or other .reat houses; or anywhere
else that a lar.e $rowd $ould +e .athered to "iew a per(orman$e.
8t is true that they $ontinued to tour throu.hout Eli*a+eth>s rei.n
?espe$ially durin. the Pla.ue in 4ondon; when theatres were $losed or
earned +ut little money@. !e"ertheless; .i"en the laws passed +y the Fueen
to $ontrol wanderin. +e..ars and "a.rants H whi$h impli$itly a((e$ted the
a$tin. $ompanies as well H many a$tors were en$oura.ed to settle down with
permanent +ases in 4ondon.
The first permanent theatres in En.land were old inns whi$h had +een
used as temporary a$tin. areas when the $ompanies had +een tourin.. E...
The #ross 9eys. The $ull. The $el Sa%age. The $ell H all ori.inally +uilt as
inns. Some o( the inns that +e$ame theatres had su+stantial alterations
made to their stru$ture to allow them to +e used as playhouses.
The (irst purpose +uilt theatre +uildin. in En.land was simply $alled
The Theatre; e"entually .i"in. its name to all su$h +uildin. ere$ted in the
outsirts o( 4ondon and (un$tionin. until the $losin. o( the theatres in 1642
durin. the -i"il War.
The Theatre was +uilt in 1#36; at Shoredit$h in the northern outsirts
o( 4ondon; +y the Earl o( 4ei$ester>s 2en who were led +y <ames Aur+a.e; a
$arpenter turned a$tor. 8t seems that the desi.n o( The Theatre was +ased on
that o( +ull=+aitin. and +ear=+aitin. yards ?as a matter o( (a$t; +ull +aitin.;
+ear +aitin. and (en$in. shows were "ery popular +y that time; and they
were o(ten or.ani*ed +e(ore the plays started.@. The Theatre was (ollowed
the ne&t year ?1#33@ +y The #urtain; in 1#/3 +y The Rose and in 1#9# +y
The Swan ?to mention +ut the most (amous theatres@. 8n 1#99; a dispute o"er
the land on whi$h The Theatre stood determined Aur+a.e>s sons to se$retly
tear down the +uildin. and $arry away the tim+er to +uild a new playhouse on
the Aanside whi$h they names The "lo'e. Ay this time; the Aur+a.es had
+e$ome mem+ers o( 4ord -ham+erlain>s -ompany; alon. with William
Shaespeare; and The "lo'e is (amously remem+ered as the theatre in
whi$h many o( Shaespeare>s plays were (irst per(ormed. ?The "lo'e was
destroyed in 1613 in a (ire $aused +y the spars o( a $annon (ired durin. the
per(orman$e o( Shaespeare>s Henry ,III. 'e+uilt; it was $losed and
demolished in 1644 durin. the -i"il War. The modern re$onstru$tion o(
Sha3espeare!s "lo'e Theatre in 4ondon was $ompleted in 1993.@
Ae(ore .oin. into more details re.ardin. the stru$ture o( the
Eli*a+ethan theatre; distin$tion should +e made; howe"er; +etween two
$ate.ories o( playhouses: the pu'lic :outdoor; theatres and the pri%ate
:indoor; theatres. The (ormer were amphitheatre +uildin.s open to the air and
there(ore $heaper H The :lo+e; (or instan$e; $har.ed two pen$e (or a seat in
);
the .alleries or a sin.le penny to stand in the yard. The latter ?e...
$lac3friarsK The #oc3pit@ were +uilt to a hall desi.n in en$losed and usually
re$tan.ular +uildin.s more lie the theatres we now today. They had amore
e&$lusi"e audien$e sin$e they $har.ed $onsidera+ly more H the $heapest
seat in a pri"ate theatre $ost si&pen$e. The adult $ompanies did not start to
use the pri"ate hall theatres until a(ter Eli*a+eth>s death; +ut they were used
+y the +oy $ompanies ?made up entirely o( $hild and teena.e a$tors@ in
Eli*a+eth>s rei.n and were used +y Shaespeare>s -ompany = +y this time
the 1in.>s 2en = and other adult $ompanies in the <a$o+ean period.
Structure and Design of Pu'lic< /utdoor Theatres
Pu+li$ theatres were poly.onal = he&a.onal outside and round inside ?6a
wooden 9E as Shaespeare puts it in Henry ,@. %n open=air arena H $alled 6pitE
or 6yardE H had; at one end; a wooden sta.e supported +y lar.e pillars; with trap
doors (or spe$ial e((e$ts ?to allow .hosts; de"ils and similar $hara$ters to +e
raised up@ and was surrounded +y three tiers o( roofed galleries ?that$hed; later
on tiled roo(s@ with +al$onies; o"erlooin. the +a$ o( the sta.e.
The rear sta.e was $o"ered +y a roo( H whi$h they $alled 6Hea%ensE
throu.h whi$h; +y means o( ropes; they $ould lower down the a$tors playin.
the .odsJ an.els; et$.; (or (lyin. or dramati$ entran$es H held up +y massi"e
pillars and o+stru$tin. the "iew o( audien$e mem+ers (rom "arious an.les.
The sta.e wall +ehind these pillars was $alled 6Frons ScenaeE ?taen
(rom the name .i"en +y 8mperial 'ome to the sta.e walls o( their
amphitheatres@ pro"ided with doors to the le(t and to the ri.ht and a $urtained
$entral doorway H re(erred to as the 6disco%ery spaceE H whi$h allowed
$hara$ters to +e suddenly re"ealed or a play within a play to +e a$ted. The
rear wall o( this inner sta.e was $o"ered +y tapestry; the only usual 6s$eneryE
used on the sta.e.
8mmediately a+o"e the inner sta.e; there was the stage gallery whi$h
$ould +e used (or multiple purposes:
= as an a$tin. spa$e: on either sides; there were +ow=windows used (or
the (reDuent windowJ +al$ony s$enes ?e... Romeo and 2uliet@. Thus the
arran.ement o( a (ront sta.e and two=storeyed +a$ sta.e permitted three
a$tions to .o on simultaneously and a li(e=lie parallelism o( e"ents.
= another part o( the .allery $ould +e used as a musi$=room. 2usi$ was
an e&tra e((e$t added in the 1655>s. The musi$ians started playin. an hour
+e(ore the +e.innin. o( the play and also played at appropriate moments
throu.hout the per(orman$e.
= when ne$essary; some o( the +o&es o( the sta.e .allery were used (or
audien$e seatin.. They were re(erred to as the 64ord>s roomsE and $onsidered
the +est ?and hen$e the most e&pensi"e@ seats in the Ghouse> despite the poor
"iew o( the +a$ o( the a$tors. ?!e"ertheless; the audien$e at lar.e would
ha"e a .ood "iew o( the 4ords and the 4ords were a+le to hear the a$tors
$learly.@ There were also additional +al$onies on the le(t and ri.ht o( the 64ord>s
roomsE $alled the 6:entlemen>s roomsE; also meant (or the ri$h patrons o( the
theatres.
%s pre"iously mentioned; the sta.e wall stru$ture $ontained two doors
?at least@ leadin. to a small stru$ture; +a$ sta.e; $alled the 6Tiring HouseE
used +y a$tors to dress; prepare and wait o((sta.e.
%+o"e the sta.e .allery; there is a third storey $onne$ted with the
6Hea"ensE e&tendin. (orward (rom the tirin.=house o"er the rear part o( the
sta.e; whi$h was o(ten used to represent the walls o( a $astle or a $ity.
)=
4ast +ut not least; on top o( this stru$ture; there was also what mi.ht +e
$alled a (ourth storey o( the tirin.=house; re(erred to as the 6HutE presuma+ly
used as a stora.e spa$e and housin. suspension .ear (or (lyin. e((e$ts; while
the third storey sta.e $o"er ser"ed as a loadin. room (or players preparin. to
G(ly> down to the sta.e. 9n top o( the 6hutE; a (la. ?a +la$ one; i( it was a
tra.edy; a white one; i( it was a $omedy; or a red one; i( it was a history@ was
ere$ted to let the world now a play was to +e per(ormed that day.
The a$$ess to the playhouse was ensured +y one main entran$e;
where play.oers had to put the admission (ee H i.e. 1 penny; (or those who
wat$hed the play (rom the yard; standin.; $alled the 6:roundlin.sE
?shopeepers; $ra(tsmen; apprenti$es@; or more; up to 4=# pen$e (or the .entry
and the .reat lords sittin. in the .alleries. The .alleries $ould +e rea$hed +y
the two sets o( stairs in the stru$ture; on either side o( the theatre. The (irst
.allery would $ost another penny in the +o& whi$h was held +y a $olle$tor
?6.athererE@ at the (ront o( the stairs. The se$ond .allery would $ost another
penny. %t the start o( the play; a(ter $olle$tin. money (rom the audien$e; the
admission $olle$tors put the +o&es in a room +a$sta.e; $alled the 6+o&
o((i$e.E
The Players
There were in"aria+ly many more parts than a$tors. Eli*a+ethan
Theatre; there(ore; demanded that an a$tor +e a+le to play numerous roles
and mae it o+"ious to the audien$e +y $han.es in his a$tin. style and
$ostume that he was a new person ea$h time. When the same $hara$ter
$ame on dis.uised ?as; (or e&ample; many o( Shaespeare>s (emale
$hara$ters dis.uise themsel"es as +oys H e... The Merchant of ,enice or
Twelfth &ight@ spee$hes had to +e in$luded main. it "ery $lear that this was
the same $hara$ter in a new $ostume; and not a $ompletely new $hara$ter.
%ll o( the a$tors in an Eli*a+ethan Theatre $ompany were male ?whi$h
mi.ht e&plain the s$ar$ity o( (emale roles in Eli*a+ethan drama@. There were
laws in En.land a.ainst women a$tin. onsta.e and En.lish tra"ellers a+road
were amused and ama*ed +y the stran.e $ustoms o( -ontinental European
$ountries that allowed women to play (emale roles. E&$eptions : 9ne woman
= 2ary ,rith; +etter nown as 2oll -utpurse = was arrested in the <a$o+ean
period (or sin.in. and playin. instruments onsta.e durin. a per(orman$e o( a
play a+out her li(e ?2iddleton and )eer>s The Roaring "irl@ and some
su..est that she may a$tually ha"e +een ille.ally playin. hersel( in the
per(orman$e; and women sometimes too part in -ourt 2asDues ?a "ery
stylised and spe$ta$ular sort o( per(orman$e (or the -ourt; usually dominated
+y sin.in. and dan$in.@; +ut otherwise En.lish women had no part in the
per(orman$e o( Eli*a+ethan plays. The male a$tors who played (emale parts
ha"e traditionally +een des$ri+ed as 6Aoy %$torsE H they were a$tually +oys
whose "oi$es had not $han.ed.
The rehearsal and per(orman$e s$hedule that Eli*a+ethan Players
(ollowed was intense and demandin.. 0nlie modern theatres; where a
su$$ess(ul play $an run (or years at a time; Eli*a+ethan theatres normally
per(ormed si& di((erent plays in their si& day wee; and a parti$ularly
su$$ess(ul play mi.ht only +e repeated on$e a month or so. ,or e&ample; in a
typi$al season; a theatri$al $ompany $ould per(orm thirty=ei.ht di((erent plays.
The Eli*a+ethan a$tor did not ha"e mu$h time; there(ore; to prepare (or ea$h
new play; and must ha"e had to learn lines and prepare his +lo$in. lar.ely on
)>
his own and in his spare time H pro+a+ly helped +y the tenden$y o( writers to
ha"e parti$ular a$tors in mind (or ea$h part; and to write roles whi$h were
suited to the parti$ular stren.ths and ha+its o( indi"idual a$tors. There were
(ew (ormal rehearsals (or ea$h play and no eDui"alent o( the modern )ire$tor
?althou.h presuma+ly the writer; theatre mana.ers; and the most important
a$tors = who owned shares in the theatre $ompany = would ha"e .i"en some
dire$tion to other a$tors@. 8nstead o( +ein. .i"en (ull s$ripts; ea$h a$tor had a
written 6partE; a lon. s$roll with nothin. more than his own lines and minimal
$ue lines ?the lines spoen +y another a$tor 7ust +e(ore his own@ to tell him
when to spea = this sa"ed on the la+orious tas o( $opyin. out the (ull play
repeatedly +y hand. There was a +ooholder or prompter who held a $omplete
s$ript and who helped a$tors who had (or.otten their lines.
Performance Techni6ues
We now "ery little; un(ortunately; a+out how Eli*a+ethan a$tors
a$tually played their roles. Per(orman$es pro+a+ly ran $ontinuously without
any sort o( inter"al or %$t Areas. 9$$asionally musi$ may ha"e +een played
+etween %$ts or $ertain s$enes; +ut s$holars thin this was Duite unusual
e&$ept in the hall playhouses; where $andles had to +e trimmed and repla$ed
+etween %$ts. We do not e"en now how lon. Eli*a+ethan plays usually ran.
The law e&pe$ted plays to last +etween two and two and a hal( hours; +ut
some plays = su$h as Hamlet; whi$h in modern times runs (or more than (our
hours = seem mu$h too lon. to ha"e +een per(ormed in su$h a short time.
What props and s$enery there were in the Eli*a+ethan Theatre were
pro+a+ly $arried on and o(( while the s$enes $ontinued; while a$tors were
$ontinually mo"in. (orward and +a$ward into the midst o( the surroundin.
audien$e. %ll entran$es and e&its were throu.h the doors at the rear o( the
sta.e proper: one a$tor le(t throu.h one door while a se$ond a$tor would
appear throu.h the se$ond door to swin. into the ne&t s$ene. That means
that there would ha"e +een no need to wait (or s$ene $han.es. The a$tors
were ept in $onstant motion and; .i"en the desi.n o( the sta.e; they had to
(a$e in as many di((erent dire$tions as possi+le durin. a s$ene.
%nother aspe$t o( Eli*a+ethan per(orman$e that we now a little a+out
was the use o( $lowns or (ools. Shaespeare $omplains in Hamlet a+out the
(a$t that the (ool o(ten spoe a .reat deal that was not in$luded in his s$ript;
and in the early Eli*a+ethan period espe$ially it seems to ha"e +een normal
(or the (ool to in$lude a .reat deal o( impro"ised repartee and 7oes in his
per(orman$e; espe$ially respondin. to he$lers in the audien$e. %t the end o(
the play the Eli*a+ethan a$tors o(ten dan$ed; and sometimes the (ool and
other $omi$ a$tors would per(orm a 7i. = whi$h $ould +e anythin. (rom a
simple +allad to a Duite $ompli$ated musi$al play; normally a (ar$e in"ol"in.
adultery and other +awdy topi$s. Some time was apparently put aside (or the
(ool to respond to $hallen.es (rom the audien$e = with spe$tators in"entin.
rhymes and $hallen.in. the (ool to $omplete them; asin. riddles and
Duestions and demandin. witty answers; or simply ar.uin. and $riti$isin. the
(ool so that he $ould respond.
With no modern sta.e li.htin. to enhan$e the a$tors and put the
audien$e into darness; :lo+e audien$e mem+ers $ould see ea$h other
e&a$tly as well as they $ould see the per(ormers and the :roundlin.s in
parti$ular were near enou.h to the sta.e to +e a+le to tou$h the a$tors i( they
wanted to and the (ront row o( the :roundlin.s routinely leaned their arms and
heads onto the (ront o( the sta.e itsel(. The :roundlin.s were also (or$ed to
)+
stand (or two or three hours without mu$h mo"ement; whi$h en$oura.ed short
attention spans and a desire to tae a$tion rather than remain $ompletely
immo+ile. This means that the :roundlin.s (reDuently shouted up at the a$tors
or hissed the "illains and $heered the .oodies. Eli*a+ethan audien$es seem to
ha"e +een "ery responsi"e in this way = as their intera$tions with the ,ool
su..ests = and were parti$ularly well nown (or hurlin. nut shells and (ruit
when they dislied an a$tor or a per(orman$e. The Eli*a+ethan audien$e was
still more distra$ted; howe"er; sin$e +eer and (ood were +ein. sold and
$onsumed throu.hout the per(orman$e; prostitutes were a$ti"ely soli$itin. (or
trade; and pi$po$ets were +usy stealin. .oods as the play pro.ressed.
Eli*a+ethan audien$es may ha"e 6"iewedE plays "ery di((erently;
hen$e the ori.in o( the word 6audien$eE itsel(. The Eli*a+ethans did not spea
o( .oin. to see a play; they went to hear one = and it is possi+le that in the
densely $rowded theatre = o+stru$ted +y the pillars and the e&tra"a.ant
head.ear that ri$her mem+ers o( the audien$e were wearin. = the
Eli*a+ethan audien$e was more $on$erned to hear the words spoen than to
+e a+le to see the a$tion. This idea is .i"en e&tra wei.ht +y the (a$t that in
the pu+li$ outdoor theatres; lie the :lo+e; the most e&pensi"e seats were
not the ones with the +est "iews ?in (a$t the +est "iew is to +e had +y the
:roundlin.s; standin. dire$tly in (ront o( the sta.e@; +ut those whi$h were
most easily seen +y other audien$e mem+ers. The most e&pensi"e seatin.
was in the 4ord>s +o& or +al$ony +ehind the sta.e = looin. at the a$tion (rom
+ehind = and otherwise the hi.her the seats the more an audien$e mem+er
had to pay. ?Some Eli*a+ethan do$uments su..est that the reason (or this
ran.e o( pri$es was the ri$her patron>s desire to +e as (ar (rom the stin o(
the :roundlin.s as possi+le.@
Spe$i(i$ aspe$ts o( Eli*a+ethan per(orman$es:
'ear='aiting: three +ears in as$endin. si*e are set upon +y an En.lish
hound in a (i.ht to the death]
fencing: less .ruesome; this $i"ili*ed sport also too pla$e +e(ore plays.
dum'=shows<processions: parades or spe$ta$les; these (ormal .roups
used all the most ornate $ostumes they owned; in$ludin. $rowns and
s$eptres; tor$hes and swords. )um+=shows appeared at the end o( ea$h
a$t to summari*e the e"ents o( the (ollowin. a$t. Ay the turn o( the
$entury; dum+=shows were $onsidered old=(ashioned and $orny.
Pro$essions were more solemn as a$tors mo"ed manneDuin=lie a$ross
the sta.e.
7igs: at the $on$lusion o( a play; the a$tors would dan$e around the sta.e.
Separate (rom the plays; these were +awdy; no$a+out son.=and=dan$e
(ar$es. ,reDuently resem+lin. popular +allads; 7i.s were o(ten
$ommentaries on politi$s or reli.ion.
mas6ues: masDues were plays put on stri$tly +y the royals. These were
$ele+rations; i.e. royal weddin.s or winnin. a +attle. )esi.ned as
+anDuets o( the senses; these $ele+rations spanned se"eral days durin.
whi$h ea$h mem+er o( the party played a part in the alle.ori$al theme o(
the +anDuet. 2asDues were always held in pri"ate playhouses.
)& /& )& !2e First o6edies and !ra#edies
)@
6Ay the turn o( the 1#
th
$entury; the later moralities +e.an to in$orporate more
and more non reli.ious material. The morality plays rea$hed a point when it
is impossi+le distin.uish $learly +etween them and the early se$ular
interludes. %(ter 1#55 the term TinterludeT $an to +e used indis$riminately (or
any play maintainin. its $hara$ter o( se$ular humour. The term was (irst used
as a +rie( play +etween the $ourses o( a +anDuet. 9ther re$ords o( the a.e
$onsider the interlude as a play per(ormed outdoors in summer. Whate"er its
ori.in or e&a$t meanin. it is out o( the interlude that the wholly se$ular drama
in En.lish de"eloped in the (urther years. The s$holarly re"i"al o( interest in
the an$ient drama $ontri+uted to a "i.orous playwritin. in En.landSs s$hools
and $olle.es; in the no+lemenSs houses and at the 8nns o( -ourt.
Henr4 Ced<all ?(l. 1495@ was a tea$her in the household o( -ardinal
2orton. He is the author o( a morality; &ature. written in the old alle.ori$al
traditions; +ut his ne&t play Fulgens and Lucres rans as the earliest nown
En.lish se$ular play. Written a+out 1493 and pu+lished a+out 1#1# it shows
no tra$es o( alle.ory. ,rom its openin. one $an understand that it was meant
(or a$tin. +etween the $ourses o( a +anDuet. The plot in"ol"es $hara$ters
that are (ar (rom the a+stra$tions o( the typi$al morality plays. The hand o(
4u$retia; dau.hter o( the 'oman senator ,ul.entio is sou.ht (or +y the no+le
and wealthy -ornelius and the poor +ut honest ,laminius. 8n the spirit o( the
ad"an$ed ideas o( the 'enaissan$e; 4u$retia is allowed to mae her own
$hoi$e. %(ter the youths de+ate their $laims 4u$retia $hooses ,laminius. The
play displays the appearan$e o( the lo"e=trian.le drama (or the (irst time in
En.lish. %nother ori.inal $ontri+ution o( 2edwall is the parallel humorous
su+plot whi$h introdu$es two ser"ants desi.nated % and A ri"allin. ea$h
other (or the hand o( 4u$retiaSs maid; Tthe (lower o( the (ryin. panT. S$holars
are unanimous in emphasisin. the pro.ress towards se$ularity and realism
mared +y ,ul.ens and 4u$re$e TWith lo"e as a $entral theme the play is
neither Ai+li$al; nor alle.ori$al; +ut striin.ly se$ularT.
,rom 1##5 on the drama em+ared upon a period o( tremendous
(lourishin.. Plays were per(ormed at -ourt; in the halls o( the no+lemen; at
the 8nns o( -ourt and in $olle.es; .enerally +ut not e&$lusi"ely +y
pro(essional a$tors. While the (ol plays; moralities and interludes $ontinued
to +e Duite popular; the a$ademi$ drama emer.ed in the s$hools. 2odelled
a(ter the $lassi$ 4atin dramas o( Plautus; Teren$e and Sene$a and per(ormed
+y student a$tors; the a$ademi$ drama was meant as an edu$ational de"i$e
to instru$t in moral lessons and literary style. 8t was written +y humanist
s$holars (irst in 4atin than in En.lish.
Nic2olas Udall ?1#5#=l##6@. Headmaster o( Eaton and o( Westminster
S$hool; !i$holas 0dall was also the author o( a sele$tion o( phrases (rom
Teren$e; ,lowers o( 4atin Speain. Sele$ted and :athered out o( Teren$e
whi$h was used as a te&t +oo o( style +y s$hool+oys in Tudor times. Ralph
Roister Doister ?written in 1#3# and pu+lished a+out 1#63@ is usually re(erred
to as (irst En.lish $omedy. 8t was perhaps played +y Westminster +oys while
0dall was headmaster o( that s$hool.
The play in short rhymed do..erel represents the $ourtin. o( the widow
-ustan$e; who is +etrothed to :awin :oodlu$; an a+sent mer$hant; +y 'oister;
a swa..erin. simpleton. 'alph 'oister is insti.ated +y the mis$hie"ous
2erry.ree and is repulsed and +eaten +y -ustan$e and her maids. %(ter +ein.
de$ei"ed +y (alse reports; :oodlu$ is re$on$iled with -ustan$e.
The play shows similarity to the $omedies o( Plautus and Teren$e. 8t
(ollows the (i"e a$t di"ision and o+ser"es the unities o( time; pla$e and
7*
a$tion. 'alph is modelled on the $lassi$al Tmilles .loriosusT and 2erry.ree
is the $lassi$al parasite. 'alph 'oister )oister; the $owardly +ra..art soldier
Tis the remote an$estor o( ShaespeareSs Sir <ohn ,alsta(( in Henry I,T.
Humour deri"es (rom the so$ial satire addressed at the a"ari$e o( the middle
$lasses; (rom the lo"ely lan.ua.e o( the play; puns; si.ni(i$ant names o( the
$hara$ters; pro"er+s.
"ammer "urton4s &eedle written a+out 1### and pu+lished in 1#3# o(
an un$ertain authorship is the se$ond En.lish $omedy in "erse. % T2r. S.T o(
-hrist -hur$h -olle.e; -am+rid.e wrote it and the play has +een as$ri+ed in
turn to <ohn Still; William Ste"enson or <ohn Arid.es. EDually $lassi$al in (orm
as 0dallSs $omedy; "ammer "urton4s &eedle $le"erly spins out its humour
alon. (i"e $lassi$al a$ts; o+ser"in. unities o( time; spa$e and a$tion. The
a$tion is laid in the En.lish $ountryside and the $hara$ters are typi$al o( the
"illa.es o( the late (eudal times. The $hara$ters> spee$h is ra$y and "i.orous.
The play deals (ar$i$ally with the losin. and (indin. o( the needle used
to mend the .arments o( Hod.e; :ammer :urtonSs man. The $on$ern (or the
lost needle is understanda+le sin$e needles; re$ently introdu$ed in 1#4#;
were s$ar$e and e&pensi"e.
The parasiti$al )i$$on persuades the :ammer that )ame -hat; the
ale=house eeper has taen the needleK a Duarrel ensues and )o$tor 'at; the
$urate; is $alled in only to .et his head +roen. ,inally Hod.e +e$omes
pain(ully aware that the needle is in the seat o( his +rea$hes. The .reatest
merit o( the play $onsists in its realism presentin. the .enuine lo$al $olour o(
an En.lish "illa.e in the 16th $entury. MLN This $om+ination o( li"ely; "i"id
nati"e En.lish material put into the re.ular (orm o( the 4atin $omedies o(
Plautus and Teren$e looed (orward to the $omedies o( Shaespeare.
The tra.edies o( the En.lish humanists were modelled on Sene$a
whose plays were; o( $ourse; a"aila+le in the ori.inal 4atin throu.hout the
'enaissan$e. The (irst En.lish; translations appeared in 1#/1. Sene$a>s
tra.edies ware $onstru$ted in (i"e a$ts and had "iolent and +loody plots;
rhetori$al spee$hes and the presen$e o( .hosts amon. the $hara$ters.
"or'oduc or Ferre* and Porre* is o(ten termed the (irst true En.lish
tra.edy. 8t was presented at the -hristmas (east o( the 8nner Temple ?1#51=
62@ where youn. men studied law. 4ater it was a$ted +e(ore the Dueen. Two
youn. lawyers; Thomas Sa$"ille and Thomas !orton; are the authors o( this
tra.edy. They $hose a le.endary tale o( an$ient Aritain deri"ed (rom :eo((rey
o( 2onmouthSs Historia Regum $ritanniae. The play is set in the le.endary
"ery early period o( En.lish history shared +y ShaespeareSs 1in. 4ear and
lie 4ear; in. :ordodu$ di"ides his in.dom amon. his $hildren with
disastrous result. 8n a Duarrel Porre& ills his +rother ,erre&; his motherSs
(a"ourite. 8n "en.ean$e; Dueen Bidena murders Porre&. The an.ry people
rise in re+ellion to ill +oth :or+odu$ and Bidena. The lords put down the
re+ellion +ut they wa.e an inde$isi"e $i"il war; reDuirin. a (orei.n in. to +e
$hosen. The play "oi$es the popular aspirations (or unity and order. Some
are tempted to see in it a hint to Eli*a+eth that she should marry and se$ure
an heir to the throne thus a"oidin. the $haos o( :or+odu$. ,ollowin. Sene$a;
the play is di"ided into (i"e a$ts; ea$h endin. with a $horus o( (i"e old Aritons.
% Tdum+ showE or pantomime pre$edin. ea$h a$t pro"ed hi.hly popular to
su+seDuent dramatists ?see Hamlet@. The s$enes o( horror and "iolen$e so
pe$uliar to Sene$a tae pla$e o(( sta.e and are related +y messen.ers in
len.thy dis$ourses. The most important inno"ation o( "or'oduc is the +lan
7/
"erse here employed in drama (or the (irst time. Sir Philip Sidney praises the
tra.edy in his Defense of Poetrie.
The ori.inal $reation o( the En.lish 'enaissan$e dramatists was the
$hroni$le play the prototype o( whi$h was 9ing 2ohan ?$. 1#3/@ +y <ohn Aale;
a 'oman -atholi$ priest $on"erted to Protestantism. The drama represents
the earliest employment o( histori$al material.E ?:a"riliu; 2555: 94=3@
)& )& !2e Universit4 8its
6The $areer o( the pu+li$ theatre +etween 1#/#=1#9# is usually $onne$ted
with the name o( the ni%ersity -its; youn. people (resh (rom the humanisti$
trainin. in the uni"ersities who moulded the medie"al (orms o( the drama into
the pattern o( their $lassi$al edu$ation. 2ost o( them seem to ha"e had a
taste (or dissolute li"in. and en$ountered untimely deaths. Some o( them had
a .reat $ontempt (or unlettered $ompetitors lie Shaespeare.
8n the hands o( these wild +ut .i(ted writers; the play o( human passion
and a$tion was e&pressed (or the (irst time with true dramati$ e((e$t.
They pa"ed the way (or Shaespeare who was to $arry the
Eli*a+ethan drama to per(e$tion.E
Eli*a+ethan drama owes to some o( them; namely <ohn 4yly ?1##4=
1656@ and :eor.e Peele ?1##3=1#96@; important impro"ements in $omedy
writin.. 4yly>s $omedies H $hie( amon. whi$h the $omedy o( manners Mother
$om'ie ?1#94@ H are inno"ati"e in their introdu$tion o( the de"i$e o( .irls
dis.uised as +oys; o( (airies as $hara$ters; o( son.s and musi$ as well as o(
the e&$essi"ely ornate and e&tra"a.ant euphuisti$ style ?that had pre"iously
made his Gno"els> (amous@. :eor.e Peele>s $ontri+ution is eDually si.ni(i$ant
as he seems to ha"e (ounded; with his $omedy The /ld -i%es! Tale; the
Eli*a+ethan romanti$ $omedy; (ull o( (reshness; hi.h spirits and optimism;
introdu$in. the remote +ut en$hanted 6ne"er=ne"erE land.
9thers tried their hand at writin. not only $omedies +ut also tra.edies
and histories: (or instan$e; it is The Scottish Historie of 2ames the Fourth ?p+.
1#9/@; in whi$h 9+eron H the in. o( the (airies appears (or the (irst time; that
rein(or$ed the popularity o( 'o+ert :reene ?1#65=1#92@
2
; while :eor.e=a=
:reene>s mainly relied on The Pinner of -a3efield ?1#//@ as an 6e&pression
o( the demo$rati$ trends in the drama o( En.lish humanists.E
Cet; +y (ar; the most in(luential (i.ures amon. the 0ni"ersity Wits were
Thomas 1yd and -hristopher 2arlowe. ?:a"riliu; 2555: 151=2@
)& )& /& !2o6as D4d "/;;+3/;@:%
Li,e. Aorn in 4ondon in a prosperous middle=$lass (amily; Thomas 1yd
attended the 2er$hant Taylors> S$hool ?Edmund Spenser also attended this
s$hool at the same time@; thus +ene(itin. (rom e&$ellent $lassi$al trainin.
?Bir.il and Sene$a@ pro"idin. him with the proper s$holarly +a$.round that
he $ould later on draw on in writin. his plays. %(ter .raduatin. the 2er$hant
Taylors> S$hool; he did not attend either -am+rid.e or 9&(ord lie his (ellow
0ni"ersity Wits; +ut he pro+a+ly +e$ame an apprenti$e in his (ather>s trade.
2
4iterary history owes 'o+ert :reene the (irst pro(essional re(eren$e to Shaespeare: 6there
is an upstart -row; +eauti(ied with our (eathers; that with his Tygers hart wrapt in a Players
hyde; supposes he is as well a+le to +um+ast out a +lane "erse as the +est o( you: and
+ein. an a+solute 2ohannes fac totum; is in his owne $on$eit the onely Shae=s$ene in a
$ountrie.E
7)
He also (ound employment as a translator and it is +elie"ed that +y 1#/3 he
was already writin. (or the sta.e. Aut his su$$ess as a playwri.ht would not
spare him perse$ution +y the Fueen>s se$ret a.ents who sear$hed his house
in 1#93 on suspi$ion o( his tain. an a$ti"e part in spreadin. anti=
.o"ernmental material to.ether with his (riend and (ormer $o=tenant
-hristopher 2arlowe. The Fueen>s a.ents alle.edly (ound a pamphlet whi$h
they deemed 6atheisti$.E Thus 1yd ended up in prison; +ein. tortured on
suspi$ion o( spreadin. heresy and atheism. 1yd protested that the pamphlet
+elon.ed to 2arlowe; with whom he had +een roommates in the summer o(
1#91; and that it had a$$identally +een shu((led in amon. his papers.
2arlowe was illed in a ta"ern +rawl +e(ore he $ould $on(irm 1yd>s testimony.
1yd was e"entually released; +ut he soon died in utter po"erty.
8or9. %ll his plays were pu+lished anonymously. %mon. them; the most
su$$ess(ul was The Spanish Tragedy or Hieronimo Is Mad (gain0 ?1#/6@.
Two more plays were also as$ri+ed to 1yd: r=Hamlet; i.e. 9ld Hamlet and
(rden of Fe%ersham. Cet; lie many other aspe$ts o( 1yd>s li(e; this one also
remains a matter o( $on7e$ture.

ase Stud40 The Spanish Tragedy
The su$$ess o( 1yd>s tra.edy; set a.ainst the +a$.round o( the $on(li$t
+etween the Spanish and the Portu.uese in 1#/5; a+out the re"en.e that
Hieronimo; the .rie"in. (ather; and Ael=8mperia; the .rie"in. mistress; tae
a.ainst Horatio>s murderers; Aaltha*ar and 4oren*o may +e e&plained in at
least two distin$t ways:
= on the one hand; the re"en.e theme; thou.h "ery $ontro"ersial; was "ery
popular amon. the Eli*a+ethans. %$tually; it is di((i$ult to .au.e the e&a$t
state o( the Eli*a+ethan mind with re.ards to re"en.e; +e$ause mu$h o( what
sur"i"es on the su+7e$t $omes (rom the prea$hers who were tryin. to
dis$oura.e it. Aut we ha"e reason to +elie"e that there was a $on(li$t
+etween the old $ustom o( seein. pri"ate re"en.e (or wron.s done to one>s
(amily; inherited lar.ely (rom the %n.lo=Sa&on and )anish in(luen$es on
En.lish $ulture; as well as (rom the -hristian in7un$tion o( ,indicta mihiK
6Ben.ean$e is mine; sayeth the lordK 8 will repayE. 8n other words; (or the
-hristian; re"en.e a.ainst wron.doers is the responsi+ility o( :od; not men.
8n Eli*a+ethan times; a third (a$tor had entered into the de+ate; namely the
in$reasin.ly $entrali*ed and power(ul state; whi$h also dis$oura.ed pri"ate
re"en.e in (a"our o( re"en.e under the auspi$es o( the law. 8n su$h
$ir$umstan$es; there was pro+a+ly a .reat deal o( $on(usion as to the moral
status o( re"en.e; thou.h some types o( re"en.e were de(initely held to +e
worse than others: (or e&ample; a hot=+looded re"en.e $ommitted in a (it o(
passion was pre(era+le to a $old=+looded re"en.e; $are(ully; methodi$ally
plotted out in a 2a$hia"ellian manner. Thou.h they a+horred
2a$hia"ellianism in pu+li$; the Eli*a+ethans were (as$inated when it was
represented on sta.e; and most o( the interestin. a"en.ers o( Eli*a+ethan
drama; in$ludin. Hieronimo; the hero o( The Spanish Tragedy. employ
de$eption and ruse to a$hie"e their ends.
= on the other hand; in the $onte&t o( the $on(li$t +etween En.land and Spain;
whi$h $ulminated with the de(eat o( the Spanish %rmada in 1#//; 1yd seems
to ha"e e"oed in his tra.edy the stron. anti=Spanish sentiment pre"alent
77
amon. his $ountrymen. %n Eli*a+ethan audien$e may ha"e +een somewhat
pleased at the denouement o( the tra.edy; where the royal lines o( +oth
Spain and Portu.al are wiped out in a (ren*ied or.y o( "iolen$e.
The play +e.ins with the .host o( )on %ndrea; a Spanish no+leman in
lo"e with the +eauti(ul dau.hter o( the )ue o( -astile; Ael=8mperia; who is illed
in a re$ent +attle a.ainst Portu.al +y the Portu.uese prin$e Aaltha*ar.
%$$ompanied +y the spirit o( 'e"en.e; he (a$es the 7ud.es who are supposed
to assi.n him to his pla$e in the underworld. Aut as they are una+le to rea$h a
de$ision; they send him to the pala$e o( Pluto and Proserpine; 1in. and Fueen
o( the 0nderworld; where the de$ision is made that 'e"en.e should a$$ompany
him +a$ to the world o( the li"in. to see his death re"en.ed.
9n the +attle(ield; the Spanish won and Aaltha*ar was taen prisoner
shortly a(ter %ndreaSs death; +y the %ndreaSs .ood (riend Horatio; son o(
Hieronimo; the 1ni.ht 2arshal o( Spain. 4oren*o; the son o( the )ue o(
-astile and +rother o( Ael=8mperia also $laims the royal prisoner. The 1in. o(
Spain de$ides to $ompromise +etween the two; lettin. Horatio ha"e the
ransom money to +e paid (or Aaltha*ar and 4oren*o eep the $aptured
prin$e at his home. Aa$ in Portu.al; the Bi$eroy is mad with .rie(; (or he
+elie"es his son to +e dead; and is tri$ed +y Billuppo into arrestin. an
inno$ent no+le; %le&andro; (or Aaltha*arSs murder. )iplomati$ ne.otiations
then +e.in +etween the Portu.uese am+assador and the Spanish 1in.; to
ensure Aaltha*arSs return and a lastin. pea$e +etween Spain and Portu.al.
While li"in. in Spain; Aaltha*ar (alls in lo"e with Ael=8mperia; +ut he
(inds out (rom her ser"ant Pedrin.ano that Ael=8mperia is in lo"e with Horatio;
who returns her a((e$tions. So the 7ealous Aaltha*ar and the spite(ul 4oren*o
?who hates Horatio +e$ause o( the (i.ht o"er Aaltha*arSs $apture and
+e$ause; thou.h lower=+orn; Horatio has won the heart o( his sister@ de$ide
to ill Horatio; whi$h they su$$ess(ully do with the help o( Pedrin.ano and o(
Aaltha*arSs ser"ant Ser+erine; durin. an e"enin. rende*="ous +etween the
two lo"ers. Ael=8mperia is then taen away +e(ore Hieronimo stum+les on to
the s$ene to dis$o"er his dead son. He is soon 7oined in un$ontrolla+le .rie(
+y his wi(e; 8sa+ella.
8n Portu.al; %le&andro es$apes death when the Portu.uese am+assador
returns (rom Spain with news that Aaltha*ar still li"esK Billuppo is then senten$ed
to death. 8n Spain; Hieronimo is almost dri"en insane +y his ina+ility to (ind
7usti$e (or his son. Hieronimo re$ei"es a +loody letter in Ael=8mperiaSs hand;
identi(yin. the murderers as 4oren*o and Aaltha*ar; +ut he is un$ertain whether
or not to +elie"e it. Worried +y HieronimoSs +eha"ior; 4oren*o a$ts in a
2a$hia"ellian manner to eliminate all e"iden$e surroundin. his $rime. He tells
Pedrin.ano to ill Ser+erine (or .old +ut arran.es it so that Pedrin.ano is
immediately arrested a(ter the $rime. He then leads Pedrin.ano to +elie"e that a
pardon (or his $rime is hidden in a +o& +rou.ht to the e&e$ution +y a messen.er
+oy; so Pedrin.ano will not e&pose 4oren*o +e(ore he is han.ed.
!e.otiations $ontinue +etween Spain and Portu.al; now $enterin. on
a diplomati$ marria.e +etween Aaltha*ar and Ael=8mperia to unite the royal
lines o( the two $ountries. 8roni$ally; a letter is (ound on Pedrin.anoSs +ody
that $on(irms HieronimoSs suspi$ion o"er 4oren*o and Aaltha*ar; +ut 4oren*o
is a+le to deny Hieronimo a$$ess to the in.; thus main. royal 7usti$e
una"aila+le to the distressed (ather. Hieronimo then "ows to re"en.e himsel(
pri"ately on the two illers; usin. de$eption and a (alse show o( (riendship to
eep 4oren*o o(( his .uard.
7:
The marria.e +etween Ael=8mperia and Aaltha*ar is set; and the
Bi$eroy tra"els to Spain to attend the $eremony. Hieronimo is in $har.e o( the
entertainment (or the marria.e $eremony; and he uses it to $arry out his
re"en.e. He puts up a play to +e per(ormed at the weddin.; and $on"in$es
4oren*o and Aaltha*ar to a$t in it. Ael=8mperia; +y now a $on(ederate in
HieronimoSs plot (or re"en.e; also a$ts in the play. <ust +e(ore the play is
a$ted; 8sa+ella; insane with .rie(; ills hersel(. The plot o( this play=within=the=
play mirrors the plot o( the play as a whole ?a sultan is dri"en to murder a
no+le (riend throu.h 7ealousy o"er a woman@. Hieronimo $asts himsel( in the
role o( the hired murderer. )urin. the per(orman$e; HieronimoSs $hara$ter
sta+s 4oren*oSs $hara$ter and Ael=8mperiaSs $hara$ter sta+s Aaltha*arSs
$hara$ter; +e(ore illin. hersel(. %(ter the play is o"er; Hieronimo re"eals to
the horri(ied weddin. .uests ?while standin. o"er the $orpse o( his own son@
that all the sta++in.s in the play were done with real ni"es; and that
4oren*o; Aaltha*ar; and Ael=8mperia are now all dead. He then tries to ill
himsel(; +ut the 1in.; the Bi$eroy and the )ue o( -astile stop him. 8n order
to eep himsel( (rom talin.; he +ites out his own ton.ue. Tri$in. the )ue
into .i"in. him a ni(e; he then sta+s the )ue and himsel( and then dies.
'e"en.e and %ndrea ha"e the (inal words in the play. %ndrea assi.ns
ea$h o( the playSs T.oodT $hara$ters ?Hieronimo; Ael=8mperia; Horatio; and
8sa+ella@ to happy eternities. The rest o( the $hara$ters are assi.ned to the
"arious tortures and punishments o( Hell.
Main characters>
Hieronimo: Torn apart +etween his "iolent ur.es o( a .rie"in. (ather whose
son was +rutally murdered and his responsi+ility as the 1ni.ht=2arshal; the
top 7ud.e (or any le.al matters $on$ernin. the Spanish in. or his estate;
Hieronimo; the a%enger; lins thus two o( the play>s ey themes; 7ustice and
re%enge. He eDuates the two (reDuently; and; indeed; the play seems to
support his eDuation with its "arious $alls (or re"en.e and retri+ution.
!e"ertheless; he seems to (a$e a num+er o( pro+lems when it $omes to
re"en.e and this .i"es him the psy$holo.i$al $omple&ity and "erisimilitude
typi$ally asso$iated with the tra.i$ prota.onist; main. Hieronimo a sort o(
proto=tra.i$ prota.onist in En.lish literature. !ot e"en an important $hara$ter
until the murder o( his son Horatio; Hieronimo is suddenly thrust into the
$entre o( the a$tion. His $hara$ter then de"elops o"er a series o( soliloDuies;
wrestlin. with se"eral ey Duestions: whether to end his misery +y sui$ide
instead o( waitin. to see re"en.e; where to see re"en.e a.ainst
murderers with (ar more in(luen$e o"er the in. than he; how to re$on$ile his
duties as a 7ud.e with his ina+ility to (ind 7usti$e (or his son; whether to lea"e
re"en.e to :od on$e his le.al means are e&hausted; andIha"in. de$ided
to see his re"en.eIhow to do it in the (a$e o( enemies who $ould easily
destroy him with their "astly .reater in(luen$e and power at $ourt. %nd he
resol"es the (inal Duestions tain. the de$ision o( seein. re"en.e in a
2a$hia"ellian; de$eit(ul manner. This is a radi$al shi(t (or Hieronimo; who
e((e$ti"ely adopts the ta$ti$s o( the murderer 4oren*o a.ainst 4oren*o
himsel(. %nd thou.h his re"en.e is su$$ess(ul; Hieronimo>s .rie( is not
relie"ed; only death and silen$e mana.es to do this.
Hieronimo>s $on"ersion to 2a$hia"ellianism and his "iolent; +loody
re"en.e; may raise pro+lems (or +oth an Eli*a+ethan and a modern
audien$e. Sympathi*in. with someone who re"eals himsel( to +e +oth
de$eit(ul and +loodthirsty is di((i$ult. Aut 1yd does sow the seeds o(
7;
Hieronimo>s $on"ersion (rom the "ery +e.innin.; in the (irst %$t; when
Hieronimo presents a masDue to entertain the $ourt. 8n dire$t $onne$tion with
that early moment in the play; we may see Hieronimo>s re"en.e less as a
"iolent; e"il a$t than as a $reati"e way to (ind 7usti$e in an un7ust so$iety.
$el=Imperia. The main (eminine $hara$ter in the play; she is a "ery
un(ortunate youn. woman: she (alls in lo"e with +oth %ndrea and Horatio
shortly +e(ore they dieK she also has the mis(ortune to ha"e an e"il +rother
in 4oren*o and to +e the o+7e$t o( Aaltha*ar>s a((e$tion; when Aaltha*ar is
the "ery man who murdered her +elo"ed %ndrea and then went on to
murder her +elo"ed HoratioK she is then (or$ed +y +oth her (ather; the )ue
o( -astille; and her un$le; the 1in. o( SpainIthe two most power(ul men in
the $ountryIto wed this "ery same Aaltha*ar.
)espite her mis(ortune; she does not appear as a wea woman: she
displays her rhetori$al a+ility in sti$homythia ?line=+y=line e&$han.es@
+etween her; Aaltha*ar; and 4oren*o and she also has se"eral soliloDuies;
durin. whi$h we ha"e a$$ess to a mind; an interiority; with "ery stron.
opinions; desires; and moti"ations. We also ha"e e"iden$e that she has the
ne$essary stren.th o( will to a$t on her desires and moti"ationsK the
$learest e&ample o( this may +e her parti$ipation in HieronimoSs re"en.e
playlet; Soliman and Perseda. She may indeed appear too $al$ulatin.; too
$old; too (o$used on re"en.e ?pushin. Hieronimo (orward when he appears
too la*y to pursue the re"en.e@; +ut that is somewhat e&plaina+le in the
$ase o( a woman who has su((ered so mu$h.
Loren+o& 4oren*o is an e&ample o( the Machia%ellian %illain; typi$al o( many
Eli*a+ethan tra.edies and dramas. ?E... 'i$hard 888 o( :lou$ester in
Shaespeare>s Richard III; 8a.o in Shaespeare>s /thelloK Aara+as in
2arlowe>s The 2ew of Malta@ This $hara$ter e&ploited the popular
disappro"al o( the early si&teenth=$entury 8talian politi$al philosopher
!i$$olo 2a$hia"elli; whose The Prince portrayed a pi$ture o( a politi$al
ruler who used manipulation o"er persuasion and (ear o"er lo"e to ensure
the loyalty o( his su+7e$ts. This $hara$ter also drew hea"ily on the
traditional Bi$e (i.ure in En.lish literature.
The Bi$e (i.ure would use "er+al $le"erness to lead a prota.onist into
sin; usin. that prota.onistSs inherent moral weaness. Similarly; 4oren*o uses
his "er+al $le"erness to lead the people around him to in7usti$e; playin. on
their moral weaness as well as their la$ o( nowled.e. %nd lie the Bi$e
(i.ure; 4oren*o has a (oil. 8n the morality plays; the (oil was usually a "irtuous
old man. 8n this tra.edy; the honest and "irtuous Horatio a$ts as a (oil. Aut a
ey di((eren$e +etween the 2a$hia"ellian "illain and the Bi$e (i.ure is that the
"illain is human; whereas Bi$e is supernatural ?mu$h lie 'e"en.e in this
play@. So 4oren*o is wea in the same way those he manipulates are wea;
and he is as easily manipulated as those he manipulates. This ironi$ (a$t is
pro"en +y Hieronimo when he lures 4oren*o into the playlet; manipulatin. the
youn. no+lemanSs lo"e o( theatre and erroneous +elie( that Hieronimo +ears
him no hard (eelin.s.
Themes and motifs
Re%enge and 2ustice1 %s pre"iously stated; the o((i$ial Eli*a+ethan attitude
towards re"en.e is epitomised +y Hieronimo>s Duote (rom the Ai+le in %$t 888;
i.e. 6Ben.ean$e is mineK 8 will repay; sayeth the 4ord.E That implies that
'e"en.e should +e per(ormed +y :od ?or the State; whi$h deri"ed its power
(rom :od@; +ut it still needs to +e per(ormed. This is the presupposition that
underlies Hieronimo>s dou+ts whether the Hea"ens ?and :od@ are in (a$t
7=
7ust; whi$h are dou+ts he e&presses a(ter the murder o( his son and the
apparent es$ape o( his murderers. 8t is in the li.ht o( this lin +etween
re"en.e and 7usti$e that Hieronimo de$ides to re"en.e Horatio>s death
himsel( and that he interprets Ael=8mperia>s o((er o( help as a si.n that
Hea"en (a"ours his de$ision. Hieronimo may here $onsider himsel( the
a.ent o( the di"ine "en.ean$e that a 7ust :od must +rin. a.ainst his son>s
murderers; the man $hosen +y :od to re"en.e Horatio>s death. His a$t
would thus +e a ser"i$e to :od and not an usurpation o( :od>s role.
(ppearance %ersus Reality. 1yd uses dramati$ irony throu.hout the play to
dri"e a wed.e +etween the world as his main $hara$ters see it and the
world as it a$tually is. To .i"e a si.ni(i$ant e&ample; 4oren*o
enthusiasti$ally a.rees to play his part in Hieronimo>s tra.edy; not nowin.
that Hieronimo intends not only his $hara$ter to die; +ut (or him to die as
well. Aut; perhaps the most $on$rete and dramati$ e&ample o( this wed.e
is Pedrin.ano>s +elie( that a pardon is $ontained inside the +o& 4oren*o
has sent him. The +o& then $omes to sym+oli*e; in the "iew o( many $riti$s;
a more (undamental and .eneral limitation on human nowled.e. 8n other
words; the $hara$ters> ina+ility to .et past appearan$es is typi$al o( all
human +ein.s> ina+ility to penetrate appearan$es.
Madness. 8t +e$omes mani(est in two distin$t $hara$ters in the play:
Hieronimo>s turns to outward destru$tion and leads to +loody re"en.e;
8sa+ella>s results in inward destru$tion and e"entually in sui$ide. %nyway;
in +oth $ases; madness appears as a mani(estation o( the desire to
es$ape (rom a horri+le reality. ,urthermore; madness is rather
parado&i$al in the sense that it is a ind o( 6saneE madnessImadness in
the (a$e o( a world that has itsel( .one insane and to whi$h madness is
the only possi+le response. This madness pla$es the sane and happy;
su$h as the 1in.; in an ironi$ position; espe$ially i( we understand
6madnessE as a dis$onne$ted state (rom reality. 8n the world o( the play; it
is the sane and happy who are truly dis$onne$ted (rom reality; una+le to
e"en see the per"asi"e e"il that surrounds them.
Machia%ellism. 8n Eli*a+ethan En.land; 2a$hia"elli>s name was
synonymous with e"il; dupli$ity; use o( "iolen$e and (ear. 2a$hia"elli>s
philosophy was a$tually intended (or the rulers o( $itiesK he maintained
?reasona+ly@ that su$h rulers $ould not +e +ound +y $on"entional morality.
The 2a$hia"ellian "illain; howe"er; applied the philosopher>s prin$iples to
pri"ate li(e. 8roni$ally; Hieronimo; the play>s prota.onist; is (or$ed to adopt
2a$hia"ellian ta$ti$s in order to a"en.e his son.
(ntithesis and Irony. Aoth rhetori$ally and in terms o( $hara$teri*ation; 1yd
lo"es opposites: 4oren*o is uneDui"o$ally un7ust; while Hieronimo is
uneDui"o$ally 7ust. Horatio is honoura+le; while 4oren*o is typi$ally
dishonoura+le. This lo"e (or opposition e&presses itsel( in the (reDuent
o$$urren$e o( the rhetori$al de"i$e o( antithesis. where the opposition o( two
ideas is e&pressed in one senten$e or in a parallel stru$ture o( senten$es.
Cet; many o( the initially antitheti$al $hara$ters at times seem "ery
similar to ea$h other. %t the end o( the play; Hieronimo adopts 4oren*o>s
2a$hia"ellianism; and 4oren*o plays Hieronimo>s part o( the inno$ent
dupe. Ae$ause o( 4oren*o>s plot; the 7ust Hieronimo ends up $ommittin.
an a$t o( in7usti$e in the han.in. o( Pedrin.ano. These resolutions and
e&$han.es are ironi$; +e$ause they show how +oth meanin.s and
7>
intentions are am+i.uous and easily re"ersed: Ael=8mperia>s lo"e is +oth
war and pea$eK Hieronimo needs to +e a "illain in order to +e a hero and
a"en.e his sonK Ael=8mperia>s desire to re"en.e hersel( on Aaltha*ar +y
$ausin. him pain ends up $ausin. her intense .rie(K and the $ommission
o( 7usti$e $an o(ten turn into a $ommission o( in7usti$e ?(or e&ample; in the
$ase o( the han.in. o( Pedrin.ano@. Su$h ironies per"ade the play and
help $reate the dou+le perspe$ti"e in whi$h we "iew the a$tion. We are
separated (rom the a$tions o( the $hara$ters; espe$ially Hieronimo; +y the
nowled.e that they a$t in error; +ut we also empathi*e with them
+e$ause o( the un$ertain situations in whi$h they are (or$ed to a$t; in
whi$h the meanin. and intentions o( their a$tions o(ten slip away.
Meta=Theatre. Two aspe$ts must +e re(erred to in this respe$t. 9n the
one hand; the play starts with a $hara$ter within the play who wat$hes the
play>s main e"ents and is as isolated (rom them as we are: )on %ndrea.
There is also another $hara$ter; 'e"en.e; whoIwhile separated (rom the
playIseems to +e a((e$tin. it in spirit and to ha"e nowled.e o( what is to
$ome. The e&isten$e o( this meta=theatre ser"es to mae the relationship
+etween the play=world and the real world am+i.uous: we are still
separated (rom the $hara$ters +y a radi$al di"ide ?we e&ist; they do not@;
+ut we e&ist in a position almost e&a$tly identi$al to %ndrea and 'e"en.e.
9n the other hand; this am+i.uity is played (urther upon and hei.htened
+y Hieronimo>s re"en.e play=within=the=play in %$t 8B.
Thomas 1yd>s tra.edy a+out a (ather>s delayed re"en.e (or his murdered
son apparently (inds its $ounterpart in the $urrently lost r=Hamlet;
presentin. a son>s delayed re"en.e (or a murdered (ather ?whi$h
Shaespeare presuma+ly used as a sour$e o( inspiration (or his Hamlet@ and
inau.urates the type o( re%enge tragedy to +e (ollowed +y: Shaespeare>s
Titus (ndronicus; Richard III; 2ulius #aesar and Hamlet; 2arston>s (ntonio!s
Re%enge; -hapman>s $usy d!(m'ois; or We+ster>s The Duchess of Malfi.
)& )& )& 2risto(2er Carlo<e "/;=:3/;@7%
Li,e. -hristopher 2arlowe was +orn in -anter+ury in 1#64 ?the same year o( +irth
as Shaespeare>s@. Thou.h only a shoemaer; his (ather supported him
(inan$ially to attend the 1in.>s S$hool in -anter+ury; where(rom; ha"in. .ained a
s$holarship; the youn. -hristopher $ontinued his studies at the -orpus -hristi
-olle.e in -am+rid.e. )urin. his years at the uni"ersity; 2arlowe wrote short
plays and literary wors that su..ested an early interest in drama. %lthou.h he
was awarded his A.%. in 1#/4; it was only in 1#/3; a(ter Eli*a+eth 8>s Pri"y -oun$il
inter"ened; that he $ould .et his 2.%. de.ree. E"en at this sta.e; 2arlowe was
$ourtin. $ontro"ersy as a result o( his lon. a+sen$es (rom $olle.eK many people
+elie"ed he had (led to ,ran$e in order to study at a -atholi$ uni"ersity.
%(ter lea"in. -am+rid.e; he mo"ed to 4ondon where he +e$ame a
playwri.ht and led a tur+ulent; s$andal=pla.ued li(e. He produ$ed se"en plays;
all o( whi$h were immensely popular; in whi$h he pioneered the use o( +lan
"erse; whi$h many o( his $ontemporaries ?in$ludin. Shaespeare@ later
adopted. Cet; in 1#93; his $areer was $ut short. %$$used o( maintainin. +elie(s
$ontrary to those o( the appro"ed reli.ion; he was arrested; +rou.ht +e(ore the
-ourt o( the Star -ham+er and then put on a sort o( pro+ation. 9n 2ay 35;
1#93; shortly a(ter his +ein. released; he .ot in"ol"ed in a ta"ern (i.ht and was
sta++ed to death. %(ter his death; rumours were spread a$$usin. him o(
treason; atheism; and homose&uality; and some people spe$ulated that the
7+
ta"ern +rawl mi.ht ha"e +een the wor o( .o"ernment a.ents. 4ittle e"iden$e
to support these alle.ations has $ome to li.ht; howe"er.

8or9s. While still in -am+rid.e; 2arlowe wrote his (irst play Dido. )ueen of
#arthage and perhaps e"en outlined the (irst part o( Tam'urlaine the "reat.
2arlowe also turned out an e&$ellent translator in "erse o( 9"id>s (mores and
o( the (irst +oo o( 4u$an>s Pharsalia; as well as a poet ?$hie( amon. his lyri$al
produ$tions; the more ori.inal poem Hero and Leander $ould +e mentioned.@
%(ter ha"in. settled in 4ondon; worin. with 4ord %dmiral>s 2en;
2arlowe wrote (or the sta.e the (ollowin. plays:
- Tam'urlaine the "reat; parts 1 and 2 ?a+out 1#/3@K
- The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus ?a+out 1#//J 1#92@K
- The 2ew of Malta ?1#/9=1#91@K
- Edward II ?a+out 1#92@K
- The Massacre at Paris ?1#93@.
Ea$h o( 2arlowe>s plays is; in a sense; a tour de force; a spe$ial $reation ?despite
the (a$t that some o( the plays lie The 2ew of Malta; Dido and The Massacre at
Paris are not; a$$ordin. to some s$holars; as well written as the others@.
2arlowe>s (irst and most important ser"i$e to drama was the
impro%ement of 'lan3 %erse. 'o+ert :reene had $ondemned its use as +ein.
uns$holarlyK Sa$"ille and !orton had used it; +ut were not a+le to li(t it
a+o"e $ommonpla$e; $on(inin. it to isolated lines; all made a(ter one
rhythmi$al pattern; with the same num+er o( (eet and the $bsura always in
pla$e; (ollowin. one another; with no .roupin. a$$ordin. to thou.ht. 2arlowe
in"ented num+erless "ariations while still eepin. the satis(yin. rhythm within
a re$urrin. pattern. Sometimes he le(t a redundant sylla+le; or le(t the line
one sylla+le short; or mo"ed the position o( the $bsura. He .rouped his lines
a$$ordin. to the thou.ht and adapted his "arious rhythms to the ideas. Thus
+lan "erse +e$ame a li"in. or.anism; plasti$; +rilliant; and (inished.
2arlowe>s se$ond +est .i(t to drama was his conception of the heroic
tragedy +uilt on a .rand s$ale; with the three=(old unity o( $hara$ter;
impression; and interest; instead o( the arti(i$ial unities o( time and pla$e.
Ae(ore his time; tra.edies were +uilt either a$$ordin. to the loose style o( the
$hroni$le; or within the me$hani$al (ramewor o( the Sene$an modelK +ut; in
either $ase; the dramati$ unity attained +y the :rees was la$in.. 2arlowe;
with his disre.ard o( the so=$alled $lassi$ rules; was in (a$t mu$h nearer the
spirit o( %es$hylus and Sopho$les than the sla"ish (ollowers o( the pseudo=
$lassi$ s$hools. ?%nd so was William Shaespeare too.@ -omin. to 4ondon
o+sessed with (antasti$ aspirations; 2arlowe painted .i.anti$ am+itions;
desires (or impossi+le thin.s; lon.in.s (or a +eauty +eyond earthly
$on$eption; and so"erei.ns destroyed +y the "ery powers whi$h had raised
them to their thrones. Tam+urlaine; ,aust; Aara+as are personi(i$ations o(
arro.an$e and insatia+le am+ition; lust (or power and wealth. )espite the
tou$h o( the e&tra"a.ant or +om+asti$; or e"en o( the puerile that sometimes
$hara$terise his plays; and his ina+ility to portray women ?none o( his plays
deals with lo"e as the main su+7e$t@; or the (a$t that his world is not
alto.ether our world; +ut a remote (ield o( the ima.ination; his plays mana.ed
to impose a standard upon all su$$eedin. theatri$al $ompositions and to
pa"e thus the way (or the rise o( the .reatest drama o( En.lish history.
2arlowe>s Gtrilo.y> (o$used on the rise and (all o( power(ul men starts
with a story o( "iolen$e and $ruelty in whi$h Tam+urlaine; turned (rom a mere
7@
S$ythian shepherd into a +loody tyrant whom not e"en Qeno$rate>s lo"e $an
tou$h; $reates an empire; +ut dies an in.lorious death a(ter ha"in. arro.antly
de(ied 2ahomed himsel(. 8n(luen$es o( Tam'urlaine the "reat may +e
identi(ied in Shaespeare>s Richard III; a play whi$h displays similar
$on$entration on the unity o( $hara$ter. 'i$hard; lie Tam+urlaine; sees
e&$eptional power and is deterred +y no moral or reli.ious s$ruples (rom
attainin. his ends.
8n $reatin. Tam+urlaine; 2arlowe inno"ated the old pattern o( the sta.e
hero and $reated 6the prototype o( the 'enaissan$e e.oist; the auda$ious
"illain; a (i.ure as enthrallin. as 2ilton>s Satan.E ?)ay in :a"riliu; 2555: 15#=6@
%nother story o( ra$ial $on(li$t and re"en.e $omes to $omplete the
ran.e o( $onseDuen$es o( the thirst (or power: The 2ew of Malta resonates
with themes o( ra$ial tension; reli.ious $on(li$t; and politi$al intri.ue; all o(
whi$h share parallels with si&teenth=$entury En.land. %lthou.h the play is
.rounded on a real histori$al e"ent ?the 1#6# Turish in"asion o( 2alta@; its
$hara$teri*ation appeals to a .eneral sense o( (ear that many En.lish
Protestants (elt toward those whom they $onsidered outsidersI+e these
2uslims; <ews ?thou.h there were no pro(essed <ews in En.land durin. this
time; they had +een +anished in 1295 and would +e readmitted in 16#6 only
as $on"erts to -hristianity@; or -atholi$s. With Aara+as>s sly allusions to
+i+li$al stories and his ironi$ treatment o( -hristian do$trine; one sees how
2arlowe raises Duestions a+out state reli.ion that would ha"e had deeper
si.ni(i$an$e in a $ountry (rau.ht +y its own reli.ious tensions.
%t the same time; the play $aptures anti=2a$hia"ellian (eelin. that was
ri(e in Eli*a+ethan En.land. Aara+as>s s$hemes share mu$h with
2a$hia"ellian sel(=ad"an$ement and the play eli$its a deeply am+i"alent
response (rom the audien$e: one may admire Aara+as (or his $le"er dupli$ity
+ut at the same time; resent him (or his un(eelin. manipulation o( human
+ein.s. 8n many respe$ts; 2arlowe is similar to his prota.onist in that the
playwri.ht was also de$ried as a 2a$hia"ellian s$hemer with little loyalty
towards his $ountry. 8t is (or readers to determine whether The 2ew of Malta
is 2arlowe>s attempt at dis$reditin. 2a$hia"elli; or whether the playwri.ht is
satiri*in. Eli*a+ethan En.land>s stereotyped "iew o( this author.
8( Shaespeare wrote his Merchant of ,enice to $ompete with
2arlowe>s 2ew of Malta; the similarities +etween the two plays are less
si.ni(i$ant upon thorou.h analysis. 0nlie Aara+as who is a para.on o(
hatred and sel(ishness (rom the outset; Shylo$>s hatred de"elops +e(ore our
eyes and we (eel sympathy (or him that is ne"er .ranted to Aara+as.
Still; 2arlowe $ould not i.nore that power .oes hand in hand not only
with terror or (ortune +ut also with nowled.e. That is pre$isely what The
Tragical History of Doctor Faustus demonstrates.
ase Stud40 The Tragicall History of Doctor Faustus "later on (u'lis2ed as
The Tragicall History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus% ?$. 1#//J 1#92@
The te&t o( 2arlowe>s Doctor Faustus has $ome down to us in a $orrupt (orm
with $omi$ (its and .rotesDue prose passa.es; whi$h; a$$ordin. to some
literary historians; +elon.ed to "arious menders. Cet modern s$holarship has
esta+lished that they were intentionally introdu$ed +y 2arlowe himsel( (or
ironi$ purposes.
The idea o( an indi"idual sellin. his or her soul to the de"il (or
nowled.e is an old moti( in -hristian (ollore; one that had +e$ome atta$hed
:*
to the histori$al persona o( <ohannes ,austus; a disreputa+le astrolo.er who
li"ed in :ermany sometime in the early 1#55s. The immediate sour$e o(
2arlowe>s play seems to +e an anonymous :erman wor (rom the ,ol3s'uch
entitled Historia %on D1 Iohan Fausten o( 1#/3; whi$h was translated into
En.lish in 1#92 as The History of the Damna'le Life and Death of Dr1 2ohn
Faustus; and (rom whi$h 2arlowe li(ted the +ul o( the plot (or his drama.
%lthou.h there had +een literary representations o( ,aust prior to 2arlowe>s
play; Doctor Faustus is the (irst (amous "ersion o( the story. 4ater "ersions
in$lude the lon. and (amous poem Faust +y the nineteenth=$entury 'omanti$
writer <ohann Wol(.an. "on :oethe; as well as operas +y -harles :ounod
and %rri.o Aoito and a symphony +y He$tor Aerlio*. 2eanwhile; the phrase
6,austian +ar.ainE has entered the En.lish le&i$on; re(errin. to any deal made
(or a short=term .ain with .reat $osts in the lon. run.
% )o$tor o( )i"inity at the 0ni"ersity o( Witten+er.; <ohn ,austus
maes a pa$t with 2ephistopheles to surrender his soul to 4u$i(er in
e&$han.e (or twenty=(our years o( a+solute nowled.e and e&perien$e.
Endowed with superhuman powers; ,austus per(orms in$redi+le deeds lie
$allin. up %le&ander the :reat and Helen o( Troy; +ut also indul.es in petty
tri$s to entertain di((erent royal or aristo$rati$ (i.ures throu.hout Europe. %s
the hour (or the surrender o( his soul draws near; ,austus is sei*ed with
repentan$e; +ut it is too late (or him to +e sa"ed: when the $lo$ stries
twel"e; his soul is +orne to Hell +y the de"ils.
Main #haracters
Faustus is the prota.onist and tra.i$ hero o( 2arlowe>s play. He is a
$ontradi$tory $hara$ter; $apa+le o( tremendous eloDuen$e and possessin.
awesome am+ition; yet prone to a stran.e; almost wil(ul +lindness and a
willin.ness to waste powers that he has .ained at .reat $ost. %t the
+e.innin. o( the play; ,austus>s main (eature seems to +e his .randeur as
he $ontemplates all the mar"els that his ma.i$al powers will produ$e; as he
ima.ines pilin. up wealth (rom the (our $orners o( the .lo+e; reshapin. the
map o( Europe ?+oth politi$ally and physi$ally@; and .ainin. a$$ess to e"ery
s$rap o( nowled.e a+out the uni"erse. He is an arro.ant; sel(=
a..randi*in. man; +ut his am+itions are so .rand that we $annot help
+ein. impressed; and we e"en (eel sympatheti$ toward him. He represents
the spirit o( the 'enaissan$e; with its re7e$tion o( the medie"al; :od=$entred
uni"erse; and its em+ra$e o( human possi+ility. ,austus; at least early on in
his a$Duisition o( ma.i$; is the personi(i$ation o( possi+ility.
Cet; as the s$enes o( his +ar.ainin. with 2ephistopheles show it; he also
possesses $ertain o+tuseness. Ha"in. de$ided that a pa$t with the de"il is the
only way to (ul(il his am+itions; ,austus then +linds himsel( happily to what
su$h a pa$t a$tually means. Sometimes he tells himsel( that hell is not so +ad
and that one needs only 6(ortitudeEK at other times; he remars that he does
not a$tually +elie"e hell e&ists. 2eanwhile; despite his la$ o( $on$ern a+out
the prospe$t o( eternal damnation; ,austus is also +eset with dou+ts (rom the
+e.innin.; settin. a pattern (or the play in whi$h he repeatedly approa$hes
repentan$e only to pull +a$ at the last moment. Why he (ails to repent is
un$lear: sometimes it seems a matter o( pride and $ontinuin. am+ition;
sometimes a $on"i$tion that :od will not hear his plea. 9ther times; it seems
that 2ephistopheles simply +ullies him away (rom repentin..
%(ter ha"in. appeared as a .randly tra.i$ (i.ure o( sweepin. "isions
and immense am+itions at the +e.innin. o( the play; ,austus a$tually re"eals
:/
in the middle s$enes his petty nature. 9n$e he .ained his lon.=desired
powers; he does not seem to now what to do with them or to want to do
anythin. with them and he tra"els around Europe usin. his in$redi+le .i(ts to
play tri$s to impress "arious heads o( state; in other words; (or tri(lin.
entertainment. He is entirely swallowed up in medio$rity. 9nly in the (inal
s$ene; the nowled.e o( his impendin. doom restores his earlier .i(t o(
power(ul rhetori$ and he re.ains his sweepin. sense o( "ision. 2arlowe uses
mu$h o( his (inest poetry to des$ri+e ,austus>s (inal hours; durin. whi$h
,austus>s desire (or repentan$e (inally wins out; althou.h too late. Still;
,austus is restored to his earlier .randeur in his $losin. spee$h; with its
hurried rush (rom idea to idea and its despairin.; 'enaissan$e=renoun$in.
last line; 68>ll +urn my +oos]E He +e$omes on$e a.ain a tra.i$ hero; a .reat
man undone +e$ause his am+itions ha"e +utted up a.ainst the law o( :od.
Mephistopheles is one o( the (irst in a lon. tradition o( sympatheti$ literary
de"ils; whi$h in$ludes (i.ures lie <ohn 2ilton>s Satan in Paradise Lost and
<ohann "on :oethe>s 2ephistopheles in the nineteenth=$entury poem
Faust. 8n $reatin. his 2ephistopheles; 2arlowe $om+ined di((erent moti"es.
9n the one hand; (rom his (irst appearan$e he $learly intends to a$t as an
a.ent o( ,austus>s damnation: he witnesses ,austus>s pa$t with 4u$i(er
and; throu.hout the play; he pre"ents ,austus (rom repentin.; either +y
(lattery or +y threats. 9n the other hand; there is an odd am+i"alen$e in
him. He sees to damn ,austus; +ut he himsel( is damned and speas
(reely o( the horrors o( hell. When ,austus $laims he does not +elie"e in
hell; 2ephistopheles insists that hell is; indeed; real and terri+le; as ,austus
$omes to now soon enou.h. Ae(ore the pa$t is sealed; 2ephistopheles
a$tually warns ,austus a.ainst main. the deal with 4u$i(er. 8n an odd way;
one $an almost sense that part o( 2ephistopheles does not want ,austus
to mae the same mistaes that he made. Aut; o( $ourse; ,austus does so
anyway; whi$h maes him and 2ephistopheles indred spirits. 8t is
appropriate that these two (i.ures dominate 2arlowe>s play; (or they are two
o"erly proud spirits doomed to hell.
Themes and Motifs
Sin. Redemption and Damnation. Doctor Faustus $ontains elements o(
-hristian morality. 8t taes pla$e in an e&pli$itly -hristian $osmos: :od sits
on hi.h; as the 7ud.e o( the world; and e"ery soul .oes either to hell or to
hea"en. There are de"ils and an.els; with the de"ils temptin. people into
sin and the an.els ur.in. them to remain true to :od. ,austus>s story is a
tra.edy in -hristian terms; +e$ause he .i"es in to temptation and is
damned to hell. ,austus>s prin$ipal sin is his .reat pride and am+ition;
whi$h $an +e $ontrasted with the -hristian "irtue o( humility: not only does
he diso+ey :od; +ut he $ons$iously and e"en ea.erly renoun$es
o+edien$e to him; $hoosin. instead to swear alle.ian$e to 4u$i(er; -hristian
$osmolo.y>s prin$e o( de"ils.
Aut; in a -hristian (ramewor; e"en the worst deed $an +e (or.i"en
throu.h the redempti"e power o( <esus -hrist; :od>s son; who; a$$ordin. to
-hristian +elie(; died on the $ross (or humanind>s sins. Thus; howe"er terri+le
,austus>s pa$t with 4u$i(er may +e; the possi+ility o( redemption is always
open to him. %ll that he needs to do; theoreti$ally; is as :od (or (or.i"eness.
The play o((ers $ountless moments in whi$h ,austus $onsiders doin. 7ust that;
ur.ed on +y the .ood an.el on his shoulder or +y the old man in s$ene 12I
+oth o( whom $an +e seen either as emissaries o( :od; personi(i$ations o(
,austus>s $ons$ien$e; or +oth. Ea$h time; ,austus de$ides to remain loyal to
:)
hell rather than see hea"en; whi$h $ondemns him; a$$ordin. to the -hristian
$anon; to an eternity in hell. 9nly at the end o( his li(e does ,austus desire to
repent; and; in the (inal s$ene; he $ries out to -hrist to redeem him. Aut it is
too late (or him to repent. 8n $reatin. this moment in whi$h ,austus is still ali"e
+ut in$apa+le o( +ein. redeemed; 2arlowe steps outside the -hristian
world"iew in order to ma&imi*e the dramati$ power o( the (inal s$ene. Ha"in.
inha+ited a -hristian world (or the entire play; ,austus spends his (inal
moments in a sli.htly di((erent uni"erse; where redemption is no lon.er
possi+le and where $ertain sins $annot +e (or.i"en.
The #onflict 'etween Medie%al and Renaissance ,alues1 The medie"al
world pla$ed :od at the $entre o( e&isten$e and shunted aside man and the
natural world. The 'enaissan$e; on the $ontrary; laid a new emphasis on the
indi"idual; on $lassi$al learnin.; and on s$ienti(i$ inDuiry into the nature o( the
world. 8n the medie"al a$ademy; theolo.y was the Dueen o( the s$ien$es. 8n
the 'enaissan$e; thou.h; se$ular matters too $entre sta.e.
,austus; despite +ein. a ma.i$ian rather than a s$ientist ?a +lurred
distin$tion in the si&teenth $entury@; e&pli$itly re7e$ts the medie"al model. 8n
his openin. spee$h in s$ene 1; he .oes throu.h e"ery (ield o( s$holarship;
+e.innin. with lo.i$ and pro$eedin. throu.h medi$ine; law; and theolo.y;
Duotin. an an$ient authority (or ea$h: %ristotle on lo.i$; :alen on medi$ine;
the Ay*antine emperor <ustinian on law; and the Ai+le on reli.ion. 8n the
medie"al model; tradition and authority; not indi"idual inDuiry; were the ey.
Aut in this soliloDuy; ,austus $onsiders and re7e$ts this medie"al way o(
thinin.. He resol"es; in (ull 'enaissan$e spirit; to a$$ept no limits;
traditions; or authorities in his Duest (or nowled.e; wealth; and power.
The play>s attitude toward the $lash +etween medie"al and
'enaissan$e "alues is am+i.uous. 2arlowe seems hostile toward the
am+itions o( ,austus and eeps his tra.i$ hero sDuarely in the medie"al
world; where eternal damnation is the pri$e o( human pride. Cet 2arlowe
himsel( was no pious traditionalist; and it is temptin. to see in ,austusIas
many readers ha"eIa hero o( the new modern world; a world (ree o( :od;
reli.ion; and the limits that these imposed on humanity. ,austus may pay a
medie"al pri$e; +ut his su$$essors will .o (urther than he and su((er less; as
we ha"e in modern times. 9n the other hand; the disappointment and
medio$rity that (ollow ,austus>s pa$t with the de"il; as he des$ends (rom
.rand am+itions to petty $on7urin. tri$s; mi.ht su..est a $ontrastin.
interpretation. 2arlowe may +e su..estin. that the new; modern spirit;
thou.h am+itious and .litterin.; will lead only to a ,austian dead end.
Power as a #orrupting Influence1 Early in the play; +e(ore he a.rees to the
pa$t with 4u$i(er; ,austus is (ull o( ideas (or how to use the power that he
sees. He ima.ines pilin. up .reat wealth; +ut he also aspires to e&amine
the mysteries o( the uni"erse and to remae the map o( Europe. %ll these
impressi"e; thou.h not entirely admira+le; plans lend .randeur to ,austus
and mae his Duest (or personal power seem almost heroi$; a sense that is
rein(or$ed +y the eloDuen$e o( his early soliloDuies. Aut on$e ,austus
a$tually .ains the pra$ti$ally limitless power that he so desires; howe"er;
his hori*ons seem to narrow and; instead o( the .rand desi.ns that he
$ontemplates early on; he $ontents himsel( with per(ormin. $on7urin. tri$s
(or in.s and no+lemen and taes a stran.e deli.ht in usin. his ma.i$ to
play pra$ti$al 7oes on simple (ols. 8t is not that power has $orrupted
,austus +y main. him e"il. He is indeed wi$ed; +ut more than that; he
:7
+e$omes medio$re and trans(orms his +oundless am+ition into a
meanin.less deli.ht in petty $ele+rity. 8n the -hristian (ramewor o( the
play; one $an ar.ue that true .reatness $an +e a$hie"ed only with :od>s
+lessin.. Ay $uttin. himsel( o(( (rom the $reator o( the uni"erse; ,austus is
$ondemned to medio$rity. He has .ained the whole world; +ut he does not
now what to do with it.
The Di%ided &ature of Man1 ,austus is $onstantly unde$ided a+out whether
he should repent and return to :od or $ontinue to (ollow his pa$t with
4u$i(er. His internal stru..le .oes on throu.hout the play; as part o( him o(
wants to do .ood and ser"e :od; +ut part o( him ?the dominant part; it
seems@ lusts a(ter the power that 2ephistopheles promises. The .ood
an.el and the e"il an.el; +oth o( whom appear at ,austus>s shoulder in
order to ur.e him in di((erent dire$tions; sym+oli*e this stru..le. While
these an.els may +e intended as an a$tual pair o( supernatural +ein.s;
they $learly represent ,austus>s di"ided will; whi$h $ompels ,austus to
$ommit to 2ephistopheles +ut also to Duestion this $ommitment $ontinually.
8( in Tam'urlaine the "reat 2arlowe depi$ted the .i.anti$ passion (or
politi$al power; Doctor Faustus (eatures the .i.anti$ passion (or the power
that is +rou.ht +y nowled.e.
,inally; 2arlowe too interest in the most re$ent Gin"ention> o(
Eli*a+ethan drama; writin. in $. 1#92 The Trou'lesome Reign and
Lamenta'le Death of Edward II. a $hroni$le play deri"ed (rom Holinshed;
$onsidered; (or a lon. time; a model o( how; a$$ordin. to 2arlowe; history
$ould +e moulded to (it the plot (orm o( drama. 'e$ent s$holarship has
su..ested that Shaespeare wrote his Henry ,I trilo.y +e(ore 2arlowe $ould
$omplete his Edward II; +ut it seems that the latter had; ne"ertheless; a
important in(luen$e on the (ormer>s Richard II: +oth plays $on$ern in.s who;
+e$ause o( personal weanesses; are una+le to maintain order in the
in.dom. The play displays 2arlowe>s $on$ern with order and mars a
$han.e in his style in the sense that his 6mi.hty lineE; so (it to the
superhuman $hara$ters o( the pre"ious plays; a$Duires $on"ersational ease;
spee$h +ein. suited to the person speain..
-hristopher 2arlowe was also a remara+le lyri$ poet:
- The Passionate Shepherd to His Lo%e ?1#//@ H a short lo"e
lyri$ su((used with .enuine (eelin.s set (orth in a simple lan.ua.e whi$h
o$$asioned Walter 'ale.h>s response in The &ymph!s Reply.
- Hero and Leander ?1#9/@ H a+out /55 lines o( heroi$ $ouplets
o( remara+le sensuality and musi$ality; $ompleted +y :eor.e -hapman.
%ll in all; the +rilliant .eneration o( the 0ni"ersity Wits pa"ed the way (or
Shaespeare>s .enius. Ea$h o( them in(luen$ed the Shaespearean uni"erse
more or less: <ohn 4yly supplied Shaespeare the sparlin.; s$holarly
dialo.ueK 1yd introdu$ed the tra.i$ pathos and som+re atmosphereK 2arlowe
tau.ht him the heroes> titani$ nature and the lyri$al e((e$ts o( the +lan "erseK
:reene pro"ided the romanti$ (ramewor and the .entle; deli$ate (eminine
$hara$ters. Aut (or the 7oined e((orts o( the 'enaissan$e playwri.hts the
ma.ni(i$en$e o( Hamlet or 4ear would not ha"e +een possi+le.
)& 7& 5ractical A((lications& E1a6ination !ests&
1. )e(ine the (ollowin. terms and use them in senten$es o( your own:
dum+=show metatheatre tirin. house 7i.
::
a"en.er dis$o"ery spa$e milles .loriosus ,rons S$enas
2arlowe>s mi.hty line re"en.e tra.edy 2a$hia"ellian "illain
2. 4oo at the pi$ture +elow representin. The Swan Theatre in Eli*a+ethan
4ondon; as seen in $. 1#96 +y the )ut$h tra"eller; <ohannes de Witt. 8denti(y
its main $omponents and e&plain their (un$tion in the theatri$al per(orman$e.
3. -hoose the ri.ht word to $omplete the senten$e:
= Se$ular drama emer.ed in the si&teenth $entury de"elopin. out o(
a. moralitiesK +. mysteriesK $. interludes.
= The (irst writer o( an En.lish se$ular play was
a. !i$holas 0dallK +. William ShaespeareK $. Henry 2edwall.
= The most in(luential $lassi$al $omedies that the earliest En.lish playwri.hts
imitated were written +y
a. Sene$aK +. PlautusK $. 9"id.
= The lo"e trian.le theme (irst appeared in the play
a. Fulgens and LucreceK +. Ralph Roister DoisterK $. "or'oduc.
= The an$estor o( Shaespeare>s Sir <ohn ,alsta(( was
a. 2erry.reeK +. Hod.eK $. 'alph 'oister.
= The no"elty o( the play "ammer "urton!s &eedle lies to some e&tent in the
realisti$ pi$ture o(
a. the En.lish $ourtK +. the En.lish "illa.eK $. the 8talian town.
= 9ne o( the distin$t (eatures o( the Sene$an tra.edy was the presen$e o(
a. (airiesK +. wit$hesK $. .hosts.
= %n important inno"ation in "or'oduc is the use o(
a. +loody plotsK +. +lan "erseK $. %ristotelian types.
= The ori.inal $reation o( the En.lish 'enaissan$e dramatists is represented +y
a. the dum+=showK +. the $omedyK $. the $hroni$le play.
= 4yly>s (amous writin. style is nown as
a. 2a$hia"ellismK +. Petrar$hismK $. Euphuism.
= 'o+ert :reene is the (ounder o(
a. $omedy o( mannersK +. romanti$ $omedyK $. $omedy o( humours.
= The a"en.er in Thomas 1yd>s Spanish Tragedy is
a. HoratioK +. 4oren*oK $. Hieronimo.
= The 2a$hia"ellian "illain in The Spanish Tragedy is
a. 4oren*oK +. Aaltha*arK $. Ael=8mperia.
= )r. ,austus (ul(ills his dream o( a+solute power owin. to
a. moneyK +. "iolen$eK $. nowled.e.
= The a.ent o( ,austus>s damnation is
a. SatanK +. 2ephistophelesK $. 'e"en.e.
:;
4. -omment on the (ollowin. e&$erpts so as to illustrate the most important
(eatures o( Thomas 1yd>s and -hristopher 2arlowe>s dramati$ art:
!2o6as D4d? The Spanish Tragedy ?%$t 888; S$ene 12@
H8E'9!829: 8 pry throu.h e"ery $re"i$e o( ea$h
wall;
4oo on ea$h tree and sear$h throu.h e"ery +rae;
Aeat at the +ushes; stamp our .randam earth;
)i"e in the water and stare up to hea"en: ...
Cet $annot 8 +ehold my son Horatio. ==
How now; whoSs thereX Spirits; spiritsX
PE)'9: We are your ser"ants that attend you; sir.
H8E'9!829: What mae you with your tor$hes in
the darX
PE)'9K Cou +id us li.ht them; and attend you here.
H8E'9!829: !o; no; you are de$ei"ed == not 8 ==
you are de$ei"ed.
Was 8 so mad to +id you li.ht your tor$hes nowX
4i.ht me your tor$hes at the mid o( noon;
Whenas the sun=.od rides in all his .lory:
4i.ht me your tor$hes then.
PE)'9: Then we +urn dayli.ht. ...
H8E'9!829: 4et it +e +urntK ni.ht is a murderous slut
That would not ha"e her treasons to +e seenK
%nd yonder pale=(a$ed He$ate there; the 2oon;
)oth .i"e $onsent to that is done in darnessK
%nd all those Stars that .a*e upon her (a$e
%re ae.lets on her slee"e; pins on her trainK
%nd those that should +e power(ul and di"ine
)o sleep in darness; when they most should shine.
PE)'9: Pro"oe them not; (air sir; with temptin.
words:
The hea"ens are .ra$ious; and your miseries ...
%nd sorrow maes you spea; you now not what.
H8E'9!829: Billain; thou liest; and thou dost
nou.ht
Aut tell me 8 am mad: Thou liest; 8 am not mad]
8 now thee to +e Pedro; and he <aDues.
8Sll pro"e it to theeK and were 8 mad; how $ould 8X
Where was she that same ni.ht when my Horatio
Was murderedX She should ha"e shone: Sear$h
thou the +oo.
Had the moon shone in my +oySs (a$e there was a
ind o( .ra$e;
That 8 now == nay; 8 do now == had the murderer
seen him;
His weapon would ha"e (allSn and $ut the earth; ...
Had he +een (ramed o( nau.ht +ut +lood and death.
%la$; when mis$hie( doth it nows not what;
What shall we say to mis$hie(X MEnter Isa'ella1N
8S%AE44%: )ear Hieronimo; $ome in a=doorsK
9h; see not means so to in$rease thy sorrow.
H8E'9!829: 8ndeed; 8sa+ella; we do nothin. hereK
8 do not $ry: as Pedro; and as <aDuesK
!ot 8; indeedK we are "ery merry; "ery merry.
8S%AE44%: HowX Ae merry here; +e merry hereX
8s not this the pla$e; and this the "ery tree; ...
Where my Horatio died; where he was murderedX
H8E'9!829: Was == do not say what: let her weep it
out.
This was the treeK 8 set it o( a ernel:
%nd when our hot Spain $ould not let it .row;
Aut that the in(ant and the human sap
Ae.an to wither; duly twi$e a mornin.
Would 8 +e sprinlin. it with (ountain=water.
%t last it .rew; and .rew; and +ore; and +ore;
Til at len.th
8t .rew a .allows; and did +ear our sonne; ...
H8E'9!829: -hites$ prin toate +orîle din *iduri;
2Y uit prin toî $opa$ii; rYs$oles$
2YrY$iniZurile; +at \n tu(e;
AuZes$ +Ytr_na .lie $u pi$iorul;
2=a(und \n apY sau mYsor tYria.
)ar nu=l .Yses$ pe (iul meu Horaîo.
Hei; $ine e pe=a$oloX )uhuriX )uhuriX
PE)'9: !oi suntem slu7itorii tYi; stYp_ne.
H8E'9!829: )e $e=aî ieZit $u (a$lele \n +e*nYX
PE)'9: %Za ne=ai porun$it $hiar tu; stYp_ne.
H8E'9!829: !u; nu; "Y \nZelaî] !u eu; nu euK
BY \nZelaî] )oar nu eram ne+un
SY porun$es$ (Y$lii \n mie* de noapte]
%prindeî=le \n amia*a mare
-_nd *eul=soare strYlu$eZte=n slY"i;
%tun$i le=aprindeî.
PE)'9: %m aprinde=amia*a.
H8E'9!829: SY ardYK noaptea=i t_r(Y u$i.aZY;
!u "rea sY=Zi dea trYdYrile=n "ilea.:
[i=a$eastY palidY He$atY; luna;
Ea e $odoaZa (aptelor din +e*neK
8ar stelele $are=i $ontemplY $hipul
Sunt (luturi pe=ai ei m_ne$i; Zi hurmu*uri
Pe trene eiK "ai; $ei $e s=ar $Ydea
SY (ie=atotputerni$i Zi $ereZti;
SY dea luminY; iatY; dorm \n +e*nY.
PE)'9: StYp_ne +un; nu le st_rni m_nia:
2ilos e $erulK marea ta durere
Te (a$e sY=ndru.i "or+e (YrYr Zir.
H8E'9!829: 2inî; ti$Yloase] %sta Ztii sY (a$i:
`mi spui $Y sunt ne+un: minî; nu=s ne+un]
[tiu $Y eZti Pedro; Zi $Y el e <a$Dues.
Boi do"edi $e spunK de=aZ (i ne+un;
-um aZ puteaX Ea unde=a (ost \n noaptea
-_nd l=au u$is pe (iul meu $el dra.X
)e $e n=a luminatX -iteZte=n $arte.
9; de=ar (i (ost luminY=n noaptea=a$eea...
AYiatul meu a"ea pe $hip un (arme$;
8=l Ztiu. 9; de=l "edea Zi u$i.aZul H
SY nu (i (ost t_lharul plYm_dit
)e$_t din $hea. de s_n.e Zi din $rimY H
[i tot ar (i s$Ypat $uîtul 7os.
%lei; $_nd rYul nu mai Ztie seama;
-e sY=i mai spunem rYuluiX ?8ntrY 8S%AE44%.@
8S%AE44%: Bin>; Hieronimo; dra.ul meu; \n $asYK
!u mai $Yta sY=î \nteêZti durerea.
H8E'9!829: )ar n=am (Y$ut nimi$a; 8sa+ellaK
!u pl_n.; \ntrea+Y=i: Pedro; <a$Dues; aZa=iX
QYu nuK +a suntem "eseli; (oarte "eseli.
8S%AE44%: -umX Beseli; sunteî "eseli $hiar ai$i;
-hiar l_n.Y pomul unde s=a s(_rZit;
0nde=a murit u$is Horaîo=al meuX
H8E'9!829: Era ... nu=i spuneî $e: sY pl_n.Y=n "oie.
%$esta=i pomul; eu l=am semYnat;
Eu i=am sYdit sYm_nâ \n pYm_nt;
[i $_nd \n(ie+_ntata noastrY Spanie
!u l=a lYsat sY $reas$Y; "eZte7ind
[i t_nYrul "lYstar Zi se"a lui;
)e douY ori \n (ie$are *i
`l rY$oream $u apY din (_nt_nY.
[i s=a=nYlât "oini$ Zi a rodit;
[i=ntr=un t_r*iu
Sp_n*urYtoare s=a (Y$ut; purt_ndu=l
Pe (iul nostru; rodul tYu Zi=al meu...
:=
8t +ore thy (ruit and mine: oh wi$ed; wi$ed plant. 9; pom pY$YtoZit; pY$YtoZit]
2risto(2er Carlo<e? Dr. Faustus ?%$t B@
?The cloc3 stri3es ele%en1@
Faustus
9; ,austus;
!ow hast thou +ut one +are hour to li"e;
%nd then thou must +e damned perpetually.
Stand still; you e"er=mo"in. spheres o( hea"en;
That time may $ease; and midni.ht ne"er $ome.
,air natureSs eye; rise; rise a.ain and mae
Perpetual day. 9r let this hour +e +ut a year;
% month; a wee; a natural day;
That ,austus may repent; and sa"e his soul.
/ lente lente currite noctis e6ui1
The stars mo"e still; time runs; the $lo$ will strie.
The de"il will $ome; and ,austus must +e damned.
9; 8Sll leap up to hea"enK who pulls me downX
9ne drop o( +lood will sa"e me.
'end not my heart; (or namin. o( my -hrist.
Cet will 8 $all on him. 9 spare me; 4u$i(er.
Where is it nowX STis .one.
%nd see a threatenin. arm; an an.ry +row.
2ountains and hills; $ome; $ome; and (all on me;
%nd hide me (rom the hea"y wrath o( hea"en.
!oX Then will 8 headlon. run into the earth.
:ape; earth] 9 no; it will not har+our me.
Cou stars that rei.ned at my nati"ity;
Whose in(luen$e hath allotted death and hell;
!ow draw up ,austus lie a (o..y mist;
8nto the entrails o( yon la+ourin. $loud;
That when you "omit (orth into the air;
2y lim+s may issue (rom your smoey mouths;
Aut let my soul mount; and as$end to hea"en.
?The watch stri3es1@
9; hal( the hour is past] STwill all +e past anon.
9; i( my soul must su((er (or my sin;
8mpose some end to my in$essant pain.
4et ,austus li"e in hell a thousand years;
% hundred thousand; and at last +e sa"ed.
!o end is limited to damned souls.
Why wert thou not a $reature wantin. soulX
9r why is this immortal that thou hastX
9h Pita.orasS metempsy$hosisS were that true;
This soul should (ly (rom me; and 8 +e $han.ed
8nto some +rutish +east.
%ll +easts are happy; (or when they die;
Their souls are soon dissol"ed in elements;
Aut mine must li"e still to +e pla.ued in hell.
-ursed +e the parents that en.endered meK
!o; ,austus; $urse thysel(. -urse 4u$i(er
That hath depri"ed thee o( the 7oys o( hea"en.
?The cloc3 stri3es twel%e@
8t stries; it stries] !ow +ody turn to air;
9r 4u$i(er will +ear thee Dui$ to hell.
9 soul +e $han.ed into small water drops;
%nd (all into the o$ean neSer +e (ound.
?Thunder. and enter the de%ils1@
9 mer$y; hea"en] 4oo not so (ier$e on meK
%dders and serpents let me +reathe awhile.
0.ly hell; .ape notK $ome not 4u$i(er]
8Sll +urn my +oos] 9h; 2ephistophilis] ?E*eunt1@
?/rologiul 'ate ora unspre+ece1@
Faustus0
%h; ,aust;
0n $eas \î mai rYm_ne de trYitK
%poi te=aZteaptY "eZni$a os_ndY]
9priî="Y; luminYtori $ereZti;
-a "remea sY stea=n lo$ Zi mie*ul nopîi
SY nu mai +atYK o$hi (rumos al (irii;
'Ysari din nou Zi=n"eZni$eZte *iuaK
)e nu; pre(Y=te; $easule; =ntr=un an;
9 lunY; Zapte *ile; \ntr=o *i;
-a ,aust sY se potY po$Yi]
/ lente. lente currite. noctis e6ui]
)ar stelele se miZ$Y; "remea (u.e;
Ba +ate $easul; dra$ii "or "eni
[i ,aust \Zi "a $YpYta os_nda]
SY mY a"_nt spre -el=\nalt] %h; $ine
E $el $are mY tra.e=n 7osX Pri"iî]
)e s_n.ele lui -rist e plinY +olta...
0n sin.ur strop m=ar i*+Y"i... 8suse]
!u mY *dro+i; puterni$ 4u$i(er;
)in pri$ina $hemYrii $e i=o (a$]
Eu am sY=l stri. mereu... ,ii milosti"]
0nde=i a$umX S=a dus] %h; iatY )omnul
[i=ntinde +raûl Zi tY$ut se=n$runtY]
BY prY"Yliî asuprY=mi; munî Zi dealuri;
[i de ur.ia lui mY tYinuiî] !u "reîX
2Y=n.hitY=atun$i .enunea (YrY (und]
PYm_ntule; te $as$Y] !u mY "rea...
Boi; stele $e s$lipeaî atun$i $_nd m=am nYs$ut
[i mi=aî ursit pieirea Zi .heena;
2Y soar+eî $a pe=o $ea^Y Zi mY du$eî
`n p_nte$ele norilor s$YmoZi;
-a=n $lipa $_nd mY "eî *"_rli=ndYrYt;
Prin .ura lor de (um sY=mi iasY trupul;
8ar su(letul sY ur$e $Ytre $er]
?/rologiul 'ate1@
)in $eas a mai rYmas doar 7umYtate]
9; )oamne]
)e nu "rei sY mY $ruî; atun$i mY$ar
S(_rZit durerii mele hotYrYZte
`n numele lui -rist; al $Yrui s_n.e
% $urs Zi pentru mine; sY trYies$
9 mie; *e$i de mii de ani \n iad
[i=apoi sY=mi a(lu tihna. `nsY; "ai;
-ei pY$YtoZi sunt os_ndiî pe "e$i...
)e $e nu=s o (YpturY (YrY su(letX
Sau pentru $e=i nemuritor a$estaX
Pita.orei$a metempsiho*Y
)e=ar (i ade"YratY; duhul meu
[i=ar $Yuta sYlaZ \n do+itoa$e]
%h] -_t le (eri$es]Su(larea lor;
-_nd pier; o=n.hit stihiileK al meu
TrYieZte=n "e$i $a sY=l mun$eas$Y iadul.
PYrinîi mei sY (ie +lestemaî]
Aa nu; tu \nsuî; ,aust; Zi satana
-e de $eres$ul har te=a "Ydu"it]
?/rologiul 'ate mie+ul nopAii1@
E mie*ul nopîi] Trup; pre(Y=te=n aer;
%ltminteri mer.i $u 4u$i(er \n iad] ?Tunete Bi fulgere1@
Pre(Y=te su(lete; \n stropi mYrunî
[i=n mYri te spul+erY: sY=î piarY urma]
?IntrC dia%olii1N
!u mY pri"i at_t de aspru; )oamne]
:>
!Yp_r$i Zi Zerpi; lYsaî=mY sY su(lu]
8ad h_d; nu te $Ys$a] Stai; 4u$i(er]
Sunt .ata sY=mi ard $Yrîle] 2e(isto]
?Ies dia%olii cu Faust1@
:+
Section 70 8illia6 S2a9es(eare or Eli$a'et2an Dra6a at Its -est
Section 70 8illia6 S2a9es(eare
or Eli$a'et2an Dra6a at Its -est
7& /& Li,e and 8or9 "/;=:3/=/=%
There are (ew as$ertaina+le (a$ts a+out Shaespeare>s li(e; whi$h a$$ounts (or
the lar.e num+er o( le.ends and (a+ri$ations surroundin. the +io.raphy o( the
En.lish +ard and (urther de+ates around the Duestion whether Shaespeare
was indeed the author o( the .reat wors nowadays as$ri+ed to him or not.
The (irst do$umentary re(eren$e to William Shaespeare is to +e (ound
in the parish 'e.ister (or Strat(ord=upon=%"on re$ordin. William>s +aptism on
%pril 26; 1#64. The entry is in 4atin and reads; 6:uiliamus (ilius <ohannes
Shaspere;E that is; 6William son o( <ohn Shaspere.E William was the third
$hild o( ei.ht +orn to <ohn and 2ary Shaespeare; +ut the (irst son; and the
(irst $hild to sur"i"e past in(an$y.
!e"ertheless; while the re$ord indi$ates the date o( Shaespeare>s
+aptism; the a$tual date o( his +irth is unnown. 1nowled.e o( the $ustom o(
+aptisin. $hildren soon a(ter +irth maes %pril 23rd a liely date; whi$h is;
there(ore; .enerally a$$epted.
%lthou.h we $annot now (or $ertain; the house <ohn Shaespeare
owned on Henley Street is assumed to ha"e +een the (amily home in
Strat(ord. The house; whi$h still stands today; has +e$ome a popular tourist
attra$tion; heralded as the pla$e at whi$h 2ary Shaespeare .a"e +irth to
William and his si+lin.s; and where Shaespeare spent his youn. li(e.
The (ather; <ohn Shaespeare; was a tanner; .lo"e=maer and dealer
in a.ri$ultural produ$ts; who also held a num+er o( pu+li$ o((i$es o"er a
twenty year period; ran.in. (rom Aorou.h %le=Taster to alderman to +aili((;
the hi.hest pu+li$ o((i$e in Strat(ord ?+y that time; a prosperous maret $entre
(or the $ounty o( Warwi$shire in the rural heartland o( En.land@. The mother;
2ary Shaespeare H +orn 2ary %rden H was the dau.hter o( a well=to=do
landowner in a lesser +ran$h o( an aristo$rati$ (amily (rom the nei.h+ourin.
Wilm$ote. ?The (amily .a"e its name to the near+y ,orest o( %rden; whi$h
turns up in (s Dou Li3e It1@
0p to the $risis o( his (ather>s (ortune ?a+out 1#33@; the youn. William
may ha"e attended the Strat(ord :rammar S$hool esta+lished +y the
$orporation o( the town as early as 1##3. The main +usiness o( a :rammar
S$hool was; as its "ery name indi$ates it; tea$hin. .rammar; i.e. 4atin
.rammar. %t this dreary tas pupils la+oured summer and winter (rom 3 to 11
in the mornin. and returned at one o>$lo$ to stay until # in the a(ternoon;
$onstantly super"ised +y harsh tea$hers who would not hesitate to dis$ipline
them +y mer$ilessly +eatin. them with a rod. They had to learn +y heart
e"ery word o( su$h .rammar +oos as William 4ily>s "rammatica Latina. Cet;
it must ha"e +een at the .rammar s$hool that William Shaespeare learned
to loo +eyond the me$hani$s o( lan.ua.e to the +eauty o( literature as well.
He would ha"e studied 9"id ?Metamorphoses@; who remained a .reat
(a"ourite all his li(e; or Ber.il ?Eclogues@; and he would ha"e read Plautus;
the most admired writer o( 4atin $omedy. He would also ha"e +een
introdu$ed to rhetori$ and some lo.i$ throu.h the writin.s o( -i$ero ?Letters@
and Fuintilian; as well as 4atin history; philosophy and perhaps some
:@
rudimentary :ree; as Aen <onson su..ests in the poem dedi$ated to
William Shaespeare>s memory ?6small 4atin and less :reeE in Aen <onson;
To the Memory of My $elo%ed Master -illiam Sha3espeare. and -hat He
Hath Left s@.
%lthou.h +oys normally attended .rammar s$hool until the a.e o( 1# or
16; Shaespeare may ha"e +een (or$ed to lea"e s$hool as early as 1#33; at the
a.e o( 13; +e$ause o( his (ather>s (inan$ial di((i$ulties; either to +e$ome an
apprenti$e in his (ather>s +usiness or to earn an independent li"in.. There is no
re$ord o( Shaespeare attendin. uni"ersity. Aut the two years that are .enerally
a$$epted as Shaespeare>s s$hool trainin. may ha"e +een pro(ita+le (or a man
endowed with his .enius. He may ha"e $ontinued readin. +y himsel( the
translations o( the 4atin and :ree $lassi$s that a+ounded in En.land at that
time sin$e he made (ree use o( these +oos when he $ame to write. He also
seems to ha"e possessed enou.h nowled.e o( (orei.n lan.ua.es to read
,ren$h and 8talian wors in the ori.inal.
The ne&t o((i$ial pu+li$ re$ord on William Shaespeare is a 45 pound
marria.e +ond o( sureties posted +y two Warwi$shire (armers in !o"em+er
2/; 1#/2 (or the le.ality o( the marria.e +etween William Shaespeare
?6William Sha.spereE@ and %nne Hathaway ?6%nne HathweyE@. He was 1/ and
she was 26. The ne&t pu+li$ re$ord indi$ates that si& months later; on 2ay
26; 1#/3; Shaespeare>s (irst dau.hter Susanna was $hristened.
Shaespeare and his wi(e li"ed to.ether in Strat(ord lon. enou.h a(ter the
+irth o( Susanna to .i"e o$$asion (or another entry in the parish re.ister
re$ordin. the $hristenin. o( their twin $hildren on ,e+ruary 2; 1#/#; Hamnet
and <udith; 6sonne and dau.hter to William Shaspeare.E 0n(ortunately;
Hamnet; Shaespeare>s only son; died at the a.e o( 11 and was +uried at
Strat(ord in 1#96.
Ae$ause nothin. $ertain is nown o( Shaespeare in the years
+etween 1#/# and 1#92; the period is ri(e with spe$ulation. Was
Shaespeare a sailor; a soldier; a law $ler or a $ountry s$hool tea$herX )id
he .o to one o( the lar.er towns near+y H lie Warwi$ H to (urther one o(
these $areersX 9ne (amous le.end has Shaespeare (leein. Strat(ord (or
4ondon in 1#/3; a(ter +ein. $au.ht poa$hin. deer in the par o( the
in(luential Sir Thomas 4u$y at -harl$oteK another has him +e.innin. his
theatri$al $areer mindin. horses +e(ore the playhouses.
Some time durin. this period Shaespeare em+ared on his theatri$al $areer.
He may ha"e started +y 7oinin. one o( the (i"e theatri$al $ompanies ?amon.
them The Earl o( 4ei$ester>s 2en; the Earl o( Wor$hester>s 2en and the Earl
o( Warwi$>s 2en@ whi$h played in Strat(ord +etween 1#/6 and 1#/3.
E"entually he seems to ha"e +een a$$epted as an a$tor in the $ompany o(
the Earl o( 4ei$ester; as his name appears in $asts o( players (or Aen
<onson>s dramas.
Presuma+ly he had already a$hie"ed Duite a reputation as a playwri.ht
+y 1#92 when 'o+ert :reene wrote ( "roatsworth of -it $ought with a Million
of Repentance in whi$h he atta$ed the youn. a$tor=playwri.ht in the (ollowin.
terms: 6an upstart $row; +eauti(ul with our (eathers; that with his ti.er>s heart
wrapped in a player>s hide; supposes he is well a+le to Aom+ast out a +lan
"erse as the +est o( you: and +ein. an a+solute <ohannes (a$totum; is in his
own $on$eit the only shae=s$ene in the $ountry.E
The $losin. o( the theatres durin. the 1#92=93 pla.ue may ha"e
su..ested the poet to try his talent on mytholo.i$al su+7e$ts and in 1#93
Shaespeare pu+lished ,enus and (donis; (ollowed in the ne&t year +y The
;*
Rape of Lucrece; +oth dedi$ated to Henry Wriothesley; Earl o( Southampton.
Some o( the sonnets may ha"e also +een $omposed durin. the same period.
Ay 1#9#; Shaespeare was $ertainly an important mem+er o( the 4ord
-ham+erlain>s 2en; (ormed a(ter the pla.ue o( 1#93 (rom the remnants o(
se"eral pre"ious $ompanies. 8n 9$to+er 1#96; the -olle.e o( Heralds .ranted
a $oat o( arms to the (amily patriar$h; <ohn Shaespeare. The .rant was
appro"ed on the +asis o( the 6(aithe(ull c appro"ed ser"i$e to H3 MHenry B88NE
per(ormed +y <ohn>s .reat=.rand(ather; and +e$ause <ohn himsel( had
6maryed the dau.hter c one o( the heyrs o( 'o+ert %rden o( Wellin.$ote.E
The motto reads: 6!9! S%!S )'98T.E This (a$t pro"es Shaespeare>s
e((orts to impro"e his (ortune and +etter his so$ial status.
%nother proo( o( Shaespeare>s prosperity is that; in 1#93 ?a(ter his
son>s death@; when he was 33; he had enou.h money to in"est 65 pounds in
!ew Pla$e; the se$ond lar.est house in Strat(ord; with two +arns and two
or$hards atta$hed.
,rom 1#9/; Shaespeare>s name +e.an to appear upon pu+lished
plays: Richard III; Richard II; Lo%e!s La'our!s Lost. ?Titus (ndronicus had
also +een pu+lished +ut anonymously in 1#94.@ 8n 1#9/; another
$ontemporary; ,ran$is 2eres; pu+lished a wor whi$h has pro"en most
"alua+le in datin. Shaespeare>s plays; (or he mentions many o( them; and
in the most laudatory terms. 8n Palladis Tamia. -its Treasury. 2eres +e.an
+y praisin. Shaespeare>s poetry H the two narrati"e poems; ,enus and
(donis and The Rape of Lucrece. and the Sonnets H and then $ompared
Shaespeare to Plautus in $omedy and to Sene$a in tra.edy.
8n 1651; Shaespeare>s name was related to that o( the Earl o( Esse&>
$onspirers a.ainst Fueen Eli*a+eth 8. 9n ,e+ruary 3; 1651; a day +e(ore
their (ailed re+ellion; supporters o( the Earl o( Esse& $ommissioned
Shaespeare>s $ompany; the 4ord -ham+erlain>s 2en; to per(orm Richard II.
a play whi$h had +een pu+lished in a $ensored (orm; with the politi$ally
sensiti"e deposition s$ene suppressed. The $ompany was later in"esti.ated
to determine its role in the uprisin.; +ut was $leared o( any $ompli$ity.
8roni$ally; the players per(ormed +e(ore the Dueen on the e"e o( Esse&>s
e&e$ution. ?%$$ordin. to Aen <onson; Shaespeare>s plays were admired +y
Eli*a+eth. 8ndeed; durin. the last ten years o( her rei.n; the 4ord
-ham+erlain>s 2en per(ormed at $ourt thirty=two times; $ompared to thirty=
se"en per(orman$es +y all other $ompanies $om+ined. There is also a
tradition that The Merry -i%es of -indsor was written +e$ause o( the
Fueen>s desire to see ,alsta(( in lo"e.@
8n 1653; the royal do$uments mention Shaespeare as one o( the
sharers o( the 1in.>s 2en ?the (ormer 4ord -ham+erlain>s 2en@ and # years
later; he +e$omes an owner o( the Ala$(riars Theatre with a se"enth share.
8n 1653; Shaespeare>s eldest dau.hter Susanna married )r. <ohn
Hall and one year later; in ,e+ruary 165/@; her only $hild Eli*a+eth was +orn.
8n 1659; Shaespeare>s sonnets were pirati$ally printed; apparently
without their author>s nowled.e or $onsent.
Ha"in. in"ested his money e((e$ti"ely; pur$hasin. se"eral properties
in and around Strat(ord ?in$ludin. a ma7or in"estment in (arm re"enues@; +ut
also in 4ondon; Shaespeare $ould a((ord to retire to Strat(ord a+out 1615=
11; perhaps +e$ause o( (ailin. health; or simply +e$ause he was tired o(
4ondon and ready to lead the li(e o( a $ountry .entleman; tain. interest in
;/
muni$ipal a((airs or re$ei"in. "isits (rom his old (riends Aen <onson and his
(ellow a$tors Hemin.e; Aur+a.e and -ondell.
Perhaps 6semi=retirementE would +e a more a$$urate term.
Shaespeare $ontinued to write and $ontri+uted to two (inal plays in this
period ?Henry ,III and The Two &o'le 9insmen@. 'e$ords also indi$ate that
he was present at -ourt on se"eral o$$asions; as when he and 'i$hard
Aur+a.e desi.ned an impresa ?an em+lem a$$ompanied +y a motto@ (or the
Earl o( 'utland; and he was in 4ondon periodi$ally attendin. to +usiness
matters. 8n 1611 he was one o( a num+er o( $iti*ens who $ontri+uted to the
maintenan$e o( hi.hways in the Strat(ord areaK in 1612 he was in 4ondon;
.i"in. e"iden$e in a $i"il suit +rou.ht +y a 4ondon tire=maer a.ainst a
(ormer apprenti$e.
%n early per(orman$e o( Henry ,III. on <une 29; 1613; was
unintentionally the most spe$ta$ular o( Shaespeare>s $areerK when an
artillery salute was (ired in the (irst a$t to announ$e the entran$e o( 1in.
Henry; a pie$e o( +urnin. material landed on the that$hed roo( o( the :lo+e;
+urnin. the entire theatre to the .round in less than an hour.
Shaespeare>s last do$umented appearan$e in 4ondon was
!o"em+er 13; 1614. 9n 2ar$h 2#; 1616; he re"ised and si.ned his will.
Shaespeare>s +urial is re$orded in the Strat(ord Parish 'e.ister as o$$urrin.
on 2# %pril; 1616; +ut he died on %pril 23 ?this is the date .i"en on the
(unerary monument ere$ted +e(ore 1623@. The $ause o( his death is
unnown. He was +uried on %pril 2#; 1616 in Holy Trinity -hur$h; Strat(ord;
where he had +een +aptised 7ust o"er #2 years earlier. ?8n 1341; a monument
was ere$ted to his memory in the Poets> -orner o( Westminster %++ey. The
house where he was +orn was pur$hased (or preser"ation as a !ational
2emorial in 1/43and the ,irst Shaespeare 2emorial Theatre H now the 'oyal
Shaespeare Theatre H was opened in 1/39.@
1623 is also the year when the (irst $omplete edition o( Shaespeare>s
plays was pu+lished. 8n Eli*a+ethan En.land there was no $opyri.ht and
ri"allin. theatre $ompanies mi.ht ha"e used the te&t i( a reputed playwri.ht
had pu+lished his plays in +oo (orm. That is why it was only a(ter a play had
run its $ourse on the sta.e that the a$tin. $ompany; the sole owner o( the
drama; would ha"e it pu+lished to o+tain a +it more money. This is how some
o( Shaespeare>s plays appeared in small; $heap Duartos; hastily $omplied (or
Dui$ sale durin. his li(e ?see a+o"e 1#94 and 1#9/@. %t his death; in 1616; 1/
Duartos o( his dramas had +een printed; the te&t ha"in. +een pirated (rom
sta.e $opies. Aut; in 1623; Shaespeare>s (ellow a$tors <ohn Hemin.e and
Henry -ondell pu+lished the (irst $omplete edition H also nown as the ,irst
,olio H $ontainin. 36 plays in all. The so=$alled )oeshut portrait o( the poet
was on the title pa.e and Aen <onson $omposed the "erse a$$ompanyin. it.
The te&t o( Shaespeare>s ,irst ,olio was in dou+le $olumn (ormat; totalled
95/ pa.es and sold (or R1. The "ersions o( the ,irst ,olio are the only sour$e
(or twenty o( Shaespeare>s plays; +ut one $an ne"er +e sure how $lose to
Shaespeare>s own writin.s they are. We ha"e at last .ot and intelli.i+le and
relia+le te&t (or the wors o( the dramatist as the result o( the painstain.
te&tual $riti$ism o( the s$holars in the ei.hteenth and nineteenth $enturies.
We also owe Shaespearean s$holarship the su+di"ision o(
Shaespeare>s literary a$ti"ity into three periods ?with an additional
su+di"ision o( the (irst period into the early and late (irst period@.
The (irst period o( $reation ?1#/9=1655@:
oAe(ore a+out 1#94:
;)
,our history plays ?Henry ,I. Parts /ne. Two. and ThreeE 1#/9=
1#91F Richard III H 1#92=1#93@K
Two narrati"e poems ?,enus and (donis H 1#92=1#93K The Rape of
Lucrece H 1#93=1#94@K
% $omedy in the style o( Plautus ?The #omedy of Errors = 1#/9@K
% $omedy in the $ourtly style o( <ohn 4yly ?The Two "entlemen of
,erona H 1#92=1#93@K
% (ar$i$al $omedy whi$h today we mi.ht $all a pro+lem $omedy
?The Taming of the Shrew H 1#93=1#94@K
% tra.edy o( +lood in the style o( 1yd ?Titus (ndronicus = 1#/9@K
Some o( the sonnets ?1#92=1#9/@.
o To a+out 1655:
Two pro(oundly ori.inal $omedies ?Lo%e4s La'ours Lost H 1#93=
1#94. ( Midsummer &ight!s Dream H 1#9#=1#96@ K
% history; not part o( a .roup o( history plays ?9ing 2ohn H 1#96=
1#93@K
% tra.edy o( youth; lo"e and (ate ?Romeo and 2uliet H 1#91=1#9#@K
% $omedy that seems at times more lie the tra.edy o( its supposed
"illain ?The Merchant of ,enice =1#96=1#93@K
,our histories; written o"er se"eral years ?Richard II =1#9#=1#96.
Henry I,. Parts /ne and Two E 1#96=1#93. Henry , H 1#93=1#99@K
% tra.edy set in 'oman times ?2ulius #aesar E 1#99=1655@K
% .roup o( three .reat romanti$ $omedies ?Much (do ('out &othing
H 1#93=1#99. (s Dou Li3e It. Twelfth &ight E 1#99=1655@K
% $omedy o( the (at ni.ht; ,alsta((; ori.inally $reated in the history
plays ?The Merry -i%es of -indsor H 1#93=1#99@.
The se$ond period o( $reation ?1655=165/@:
9ne o( Shaespeare>s (inest tra.edies ?Hamlet = 1651=1652@K
Two dar $omedies ?(ll4s -ell That Ends -ell =1652=1653. Measure
for Measure H 1653=1654@K
% distur+in. play that de(ies $ate.ory ?Troilus and #ressida H 1651=1652@K
% tra.edy o( lo"e ?/thello H 1652=1653@K
% tra.edy o( a.e; o( parents and $hildren ?9ing Lear = 165#@K
% tra.edy o( power; o( hus+and and wi(e ?Mac'eth H 165#=1656@K
%n odd and possi+ly un(inished tra.edy ?Timon of (thens = 165#=
1659@K
% tra.edy o( 'ome; E.ypt; power and lo"e ?(ntony and #leopatra H
1653=165/@K
% tra.edy o( 'ome and power; o( mother and $hild ?#oriolanus E 1653=
165/@K
The third period o( $reation ?to a+out 1614@:
% pat$hwor tale o( ad"enture; shipwre$; loss and redis$o"ery
?Pericles. Prince of Tyre = 1656=165/@K
% roman$e o( Aritain and 'ome ?#ym'eline H 1659=1615@K
% tale o( tra.i$ 7ealousy and pastoral re+irth ?The -inter4s Tale H
1615=1611@K
% tale o( a +ra"e new world ?The Tempest = 1611@K
;7
Two (inal plays written in $olla+oration; in ea$h $ase pro+a+ly with
a youn.er playwri.ht; <ohn ,let$her: a history o( re$ent time in
En.land ?Henry ,III E 1612=1613@ and a roman$e o( $hi"alry ?The
Two &o'le 9insmen H 1613=1614@.
7& )& !2e S2a9es(earean ontrovers4
Shaespeare>s own a.e (ully a$$epted him as the .reat dramatist and amon.
the e"iden$e o( his $ontemporaries Aen <onson>s testimony rans as the
most un$hallen.ea+le. !o report o( rumour a.ainst Shaespeare>s
authorship was re$orded until 1369 when Her+ert 4awren$e $hallen.ed (or
the (irst time the as$ription o( the plays to the minor a$tor William
Shaespeare; the mild Strat(ord +our.eois.
The 6%uthorship FuestionsE was a.ain +rou.ht into dis$ussion in
1/#3; when )elia Aa$on; an %meri$an woman; pu+lished a +oo ar.uin. that
Sir Francis $acon; the .reat Eli*a+ethan philosopher; was the author. 2ar
Twain was also a proponent o( Aa$on; and his +oo Is Sha3espeare Dead8
may +e one o( the most entertainin.; i( not the most $on"in$in.; o(
$ontri+utions on the su+7e$t. 4ie other Aa$onians; Twain (elt that literature o(
su$h .reat learnin. and wisdom $ould not possi+ly ha"e +een written +y a
two=+it a$tor with a pro"in$ial .rammar s$hool edu$ation at +est; a+out
whose li(e almost nothin. has $ome down to us. The plays are (ull o(
philosophy and re"eal $onsidera+le nowled.e o( the lawK Aa$on was not
only a philosopher +ut the .reatest le.al mind o( the a.e. Twain $on$luded
that he $ould not say (or $ertain who wrote the plays; +ut said that he was
6Duite $omposedly and $ontentedly sure that Shaespeare didn4t;E and
stron.ly suspe$ted that Aa$on did.
%nother theory ad"an$ed +y a modern .roup o( 6unorthodo&E or 6anti=
Strat(ordianE s$holars has as$ri+ed the plays undou+tedly to Edward de
,ere. the GHth Earl of /*ford. The 9&(ordians; as they are re(erred to; $laim
that the plays o( Shaespeare re"eal an aristo$rati$ sensi+ility; an intimate
(amiliarity with the li(e and manners o( the $ourt; and a le"el o( edu$ation and
worldly e&perien$e that would seem +eyond a +arely edu$ated $ommoner.
9&(ord was a poet and playwri.ht himsel(; +ut as an aristo$rat he $ould not
sully his name +y writin. (or the pu+li$ sta.e; and so he wrote under a
pseudonym; the theory .oes; allowin. the a$tor (rom Strat(ord to play the part
o( author. The (a$t that 9&(ord died in 1654; +e(ore su$h masterpie$es as
Mac'eth; (ntony and #leopatra; and The Tempest are .enerally a$$epted to
ha"e +een written; has ne"er +een $on$lusi"ely e&plained +y 9&(ordians. Aut
a re$ent do$toral dissertation; su$$ess(ully de(ended at the 0ni"ersity o(
2assa$husetts at %mherst; e&aminin. un$anny $orresponden$es +etween
de Bere>s $opy o( the "ene%a $i'le and Ai+li$al re(eren$es in Shaespeare>s
plays; has added new (uel to the 9&(ordian (ire.
4ast +ut not least; #hristopher Marlowe>s name has +een put (orward
as that o( the 6true authorE o( Shaespeare>s wors. 8n this respe$t; -al"in
Ho((man>s +oo; The Murder of the Man -ho -as ISha3espeare.I pu+lished
in the 0nited States in 19##; seems to ha"e had a tremendous impa$t.
Ho((man>s theory; whi$h is $redited with laun$hin. the modern $ase (or
2arlowe; rests on his +elie( that 2arlowe H nown +y historians to ha"e +een
a spy in Eli*a+eth 8>s se$ret ser"i$e H did not die in 1#93 in )ept(ord; on the
+ans o( the Thames; +ut (aed his own death and (led En.land to es$ape the
;:
notorious Star -ham+er; Protestant En.land>s eDui"alent o( the 8nDuisition.
?2arlowe was said to hold 6atheisti$E "iews; a serious $har.e in those days.@
Ho((man +elie"ed 2arlowe (led to 8taly; where his artisti$ de"elopment
a$$elerated amidst the late 8talian 'enaissan$e. 8ndeed; it was in 8taly; some
2arlo"ians say; that 2arlowe wrote his masterpie$es; whi$h he then sent +a$
to his patron in En.land; Sir Thomas Walsin.ham; $ousin o( Sir ,ran$is
Walsin.ham; Eli*a+eth>s spy master. %(ter ha"in. the wors re$opied in
another hand; Walsin.ham then passed the plays on to a $on"enient (ront
man H the a$tor William Shaespeare H who +rou.ht them to the sta.e.
%s Ho((man relates at the outset o( his +oo; he (irst +e.an to suspe$t
that 2arlowe was the author when he noti$ed striin. similarities +etween
2arlowe>s wors and those attri+uted to Shaespeare. %(ter $omparin.
Shaespeare>s and 2arlowe>s wors; Ho((man $laimed to ha"e un$o"ered
hundreds o( 6parallelismsE: lines and passa.es (rom 2arlowe>s plays and
poems that are e$hoed; i( not Duoted "er+atim; in Shaespeare>s.
Shaespeare>s supporters; howe"er; dismiss su$h similarities as proo(
only that the Aard +orrowed rather li+erally ?not to say stolen@ (rom his
$ontemporaries. ?8t was a $ommon pra$ti$e +y that time.@ ,urthermore;
Strat(ordians point out di((eren$es in the two playwri.hts> styles: Shaespeare
appears mu$h slower in terms o( inno"ation; +ut e&$els in some aspe$ts o(
playwritin. ?i.e. (eminine $hara$ters and $omedy@ in whi$h 2arlowe was
de(i$ient. ?9( $ourse; 2arlo"ians attri+ute these di((eren$es to the natural
maturation that would ha"e o$$urred in 2arlowe>s writin. had he (led
En.land and $ontinued his $areer in 8taly.@
The de+ate on the authorship matter $ontinues nowadays and seems
still (ar (rom rea$hin. a unanimously a$nowled.ed issue.
7& 7& 2ronicle 5la4s
The $hroni$le playJ history play is the only (orm o( drama in"ented +y the
Eli*a+ethans. %(ter ha"in. tried his hand at an imitation o( 'oman $omedy
?The #omedy of Errors@ and o( a 'oman tra.edy ?Titus (ndronicus@; William
Shaespeare turned to the $omposition o( this type o( drama that had no
$lassi$al prototype; +ut whi$h held a parti$ular (as$ination (or the En.lish
pu+li$ in the 1#95s and helped $reate a sense o( a $olle$ti"e national
memory. Patrioti$ sentiment pro+a+ly ran parti$ularly hi.h in the years
(ollowin. 1#//; when the En.lish de(eated the in"adin. Spanish %rmada.
The history play drew upon su$h sentiments. 8n this $onte&t; a+out 1#/9; the
26=year old William Shaespeare +e.an to plan and $ompose his tetralo.y
dealin. with the Wars o( the 'oses: the three parts o( Henry ,I ?$. 1#/9=
1#91@ and Richard III ?$. 1#92=1#93@. Shaespeare set to write histori$al
plays still leanin. hea"ily on 2arlowe and pro+a+ly $olla+oratin. with other
dramatists as well.
6The three Henry ,I plays; with whi$h he opened his $areer; are o(
interest to those $on$erned with Shaespeare>s attitude to En.lish history as
well as to those numerous s$holars who ha"e +een attra$ted +y the
+i+lio.raphi$al and other pro+lems whi$h they raise. 0ne"en and sometimes
$rude +oth in dramati$ mo"ement and "erse te$hniDue; they ha"e their
GShaespearean> moments and show Shaespeare seein. a way (rom the
episodi$ $hroni$le play to a more dramati$ and (ully inte.rated handlin. o(
histori$al material.E ?)ai$hes; 1991: 265@ They (i.ure amon. Shaespeare>s
;;
(irst (orays into the .enre o( history play; and they were (ollowed +y plays
tra$in. the years a(ter Henry B8>s death and the ensuin. $i"il wars o"er
su$$ession. 9nly later in his $areer did Shaespeare loo +a$ to the e"ents
prior to Henry B8>s in.ship; in$ludin. that o( his (ather Henry B. Shaespeare
pro+a+ly made use o( $ontemporary $hroni$les o( the 1#th $entury and the
stru..les durin. these years +etween the Corists and the 4an$astrians in
the War o( the 'oses. 'aphael Holin.shed>s #hronicles of England.
Scotland. and Ireland seem a parti$ularly liely sour$e (or many o( his history
plays. ?Edward Hall>s $hroni$les; in parti$ular his nion of the Two &o'le and
Illustre ?Illustrious@ Families of Lancaster and Dor3 ?1#4/@; mi.ht also ha"e
pro"ided Shaespeare with use(ul in(ormation espe$ially (or the last play o(
the trilo.y. Howe"er; Shaespeare had to $on(late or alter histori$al e"ents so
they would (it within a dramati$ $onte&t.@
,o$used mainly on the e"ents that (ollowed Henry B>s death up to the
disastrous end o( the Hundred Cears> War ?the loss o( Aritain>s territories in
,ran$e@ and su+tly anti$ipatin. the Wars o( the 'oses; G Henry ,I is entirely
dri"en +y $on(li$t. 9n one hand; there is the $on(li$t +etween Henry>s (or$es;
led into +attle +y Tal+ot; and the (or$es o( the )auphin -harles; dominated +y
the $harismati$ <oan o( %r$. Then; the ar.ument +etween Cor and
Somerset; e$hoin. the stru..le +etween Win$hester and the Prote$tor o( the
in.dom; :lou$ester; in Henry>s $ourt; $auses the En.lishmen to .i"e
inadeDuate support to Tal+ot in the +attle(ield; thus; e&a$er+atin. the primary
$on(li$t. The messa.e within these $ourt stru..les is that petty ri"alries and
internal di"isions amon. the no+ility $an +e as dan.erous to En.land as
,ren$h soldiers. Henry seems to re$o.ni*e this truth; when he speas a+out
dissention as the 6wormE .nawin. on his in.dom; yet he is una+le to end the
$risis. That announ$es Henry; (rom the "ery +e.innin. o( the trilo.y; as a
wea in. (i.ure.
The play +e$omes; to some e&tent; the story o( a warrior $ulture that is
dyin.. Tal+ot represents the end o( a tradition o( "aliant ni.hts whose sole
desire is to (i.ht (or the .lory o( their homeland. He is a man (rom a lost world
where "alour and honour were $ommunally shared mas$uline ideals passed
(rom (ather to son. Ay the end o( the play; +oth Tal+ot and his son lay dead;
and the (uture o( En.lish $hi"alry has died with them.
EDually threatened +y the power o( women as pu+li$ (i.ures ?<oan o(
%r$; the -ountess o( %u"er.e; 2ar.aret@; the world o( men seems to
$rum+le. Stron. in.s lie Henry B do not ne$essarily $reate stron.
su$$essors in their sons. The play $reates heroes o( a mas$uline world; +ut it
also a$nowled.es the potential weanesses o( men; in .eneral; and o(
in.s; in parti$ular.
J Henry ,I $on$erns the $ontinued s$hemin. in the $ourt; (irst
+etween :lou$ester and Aeau(ort; then +etween Cor>s (a$tion and the other
lords. The in(i.htin. +etween the lords and the popular uprisin. +y <a$ -ade
show what happens to the nation when the in. in power is too wea to rule
e((e$ti"ely. The play $harts the rise and (all o( many lords and lesser (i.ures
within the in.dom.
K Henry ,I is a $ontinuation o( the depi$tion o( the War o( the 'oses
+etween the 4an$astrian des$endants o( Edward 888; represented +y the red
rose; and his Corist des$endants; who wore the white rose. This third
installment am+itiously depi$ts many si.ni(i$ant +attles (ou.ht durin. that $i"il
war; stret$hin. +etween the Aattle o( Wae(ield in 1465; when the )ue o(
Cor was illed; to the Aattle o( Tewes+ury in 1431; when Edward; Cor>s
;=
eldest son; de(eated the 4an$astrians. The de.radation o( so$ial ties;
parti$ularly those o( (amily; +e$omes e"en more prominent than in the
pre"ious two plays and; under the $ir$umstan$es; nothin. remains +ut the
assertion o( indi"idual will; whi$h is +est illustrated in the $ase o( one o( the
)ue o( Cor>s sons; 'i$hard. !ear the end o( the play; 'i$hard ills Henry
and de$lares that he has no (ather or +rothers; thus; "illainously announ$in.
his separation (rom inship networs that de(ine the rest o( the play.
%s (or Henry; he has appeared on numerous o$$asions throu.hout the
play; as well as in the pre"ious plays o( the trilo.y; as a wea3 3ing. %s the
representati"e o( le.itima$y in a time o( so$ial disorder; he is (ated to +e
thwarted and dis.ra$ed at e"ery turn o( the plot. Cet Shaespeare has not
desi.ned him only to +e the o+7e$t o( s$orn. Henry B8 +e$omes more and more
$learly a representati"e o( pea$e and its +lessin.s. He sits upon a hill withdrawn
(rom the +attle (rom whi$h 2ar.aret and -li((ord ha"e 6$hidE him and .i"es "oi$e
to his lon.in. to +e a shepherd. He tells how mu$h he wants Duiet (or
$ontemplation in lines o( ele.ia$ Duality that wins sympathy (or the humiliated
in.. %nd when his meditation is interrupted +y the dread(ul s$ene o( (ather
illin. son and son illin. (ather; the play de(initely +e$omes an anti=war play.
The messa.e o( the play is $learly e&pressed: a wea monar$h lie
Henry B8 means $haos in the in.dom torn apart +y sel(ish (eudin. lords. The
stru..le +etween opposin. win.s o( the same (amily in(e$ts the (amilial tone
o( an entire nation.
ase Stud40 Ric2ard III "c& /;@)3/;@7%
The sour$e is a.ain Holinshed>s #hronicles. The play $entres on the (i.ure o(
'i$hard o( :lou$ester; a(terwards 'i$hard 888; physi$ally de(ormed; am+itious;
san.uinary; +old and su+tle; trea$herous yet +ra"e; a murderer and usurper o( the
$rown. Aloody thou.h he was; ne"ertheless; the histori$al 1in. 'i$hard 888 was
not ne$essarily more murderous than the in.s who pre$eded or su$$eeded him.
!or is it liely that he was de(ormed; as Shaespeare portrays him. Winners; not
losers; write history. When Shaespeare wrote this play; Fueen Eli*a+eth 8 ruled
En.landK Eli*a+eth was a des$endant o( 1in. Henry B88; the ruler who o"erthrew
'i$hard. Thus; the o((i$ial party line o( the Eli*a+ethan era was that 'i$hard was a
monster who was not a le.itimate ruler o( En.land. 8t would ha"e +een thorou.hly
dan.erous (or Shaespeare to su..est otherwise.
%(ter a lon. $i"il war +etween the royal (amily o( Cor and the royal (amily
o( 4an$aster; En.land en7oys a period o( pea$e under 1in. Edward 8B and the
"i$torious Cors. Aut Edward>s youn.er +rother; 'i$hard; resents Edward>s
power and the happiness o( those around him. 2ali$ious; power=hun.ry; and
+itter a+out his physi$al de(ormity; 'i$hard +e.ins to aspire se$retly to the
throneIand de$ides to ill anyone he has to in order to +e$ome in..
0sin. his intelli.en$e and his sills o( de$eption and politi$al
manipulation; 'i$hard +e.ins his $ampai.n (or the throne. He manipulates a
no+lewoman; 4ady %nne; into marryin. himIe"en thou.h she nows that he
murdered her (irst hus+and. He has his own older +rother; -laren$e;
e&e$uted; and shi(ts the +urden o( .uilt onto his si$ older +rother 1in.
Edward in order to a$$elerate Edward>s illness and death. %(ter 1in. Edward
dies; 'i$hard +e$omes lord prote$tor o( En.landIthe (i.ure in $har.e until
the elder o( Edward>s two sons .rows up.
;>
!e&t 'i$hard ills the $ourt no+lemen who are loyal to the prin$es;
most nota+ly 4ord Hastin.s; the lord $ham+erlain o( En.land. He then has
the +oys> relati"es on their mother>s sideIthe power(ul insmen o( Edward>s
wi(e; Fueen Eli*a+ethIarrested and e&e$uted. With Eli*a+eth and the
prin$es now unprote$ted; 'i$hard has his politi$al allies; parti$ularly his ri.ht=
hand man; 4ord Au$in.ham; $ampai.n to ha"e 'i$hard $rowned in..
'i$hard then imprisons the youn. prin$es in the Tower and; in his +loodiest
mo"e yet; sends hired murderers to ill +oth $hildren.
Ay this time; 'i$hard>s rei.n o( terror has $aused the $ommon people
o( En.land to (ear and loathe him; and he has alienated nearly all the
no+lemen o( the $ourtIe"en the power=hun.ry Au$in.ham. When rumours
+e.in to $ir$ulate a+out a $hallen.er to the throne who is .atherin. (or$es in
,ran$e; no+lemen de(e$t in dro"es to 7oin his (or$es. The $hallen.er is the
earl o( 'i$hmond; a des$endant o( a se$ondary arm o( the 4an$aster (amily;
and En.land is ready to wel$ome him.
'i$hard; in the meantime; tries to $onsolidate his power. He has his
wi(e; Fueen %nne; murdered; so that he $an marry youn. Eli*a+eth; the
dau.hter o( the (ormer Fueen Eli*a+eth and the dead 1in. Edward. Thou.h
youn. Eli*a+eth is his nie$e; the allian$e would se$ure his $laim to the
throne. !e"ertheless; 'i$hard has +e.un to lose $ontrol o( e"ents; and
Fueen Eli*a+eth mana.es to (orestall him. 2eanwhile; she se$retly promises
to marry youn. Eli*a+eth to 'i$hmond.
'i$hmond (inally in"ades En.land. The ni.ht +e(ore the +attle that will
de$ide e"erythin.; 'i$hard has a terri+le dream in whi$h the .hosts o( all the
people he has murdered appear and $urse him; tellin. him that he will die the
ne&t day. 8n the +attle on the (ollowin. mornin.; 'i$hard is illed; and
'i$hmond is $rowned 1in. Henry B88. Promisin. a new era o( pea$e (or
En.land; the new in. is +etrothed to youn. Eli*a+eth in order to unite the
warrin. houses o( 4an$aster and Cor.
%lthou.h it is o(ten "iewed as a seDuel to three o( Shaespeare>s
earlier history playsIG Henry ,I. J Henry ,I. and K Henry ,ILRichard III is
usually read and per(ormed on its own. The play $hroni$les the +loody deeds
and atro$ities perpetrated +y its $entral (i.ureIthe murderous and tyranni$al
1in. 'i$hard 888. 'i$hard in"ites an eerie (as$ination; and .enerations o(
readers ha"e (ound themsel"es sedu$ed +y his +rillian$e with words and his
persuasi"e emotional manipulations e"en as they are repelled +y his e"il.
'i$hard is in e"ery way the dominant $hara$ter o( the play that +ears
his name; to the e&tent that he is +oth the prota.onist o( the story and its ma7or
"illain. Richard III is an intense e&ploration o( the psy$holo.y o( e"il; and that
e&ploration is $entred on 'i$hard>s mind. -riti$s sometimes $ompare 'i$hard
to the medie"al $hara$ter; Bi$e; who was a (lat and one=sided em+odiment o(
e"il. 4ie the 6Bi$eE $hara$ter o( medie"al morality pa.eants; who simply
represented the e"il in man; 'i$hard does not 7usti(y his "illainyIhe is simply
+ad. 8ndeed; 'i$hard; with sel(=$ons$ious theatri$ality; $ompares himsel( to this
standard $hara$ter when he says; 6Thus lie the (ormal Bi$e; 8niDuity; J 8
morali*e two meanin.s in one wordE ?888.i./2H/3@. We should note that the
mere (a$t that he re(le$ts upon his similarity to the Bi$e (i.ure su..ests that
there is more to him than this mere resem+lan$e. Wat$hin. 'i$hard>s
$hara$ter; Shaespeare>s audien$es also would ha"e thou.ht o( the
62a$hia"el;E the ar$hetype o( the s$andalously amoral; power=hun.ry ruler that
had +een made (amous +y the 'enaissan$e 8talian writer !i$$old 2a$hia"elli
in The Prince ?(irst pu+lished in 1#32@. ,urthermore; espe$ially in the later
;+
s$enes o( the play; 'i$hard pro"es to +e hi.hly sel(=re(le$ti"e and $ompli$ated
Imain. his heinous a$ts all the more $hillin.. That 7usti(ies des$ri+in.
'i$hard as a 2a$hia"ellian "illain.
Perhaps more than in any other play +y Shaespeare; the audien$e o(
Richard III e&perien$es a $omple&; am+i.uous; and hi.hly $han.ea+le
relationship with the main $hara$ter. 'i$hard is $learly a "illainIhe de$lares
outri.ht in his "ery (irst spee$h that he intends to stop at nothin. to a$hie"e
his ne(arious desi.ns. Aut despite his open alle.ian$e to e"il; he is su$h a
$harismati$ and (as$inatin. (i.ure that; (or mu$h o( the play; we are liely to
sympathi*e with him; or at least to +e impressed with him. 8n this way; our
relationship with 'i$hard mimi$s the other $hara$ters> relationships with him;
$on"eyin. a power(ul sense o( the (or$e o( his personality. E"en $hara$ters
su$h as 4ady %nne; who ha"e an e&pli$it nowled.e o( his wi$edness; allow
themsel"es to +e sedu$ed +y his +rilliant wordplay; his sil(ul ar.umentation;
and his relentless pursuit o( his sel(ish desires.
'i$hard>s lon.; (as$inatin. monolo.ues; in whi$h he outlines his plans
and .lee(ully $on(esses all his e"il thou.hts; are $entral to the audien$e>s
e&perien$e o( 'i$hard. Shaespeare uses these monolo.ues +rilliantly to
$ontrol the audien$e>s impression o( 'i$hard; ena+lin. this manipulati"e
prota.onist to wor his $harms on the audien$e. 8n %$t 8; s$ene i; (or
e&ample; 'i$hard dole(ully $laims that his mali$e toward others stems (rom
the (a$t that he is unlo"ed; and that he is unlo"ed +e$ause o( his physi$al
de(ormity. This $laim; whi$h $asts the other $hara$ters o( the play as "illains
(or punishin. 'i$hard (or his appearan$e; maes it easy to sympathi*e with
'i$hard durin. the (irst s$enes o( the play.
8t Dui$ly +e$omes apparent; howe"er; that 'i$hard simply uses his
de(ormity as a tool to .ain the sympathy o( othersIin$ludin. us. 'i$hard>s e"il
is a mu$h more innate part o( his $hara$ter than simple +itterness a+out his
u.ly +ody. Aut he uses this spee$h to win our trust; and he repeats this ploy
throu.hout his stru..le to +e $rowned in.. %(ter he is $rowned in. and
'i$hmond +e.ins his uprisin.; 'i$hard>s monolo.ues end. 9n$e 'i$hard stops
e&ertin. his $harisma on the audien$e; his real nature +e$omes mu$h more
apparent; and +y the end o( the play he $an +e seen (or the monster that he is.
8n Richard III; 'i$hard su$$eeds in +rin.in. a+out the death or down(all
o( +oth his +rothers; and he mana.es to tae the throne; +ut somehow he loses
his $harismati$ power on$e he has a$hie"ed the $rown. -hallen.ed +y Henry;
Earl o( 'i$hmond; 'i$hard loses the throne and his li(e; while 'i$hmond ends
the War o( the 'oses +y unitin. the red and white rose throu.h marria.e and
ori.inatin. the Tudor line. Eli*a+eth 8; the rei.nin. so"erei.n when this play was
written; was an heir o( Henry B88K Shaespeare>s history plays show the (aults o(
the 4an$astrians and Corists; thus; indire$tly $hampionin. the Tudor
su$$ession. The (inal politi$al lesson is thus that $i"il disorder shaes a nation
into $haos and ine"ita+ly raises a tyrant to supreme power. His tyranny;
$orruption and $rime may +e put an end to only +y the united (or$es o( those
who stand (or ri.hteousness in the word ?i.e. the Tudors@.
Shaespeare returned to the pro(ita+le medium o( history plays on$e he had
+een su$$ess(ul with his tetralo.y. He apparently thou.ht it unwise to tae up
the story o( En.lish monar$hs with Henry B88>s sei*ure o( the throne sin$e
su$h $ontinuation would ha"e $arried him dan.erously $lose to Fueen
;@
Eli*a+eth>s immediate an$estors. He turned to the rei.n o( <ohn and 'i$hard
88; (ar into En.land>s medie"al past.
The Life and Death of 9ing 2ohn ?$. 1#9#=1#93@ was adapted +y
Shaespeare (rom an earlier wor. The reason (or Shaespeare>s $hoi$e o(
<ohn>s rei.n was the opportunity to dramati*e its e"ents in a way that would
mae them ser"e as a (a"oura+le $ommentary on the politi$al and reli.ious
stru..les in whi$h Eli*a+eth was in"ol"ed. The play with some departure
(rom histori$al a$$ura$y deals with "arious e"ents in 1in. <ohn>s rei.n.
8n the early $hroni$le plays Shaespeare detailed the disaster +rou.ht
on the in.dom +y a wea monar$hy. !ow that he +elon.ed to the
prosperous middle $lasses; he shared his $lass>s ideal o( order; authority and
se$urity. Shaespeare the humanist still $ondemns a+solute power and
oppression +ut the +our.eois in him demands a (irm enli.htened rule to
$he$ up any mani(estation o( so$ial $haos.
When the 4ondon theatres reopened in the sprin. o( 1#94 a(ter the
.reat 4ondon pla.ue o( 1#92 Shaespeare em+ared upon the am+itious
pro7e$t o( $onstru$tin. a seDuen$e o( 4 $onne$ted history plays: Richard II
?1#9#=1#96@; GHenry I, ?1#96@; J Henry I, ?1#93@ and Henry , ?1#93=1#99@.
8nspired +y Holinshed>s #hronicle and )aniel>s History of the #i%il
-ars; Richard II was pro+a+ly meant as a reply to 2arlowe>s Edward II.
Richard II mars a new de"elopment in the poet>s $omposition o( his
6histories.E The $atastrophe is $aused neither +y a "illain; not +y (ate; nor +y
the pressure o( e"ents +ut +y a serious (law in the prota.onist>s nature.
6Richard II ?1#9#=96@ is a more $omple& and interestin. play;
deli+erately ritualisti$=e"en sa$ramental; in tone to su..est the Eli*a+ethan
"iew o( the 2iddle %.es. The deposition o( the last o( En.landSs medie"al
in.s H (or Shaespeare $learly thou.ht o( Henry 8B as Tmodern;T +elon.in.
to ShaespeareSs own world; and his su$$ession the result o( personal
am+ition rather than di"ine ri.ht=had lon. a$Duired an aura o( mystery and
pathos in the minds o( those who looed +a$ to it; and Shaespeare de=
li+erately set out to render that aura dramati$ally; pro"idin. +oth adeDuate
psy$holo.i$al e&planation and impressi"e poeti$ e&pression. 'i$hard himsel(;
petulant; $hildish; emotionally sel(=indul.ent; in$apa+le o( assertin. his
authority o"er (a$tious no+les +ut +roodin. and poeti*in. o"er his royal status
on$e he is on the point o( losin. it; is the most $omple& $hara$ter that
Shaespeare had so (ar $reated; and the way he manipulates the audien$eSs
sympathy ?(irst a.ainst; then in (a"or o( 'i$hard@ shows remara+le dramati$
$unnin.. 'i$hard was the 4ordSs anointed; the last En.lish in. to rule in
"irtue o( his dire$t and undisputed des$ent (rom William the -onDueror. His
deposition was in a sense sa$rile.e; and a(ter his death his supporters +uilt
up a pi$ture o( him as saint and martyr. The other side; the 4an$astrians; who
supported the $laims o( Henry 8B and his su$$essors; saw 'i$hard as a wea
and (oolish in. who "oluntarily a+di$ated +e$ause he re$o.ni*ed his own
un(itness to $arry out his royal duties. Shaespeare $om+ines +oth pi$tures
with $omplete dramati$ $onsisten$yS; %ndS in the ritual note whi$h per"ades
the play he pi$tures a phase o( En.lish $i"ili*ation "ery di((erent (rom the
+ree*y +a$.round o( power politi$s we see in the Henry 8B plays. The
deposition s$ene is a $are(ul in"ersion o( the $oronation ritual; and
Aolin.+roeSs impatien$e with 'i$hardSs histrioni$s is also the modern manSs
impatien$e with the styli*ed (orms o( medie"al li(e. The sel(=indul.ent lyri$ism
o( many o( 'i$hardSs own spee$hes re(le$ts the predominantly lyri$al interest
that seems to ha"e +een a (eature o( ShaespeareSs dramati$ art in this
=*
phase o( his de"elopment ?we see it also in 'omeo and <uliet; written at
a+out the same time@; +ut it also helps to +uild 'i$hardSs $hara$ter and to
di((erentiate it (rom that o( his more realisti$ and pra$ti$al supplanter.E
?)ai$hes; 1991: 265=1@
Henry I,. Part G ?1#96H1#93@; more $ommonly re(erred to as 1 Henry
8B; (orms the se$ond part o( a tetralo.y that deals with the histori$al rise o(
the En.lish royal House o( 4an$aster.
Set in the years 1452H1453; the a$tion o( 1 Henry 8B taes pla$e
nearly two $enturies +e(ore Shaespeare>s own time. 8n .eneral; it (ollows
real e"ents and uses histori$al (i.ures; althou.h Shaespeare si.ni(i$antly
alters or in"ents history where it suits him. ,or instan$e; the histori$al
Hotspur was not the same a.e as Prin$e Harry; and Shaespeare>s 2ortimer
is a $on(lation o( two separate indi"iduals. The play re(ers +a$ to the history
$o"ered in 'i$hard 88 ?whi$h $an +e $onsidered its preDuel@; and a (amiliarity
with the e"ents o( 'i$hard 88 is help(ul (or understandin. the moti"ations o(
"arious $hara$ters in 1 Henry 8B.
%mon. Shaespeare>s most (amous $reations is ,alsta((; Prin$e
Harry>s (at; a.ed; and $riminally de.enerate mentor and (riend. ,alsta((>s
irre"erent wit is le.endary. He has many histori$al pre$edents: he owes mu$h
to ar$hetypes lie the (i.ure o( Bi$e (rom medie"al morality plays and
:luttony (rom medie"al pa.eants a+out the se"en deadly sins. His $hara$ter
also draws on the miles .loriosus (i.ure; an arro.ant soldier (rom $lassi$al
:ree and 'oman $omedy; and the 4ord o( 2isrule; the title .i"en to an
indi"idual appointed to rei.n o"er (ol (esti"ities in medie"al En.land.
0ltimately; howe"er; ,alsta(( is a Shaespearean $reation; se$ond amon.
Shaespearean $hara$ters only to Hamlet as a su+7e$t o( $riti$al interest.
%s a matter o( (a$t; +oth 6Henry 8B Part 8 and Part 88 ?1#93=9/@ show
Shaespeare $om+inin. the politi$al with the $omi$ in a new and striin.
manner. The $entral theme is the edu$ation o( Prin$e Hal; Henry 8BSs son and
later Henry B; and this is wored out with many e$hoes o( the older moralities.
Aut the (i.ure who represents 'iot is so mu$h more than a $hara$ter in a
morality play that the whole tone and $hara$ter o( the two plays are altered +y
his presen$e. ,alsta(( is no $on"entional Bi$e; +ut a $omi$ (i.ure o( immense
proportions who em+odies in his spee$h and a$tion an amoral .usto in li"in.
at the same time as he stands (or a way o( li(e whi$h the prin$e must repudiate
+e(ore he $an +e in.. Shaespeare uses the Per$y re+ellion in Part 8 in order
to put ,alsta(( in some de.ree in his proper moral pla$e: the $olossus o( the
AoarSs Head ta"ern; so ri$hly amusin. in his $omi$ "itality in his ha+itual
en"ironment; +e$omes less satis(a$tory as a human +ein. when he is (ound
usin. his authority as an o((i$er to line his own po$ets and impair the stren.th
o( the in.Ss (or$es or; on the +attle(ield a.ainst determined re+els; (ain. a
heroi$ a$tion (or himsel(. The way (or the (inal and ine"ita+le re7e$tion o(
,alsta(( +y his (ormer +oon $ompanion now +e$ome in. is prepared
throu.hout the latter se$tion o( Part 8 and the earlier se$tion o( Part 88. 2u$h in
has +een spilt on the re7e$tion o( ,alsta((: the simple (a$t is that he is ?and is
meant to +e@ en.a.in. +ut not admira+le; that he +elon.s to the amoral world
o( the AoarSs Head; not to the moral world o( the dedi$ated -hristian ruler. He
enters the latter world only to +e e7e$ted (rom it; and thou.h we are properly
sorry (or him we must reali*e that the amoral +e$omes the immoral in this new
$onte&t; and must +e remo"ed (rom it.
=/
This is to $onsider the two Henry 8B plays as a sin.le dramati$ unit;
and there are $on"in$in. ar.uments (or and a.ainst this "iew. 8t is perhaps
simplest to tae the $ommon=sense position that Shaespeare wrote the (irst
part as a play $omplete in itsel(; +ut when he $ontinued it in the se$ond he
ad7usted his $ontinuation to a $omprehensi"e and $onsistent "iew o( the
meanin. o( the whole a$tion o( +oth parts. 8n Part 8 the three le"els o( the
a$tion H the hi.h politi$al; surroundin. Henry 8BK the low $omi$; surroundin.
,alsta((K and the plausi+le; e"en attra$ti"e; +ut politi$ally immoral world o(
Hotspur and his (ellow re+els H ea$h has its appropriate lan.ua.e and its
pla$e in theV total polit7$o=moral pattern. HotspurSs heroi$ e.otism and
,alsta((>s unheroi$ e.otism are +oth $ontrasted with the attitude o( heroi$
unsel(ishness whi$h is the implied ideal attitude (or the ruler. 8n Part 88; the
$ountry 7usti$es; Shallow and Silen$e; represent yet another le"el; and in a
sense a deeper one: they represent the En.land whi$h remains un$han.ed
throu.hout all the politi$al stru..les o( am+itious men to a$hie"e $ontrol o(
the state; the world o( ine((i$ient inno$en$e; un$ons$iously $omi$ ?unlie
,alsta((; who is $ons$iously so@; (oolish and pretentious; yet impressi"ely and
a"era.ely human. The 7u&taposition o( di((erent moral and so$ial le"els in
+oth parts helps to .i"e the play its ri$hness and +rillian$e. Statesmen;
re+els; roisterersK the 1in. and his sons and ad"isersK ,alsta(( with Peto and
Aardolph and 2istress Fui$ly and )oll TearsheetK Per$y and his (riendsK
Shallow and Silen$e H ea$h .roup has its pla$e in the un(oldin. a$tion ?or
series o( a$tions@; ea$h re"eals somethin. a+out En.land; a+out the relation
+etween moral $hara$ter and human +eha"ior; a+out the nature o( man. The
Henry I, plays $an +e seen as part o( the .eneral pattern o( ShaespeareSs
pi$ture o( En.lish history (rom 'i$hard 88 to the TudorK +ut they are; mu$h
more si.ni(i$antly; entertainin.; stimulatin.; and estheti$ally satis(yin. plays
whose su+7e$t; lie the su+7e$t o( all .reat drama; is human nature. %nd
,alsta(( remains; .reater e"en than the plays whi$h $ontain him; the ri$hest
$omi$ $reation in En.lish literature.
Henry , ?1#9/=99@ $on$ludes the histori$al series. 8t is narrower in
s$ope and interest than the Henry 8B plays; $on$entratin.; a$$ordin. to
tradition; on Henry as ideal warrior and man o( a$tion with a $on"entional piety
and a .i(t (or military rhetori$ that impressed ShaespeareSs $ontemporaries
more than they impress us. The witty and aloo( prin$e o( the Henry I, plays
has +e$ome a $opy+oo model (or a $onDuerin. prin$e; a mu$h narrower
$on$ept than that o( the 'enaissan$e .entleman. Henry B has none o( the
tortured idealism o( Arutus or the intelle$tual and moral $omple&ity o( HamletK
his ind o( su$$ess $omes to simpler and in some respe$ts less attra$ti"e
$hara$ters. % +ris; well=$onstru$ted; happily "aried play; Henry , is .ood
theater and $ontains some admira+le rhetori$al "erse. Aut it is the narrowest
and o$$asionally the stu((iest o( all o( ShaespeareSs maturer plays; and one
(or whi$h the modern reader or audien$e has to mae a spe$ial e((ort to ali.n
his sensi+ility with that o( the Eli*a+ethans.E ?)ai$hes; 1991: 261=3@
7& :& o6edies
E"er sin$e his (irst period o( $reation; Shaespeare tried his hand at writin.
$omedies. They .rew in $omple&ity and $o"ered a wide ran.e o( themes. Here
is a list o( Shaespeare>s $omedies o( the ?early and late@ (irst period o( $reation:
= The #omedy of Errors ?1#/9@ H written in imitation o( Plautus as a $omedy o(
mistaen identitiesK
=)
= The Two "entlemen of ,erona ?1#92=1#93@ H a romanti$ $omedy o( .entle
manners and $ulti"ated emotion that draws on some o( 4yly>s inno"ations ?e...
the .irl in man>s dis.uise in pursuit o( her lo"er@. % play a+out lo"e and male
(riendship; it also displays Shaespeare>s (irst $lown; 4aun$e.
= The Taming of the Shrew ?1#93=1#94@ H a (ar$i$al play +ased on the play=
within=the=play de"i$eK
= Lo%e4s La'ours Lost ?1#93=1#94@ H a $ourt play o$$asionally written in the
euphuisti$ style; that re7e$ts the idea o( $loistered study o( philosophy and
idle $ontemplation and a((irms dire$t e&perien$e o( li(e in the $ompany o(
women. 8ts most prominent $ouple Aerowne and 'osaline anti$ipate +y their
witty e&$han.es (urther de"elopments in Shaespeare>s $omedies.
= ( Midsummer &ight!s Dream ?1#9#=1#96@ H one o( his (irst .reat romanti$
$omedies o( ama*in. ori.inality. 2ulti=layered in stru$ture; it +rin.s to.ether
the world o( the (airies and that o( the human +ein.s; with its upper ?the royal
pair H Theseus and HipolytaK the aristo$rati$ lo"ers@ and lower ?the
2e$hani$als@ $lasses. The stru$tural $omple&ity (inds its $orresponden$e in
the dis$ursi"e "ariety: +lan "erse ?the royal $ouple@; rhymed $ouplets ?the
lo"ers@; tro$hai$ tetrameter ?the (airies; e&$ept 9+eron and Titania@; prose
?the 2e$hani$als; espe$ially Aottom@.
= Much (do a'out &othing ?1#93=1#99@ H another .reat romanti$ $omedy;
(ore.roundin. the .reat witty $ouple Aeatri$e HAenedi$ ?a de"elopment o(
the 'osaline=Aerowne $ouple@. 6Aeatri$e is one o( Shaespeare>s .reat
heroines: spirited; +rilliant; proud; independent; yet $ompletely (eminine.
Aenedi$ is super+ly witty and mas$uline.E ?:a"riliu; 2555: 135@
= The Merry -i%es of -indsor ?1#93=1#99@ H alle.edly written to satis(y
Fueen Eli*a+eth>s desire to see Sir <ohn ,alsta(( in lo"e. Written mainly in
prose; it is hi.hly realisti$ owin. to the (aith(ul manner o( representation o( li(e
in the small En.lish towns in the Eli*a+ethan En.land.
= (s Dou Li3e It ?1#99=1655@ H another .reat romanti$ $omedy; inspired +y
Thomas 4od.e>s no"el Rosalynde. E&plorin. .ender and power relations
a.ainst the +a$.round o( the %rden (orest heterotopian world; it re"eals one o(
Shaespeare>s +est a$hie"ed heroines; 'osalynd ?dis.uised throu.hout most o(
the play as a +oy under the name o( :animede@; ne&t to his two ori.inal
$reations; the $lown Tou$hstone and the melan$holy; misanthropi$ <aDues.
= Twelfth &ight ?1#99=1655@ H the last o( Shaespeare>s .reat romanti$
$omedies; a play a+out the triumph o( lo"e that draws e&tensi"ely on the
moti(s o( mistaen identities and o( the .irl dis.uised as a +oy.
)urin. the same (irst period o( $reation; Shaespeare also wrote a more
pro+lemati$ $omedy ?more o( a tra.i$=$omedy; i.e. The Merchant of ,enice
?1#96=1#93@. Thou.h entitled 6a $omedyE o( romanti$ lo"e and true (riendship;
this play o( ra$ial $on(li$t; de$eit; re"en.e and am+i.uous .ender relations
raises many Duestions and does not in"ite the spe$tator to lau.h li.ht=heartedly
?as in the $ase o( the pre"iously mentioned plays@ +ut to +itterly meditate on the
twists o( (ortune; 7usti$e and lo"e.
Similarly; in the early years o( the se$ond period o( $reation;
Shaespeare>s $omedies tae a .loomier turn; hen$e they are re(erred to as
6pro+lem plays.E Troilus and #ressida ?1651=1652@; (ll4s -ell That Ends -ell
?1652=1653@ and Measure for Measure ?1653=1654@ do $ontain elements o(
$omedy +ut they 6present a pro+lem (or the reader or the spe$tator who is le(t
with a sense that the author is "iewin. his $hara$ters (rom a distan$e and
with a pessimisti$ally ironi$ eye. 8n all these plays the a$tions are moti"ated
=7
+y lo"e (or a person who pro"es to +e patently unworthy o( su$h de"otion.E
?:a"riliu; 2555: 139@
ase Stud40 The Taming of the Shrew (159!159"#
,or the (irst audien$e to witness a per(orman$e o( the play; The Taming of the
Shrew may ha"e appeared as the most ela+orate and sil(ully desi.ned
$omedy that had yet +een sta.ed. 0nlie the pre"ious #omedy of Errors; this
play; drawin. upon a "ariety o( sour$es; $om+ines in a (ar more $omple&
manner three distin$t lines o( plot:
- the Sly (ramewor;
- the 1atherina = Petru$hio tamin. plot and
- the Aian$a H 4u$entio wooin. plot.
%$$ordin. to many Shaespearean s$holars; the (irst o( them is an adaptation
o( a (ol tale = The -a3ing Man!s Dream; as it is $alled in one "ersion H
$ir$ulated in a "ariety o( (orms throu.hout Europe and to +e (ound e"en in The
(ra'ian &ights: a man o( lower $lass; a poor drunard; is (ound +y an
aristo$rat; $arried to his pala$e and treated lie a lord; so as to +e persuaded
that he is really a .reat man who has +een su((erin. (rom temporary insanity or
who has +een dreamin.. Ay Shaespeare>s time; the story seems to ha"e
+een "ery popular in +allads and (ol poetry and hen$e; easily re$o.nisa+le +y
the audien$e. 9( $ourse; Shaespeare shapes it to his own purposes with
e&traordinary artistry; em+eddin. in it many details a+out li(e in the part o(
En.land the he new +est; the rural Warwi$shire o( his youth. Thus; the play
opens with an Induction introdu$in.; a.ainst a realisti$ settin.; -hristopher Sly;
a drunen tiner; +orn in a Warwi$shire "illa.e; who is per(e$tly $ontent with
his lot in li(e and does not want to +e trans(ormed into a lord. 6Solid; earthy;
and addi$ted to ale; Sly is a thorou.hly $on"in$in. $hara$ter; and he maes
the per(e$t lin +etween the world o( the audien$e; to whom he would +e a
(amiliar (i.ure; and the world o( the playE ?Hi++ard; 196/:12@. He has a tri$
played upon him. The 4ord; who appears as an a+solute monar$h o( his small
domain; uses Sly (or his own and the audien$e>s amusement and $ommands
all his ser"ants to tae part in his .ame. Sly will +e put in a totally alien
en"ironment in order to lau.h at his awwardness.
Aut the (un$tion o( the Induction is not only that o( offering the play a
framewor3; +ut also o( pro%iding some interesting parallels to the 9atherina E
Petruchio plot. %s :.'. Hi++ard put it; 6the +rie( yet "i.orous alter$ation
+etween Sly and the Hostess with whi$h the 8ndu$tion +e.ins is a little $urtain=
raiser (or the stru..le +etween Petru$hio and 1atherina that is to (ollow; while
the 4ord>s instru$tions to his pa.e Aartholomew as to the +eha"iour he is to
assume when he appears dis.uised as Sly>s wi(e adum+rate the main theme
o( the play properE ?196/:13@. 2oreo"er; 7ust lie 1atherina; Sly is a$ted upon
and imposed a new identity; trans(ormin. at least in part into what other people
would lie him to +e ?his trans(ormation is more then o+"ious when he starts
speain. in "erse; lea"in. +ehind his rou.h prose; or he tries to +eha"e lie
the lord he thins he is@. This is the only play in whi$h Shaespeare maes use
o( this uniDue theatri$al de"i$e Hinspired +y medie"al narrati"e poetry; where it
introdu$ed a story in the (orm o( a dream H whi$h was Duite in (ashion in
playwritin. +y that time ?see also Thomas 1yd>s The Spanish Tragedy or
:eor.e Peele>s The /ld -i%es! Tale@.
=:
%(ter ha"in. ser"ed its purpose to connect the reality of e%eryday life
with the imaginary world o( the play; the Induction will +e Duietly dropped. 8n
another "ariant; nown as The Taming of a Shrew; +e(ore the last s$ene o( the
play proper +e.ins; the 4ord .i"es order that Sly should +e dressed in his own
$lothes and $arried +a$ to the side o( the alehouse where he had +een (oundK
when the play is o"er; Sly waes up there; $on"in$ed that the whole
e&perien$e has +een a dream and .oes home to apply the newly a$Duired
nowled.e to tame his own shrewish wi(e. Some s$holars ha"e +elie"ed that
neatly rounded=o(( play to +e an earlier dra(t whi$h was pirated ?there is no
rele"ant e"iden$e that the author o( that "ersion was Shaespeare himsel(K
see; (or e&ample; %nna <ameson>s study; Sha3espeare!s Heroines@; while the
more $urrent "iew is that this te&t was put to.ether (rom memory +y an a$torJ
se"eral a$tors who had on$e taen part in per(orman$es o( The Taming of the
Shrew. Howe"er; irrespe$ti"e o( the ori.ins o( that "ersion; most
Shaespeareans ha"e ar.ued that the play is +etter without it. 6Sly>s main
(un$tion is to lead the spe$tator into the ima.inary world o( the playK and; on$e
he has done that; he is no lon.er reDuired.E ?Hi++ard; 196/:44@
The play=within=a=play that the a$tors put on (or Sly is the story o( two
$ourtships. 4u$entio; a youn. man (rom Pisa; arri"es in Padua a$$ompanied
+y his ser"ant Tranio to study at the uni"ersity. The two $ome a$ross the
wealthy Aaptista 2inola ar.uin. with the youn. Hortensio and the elderly
:remio; the suitors o( his youn.er dau.hter Aian$a. The old man; will not let
anyone woo his youn.er dau.hter until the elder and always +ad=tempered
1atherina is married. 4u$entio (alls himsel( in lo"e with Aian$a and he and
Tranio de$ide to dis.uise so as to .ain a$$ess to the (or+idden Aian$a.
4u$entio +e$omes -am+io the tutor; while Tranio will pretend to +e 4u$entio.
Petru$hio arri"es in Padua and; as he is in sear$h (or a wi(e; he is
interested in his (riend>s Hortesio>s proposal o( marryin. 1atherina; in spite o(
his ha"in. (ound out o( her temper. So he o((ers himsel( as a suitor to
1atherina and he introdu$es Hortensio; now dressed as the tutor 4itio to tea$h
the .irls musi$. :remio; in his turn; will present 4u$entio; dressed as -am+io;
to tea$h them literature. Petru$hio and Aaptista a.ree upon the (ormer>s
marryin. 1atherina in e&$han.e (or a lar.e dowry to +e paid a(ter the weddin..
Still Aaptista imposes a $ondition: that his dau.hter should a.ree to the
marria.e as well. The spars o( +attle (ly when the 1atherina and Petru$hio
(irst meet; +ut that is not reason enou.h (or Petru$hio to .i"e the weddin. up;
on the $ontrary; he is e"en deli.hted.
With 1atherina on the "er.e o( .ettin. married; the $ompetition (or
Aian$a>s hand +e$omes e"en (ier$er. Aaptista au$tions his dau.hter o(( to
TranioJ 4u$entio; who o((ered a hi.her pri$e than the old :remio. Aut
4u$entio>s (ather; Bin$entio; should also .i"e his $onsent to the marria.e and
Aaptista insists that Bin$entio should a.ree to the +ar.ain in person.
9n the weddin. day; Petru$hio>s +eha"iour is outra.eous. He arri"es
late; dressed in outlandish ra.s and ridin. a worn=out horse and humiliates
1atherina +eha"in. worse than she does and insistin. on lea"in. at on$e (or
his own house without e"en waitin. to eat the weddin. dinner. That is only the
+e.innin. o( a di((i$ult tamin. pro$ess at the end o( whi$h; a(ter ha"in. +een
denied de$ent (ood; sheets and pillows or new $lothes; 1atherina will
$ompletely $han.e her attitude towards her hus+and.
2eanwhile; Tranio; still dis.uised as 4u$entio; has done an e&$ellent
7o+ (or his master. He $on"in$es Hortensio that neither o( them should marry
=;
Aian$a sin$e she pre(ers her tutor -am+io ?the real 4u$entio@. -onseDuently;
Hortensio will marry a widow who has (allen in lo"e with him. 2oreo"er; he
mana.es to tri$ the Pedant; a newly arri"ed s$holar ?or mer$hant; in other
"ersions@; into a$$eptin. to impersonate Bin$entio. 0nder the $ir$umstan$es;
Aaptista will o+"iously a.ree to the marria.e. Still; (or (ear that the plot should
+e re"ealed; -am+ioJ 4u$entio arran.es to +e se$retly married to Aian$a.
!aturally; Petru$hio and 1atherina will +e in"ited to Aian$a>s weddin.
and on the way to Padua; Petru$hio tests 1atherina>s ha"in. +een de(initely
tamed on the e&pense o( the old Bin$entio; who; worried a+out his son; .oes
to Padua to (ind him. The sta.e is now set (or the $on(rontation +etween the
real and the pretended Bin$entio; whi$h will tae pla$e ri.ht in (ront o(
4u$entio>s house. The ser"ants pretend not to now Bin$entio and the latter is
e"en in dan.er o( +ein. arrested when 4u$entio and Aian$a; 7ust married;
appear to put an end to the situation.
The story ends with the weddin. (east (or Petru$hio; 4u$entio;
Hortensio and their wi"es; 1atherina; Aian$a and the widow. The .am+le
Petru$hio proposes to the others is the +est opportunity (or him to pro"e
e"ery+ody that 1atherina has $han.ed and she le$tures the other women
a+out the duties o( women to men.
%s it $an +e seen; the main theme o( the play is the 'attle of the se*es;
one o( the oldest themes in the world. The 9atherinaEPetruchio plot in
parti$ular is a+out the struggle for mastery in marriage. The Duestion o(
domination in man=woman relationships should +e $onsidered in $lose
$onne$tion with the Eli*a+ethan sense o( order. 6The Eli*a+ethans +elie"ed
that the world was ordered in a series o( hierar$hies; +e.innin. with :od at the
top o( the hi.hest one and $ontinuin. down in a series o( nested pyramids. ,or
e&ample; the monar$h was the hi.hest point o( the politi$al hierar$hy. He or
she was supposed to +e lie :od to no+les and $ommon su+7e$ts alie.
Similarly; a man was supposed to +e the master o( his own household. He
e&pe$ted o+edien$e and su+mission (rom his in(eriors H his wi(e; $hildren and
ser"ants.E ?2it$hell; 1993@ The $oo3 of Homilies or The Sermon of the State of
Matrimony; whi$h was read in the Eli*a+ethan $hur$h; e&pli$itly stated that the
wi(e owed her hus+and o+edien$e; 6in the respe$t o( the $ommandment o(
:od; as St. Paul e&presseth it in this (orm o( words: Let women 'e su'7ect to
their hus'ands. as to the LordF for the hus'and is the head of the woman as
#hrist is the head of the church.E ?Duoted +y Hi++ard; 196/: 16@
Aut the Eli*a+ethans also new that their world did not always $on(orm to
these ideals and that the stru..le (or domination in hus+and=wi(e relationships
was a (a$t o( e&isten$e. That e&plains the popularity in the En.lish $omedies or
poetry o( the shrewish wi(e as a $hara$ter=type ?(rom the mira$le plays up to
-hau$er>s -ife of $ath@. What distin.uishes Shaespeare (rom all the other
writers who had dealt with the same theme is the way he handled the tamin.
pro$ess; the sophisti$ation; the su+tlety and the in.enuity o( methods +y whi$h
Petru$hio a$hie"es his .oal. 8n most o( the pre"ious wors (o$used upon the
same ind o( $on(li$t; the shrewish woman was 6tamedE +y the use o( physi$al
(or$e. Petru$hio>s strate.y is di((erent. 9nly on$e is he tempted to use (or$e;
durin. their (irst meetin. when she stries him and he replies 6I swear I!ll cuff
you. if you stri3e again.E ?Shaespeare; 196/: 94@; +ut e"en then he does not
allow himsel( to +e $arried away and he sti$s to the plan he had pre"iously set
his mind to. 9+"iously his main line o( atta$ is psy$holo.i$al.
Still; +e(ore thorou.hly analysin. it; some Duestions should +e
answered (irst: What determines Petru$hio to adopt su$h a di((erent strate.yX
==
%nd why is 1atherina +ein. shrewishX The opinions o( the Shaespeareans
s$holars "ary to a .reat e&tent in this respe$t and that has also in(luen$ed their
interpretation o( the tamin.. Some ha"e $onsidered Petru$hio a sym+ol o(
mas$uline $on(iden$e and stren.th; a typi$al Eli*a+ethan suitor in pursuit o( a
wealthy wi(e; who wants to +e 6master of what is mine ownE ?Shaespeare;
196/: 92@; to tae his ri.ht(ul pla$e as male and hus+and in the Eli*a+ethan
s$heme o( thin.s where a man is the head o( his household; o+eyed +y his
wi(e. Some others; stressin. the (a$t the he ne"er uses "iolen$e a.ainst her;
ha"e seen him as a (irm; psy$holo.i$ally astute 6edu$atorE; who; $on"in$ed
a(ter his (irst rou.h meetin. with 1atherina that her true nature is not shrewish;
tries to +rin. out the +est in her.
8n as (ar as 1atherina is $on$erned; Shaespeare o((ers his readers
only some am+i.uous $lues with respe$t to the real reasons o( her dread(ul
temper and her unrestrained re+elliousness. Should her 6shrewishnessE +e
interpreted as a result o( her (ather>s showin. (a"ouritism towards her youn.er
sister Aian$aX That she is a hi.hly intelli.ent woman $ould +e easily seen (rom
her (irst meetin. with Petru$hio when she eeps up with him; pun (or pun and
insult (or insult. Then; perhaps; she has +e$ome spoiled and +ad=tempered
+e$ause she has ne"er met a man who is her eDual and $apa+le o( standin.
up to her. Ae(ore meetin. 1atherina; Petru$hio tries to dia.nose the $ause o(
her "iolent +eha"iour and tells Aaptista: 6I am as peremptory as she proud=
mindedF < (nd where two raging fires meet together. <They do consume the
thing that feeds their fury1E ?196/: 91@ Then; a(ter ha"in. met her; he says:
6&ow. 9ate. I am a hus'and for your turn. < For 'y this light where'y I see thy
'eauty< Thy 'eauty that doth ma3e me li3e thee well. < Thou must 'e married
to no man 'ut me1E ?196/: 93@ and his words ha"e +een interpreted as an
e"iden$e o( his ha"in. re$o.ni*ed a indred spirit in her and; hen$e;
wel$omin. the $han$e o( meetin. an anta.onist who will put up a .ood (i.ht.
So he appre$iates her proud animal spirits and $ompares her with
another (ier$e and di((i$ult $reature; that is the wild (al$on or the ha..ard. 8n
(a$t; he uses the metaphor o( tamin. the (al$onJ haw to e&plain his strate.y.
%s the Eli*a+ethan +oos on the su+7e$t emphasi*e; the tamin. and trainin. o(
these huntin. +irds reDuires ener.y; patien$e and dedi$ation (rom the tamerK it
is a +attle o( wills whi$h results; i( su$$ess(ul; in a mutual trust +etween man
and +ird. Petru$hio announ$es his intention o( usin. su$h traditional methods
o( tamin. at the end o( %$t 8B; s$ene 1; when 1atherina has (allen asleep; tired
a(ter ha"in. +een dra..ed out her house without e"en tain. part in her own
weddin. (east and (or$ed to mae a $old; dirty and unpleasant 7ourney at the
end o( whi$h she is pa$ed o(( to +ed without any supper.
Howe"er; two other aspe$ts o( Petru$hio>s plan are mu$h su+tler and
more important. %s Peter; Petru$hio>s ser"ant says; 6He 3ills her in her own
humourE ?196/: 121@. Here is how :.'. Hi++ard e&plained this line: 6What
Peter means +y this is that Petru$hio is deli+erately outdoin. his wi(e in his
displays o( per"ersity and +ad temper.E ?Hi++ard; 196/: 25@ This strate.y is
o+"ious (rom the (irst meetin. with 1atherina; when Petru$hio taes e"erythin.
she says in the re"erse sense. With him; language turns into a MweaponN
deli+erately e&ploited (or e((e$t so that 6what; in a di((erent $onte&t; mi.ht
appear $ruel; o((ensi"e or outra.eous; is trans(ormed into $omi$ e&u+eran$e
+y a lin.uisti$ "irtuosity that deli.hts in the e&er$ise o( its own powersE
?Hi++ard; 196/: /@. E"erythin. Petru$hio does or says is aimed at; as the $riti$
put it; main. himsel( 6a 3ind of mirror E a mirror that e*aggerates = to
=>
9atherina. His displays o( temper are a $ari$ature o( hers.E ?Hi++ard; 196/: 21@
Thus; throu.h her hus+and>s e&a..erated parody o( her wild +eha"iour;
1atherina will $ome to see the "alue o( that order (or whi$h she pre"iously had
no use and to see hersel( as she is. 2oreo"er; what maes Petru$hio>s
strate.y e"en more interestin. is that all his outra.eous a$tions and spee$hes
are ne"er dire$ted at his wi(e and that he $onstantly appears as a ni.ht=errant
who does e"erythin. 6in re%erend care for herE. %s he himsel( $on$ludes; 6This
is a way to 3ill a wife with 3indnessOE ?196/: 122@. %nd he is su$$ess(ul (or; in
the end; 1atherina is $ompletely trans(ormed.
The way 1atherina hersel( rea$ts to the tamin. has also +een su+7e$t (or
de+ate. )oes she (inally $ome to a$$ept her traditional role as a wi(e who should
o+ey her hus+andX -ould she ha"e (allen in lo"e with Petru$hio and that maes
her really want to $han.eX 9r has she understood Petru$hio>s strate.y and
en7oys 7oinin. him in his .ameX 2ost (eminist Shaespeareans ha"e ar.ued
that the play is 6o( the nature o( a 7oe whose spirit has lon. "anished; the dead
letter o( an outmoded miso.ynist $ultureE ?Ca$hnin; 1996: 23@. S$holars lie
Shirley !elson :arner ?19//@ or 4inda Aoose ?1991@ ha"e (i&ed its meanin. in
terms o( the miso.yny o( early modern En.land and stated that 1atherina>s
tamin. as well as the horri(i$ pra$ti$e o( 6+ridlin.E wi"es $ontri+uted eDually;
thou.h in di((erent ways; to silen$in. women>s "oi$es. 9n the $ontrary; other
$riti$s ha"e estimated that +oth Petru$hio and 1atherina play at; rather than li"e
in; patriar$hy. <. )ennis Huston ar.ues that 6M1atherine>sN spee$h is undou+tedly
proo( o( her pronoun$ed de+t to MPetru$hioN; (or it taes as its model his own
haran.uesL Cet the "ery nature o( 1ate>s per(orman$e as per(orman$e
su..ests that she is o((erin. hersel( to Petru$hio not as his ser"ant; as she
$laims; +ut as his eDual in a sele$t so$iety whi$h in$ludes themsel"es; the
playwri.ht; and perhaps a (ew mem+ers o( his audien$e: those who; +e$ause
they now that man is an a$tor; (reely $hoose and $han.e their roles in order to
a"oid the narrow; imprisonin. roles so$iety would impose upon them.E ?19/1:
64@ Te&tual e"iden$e $ould +e .i"en to support this approa$h to 1atherina>s
trans(ormation: when she and Petru$hio meet the old Bin$entio on their way to
Padua; she uses her hus+and>s methods a.ainst himK understandin. his
.ames; she is ready to 7oin in them; whi$h is what she does up to the end o( the
play. 2oreo"er; her $losin. spee$h is pu**lin.. 8t is o+"ious that 6power is o"er
1atherina; +ut she has power too.E ?Ca$hnin; 1996: 26@ and it is not $lear
whether she is $on(essin. her dis$o"ery o( the 6naturalnessE o( patriar$hy. 6My
mind has 'een as 'ig as one of yours.< My heart as great. my reason haply
more.< To 'andy word for word. and frown for frownF< $ut now I see our lances
are 'ut straws.< /ur strength as wea3. our wea3ness past compare.< That
seeming to 'e most which we indeed least are1N ?Shaespeare; 196/: 1##@. 8(; at
(irst; the spee$h implies 1atherina>s re$o.nition o( her o"erweenin.
unworthiness; then it points in the opposite dire$tion su..estin. her awareness
o( the "alue o( her own moral and intelle$tual $apa$ities. This "iew o( the
$omple&ity o( 1atherina>s $hara$ter is also supported +y the new histori$ism
pointin. to the li+eratin. $apa$ity o( representation; to the play unsettlin. its own
endin.. 8n 4ouis 2ontrose>s opinion; 6in the so$iety in whi$h Shaespeare li"ed;
wrote and a$ted; the pra$ti$al e((e$t o( per(ormin. his plays may ha"e +een to
en$oura.e the e&pansion and e"aluation o( options. Plays are pro"o$ations to
thou.ht and patterns (or a$tionE. ?19/3: 6/@ %nyway the understandin. o( this
(inal spee$h should +e $onsistent with the interpretation o( 1atherina>s moti"es
throu.hout the tamin..
=+
,or the se$ond line o( plot in the play; i.e. the $ianca ELucentio wooing
plot; Shaespeare maes use o( di((erent sour$es. %lthou.h it has its
(orerunners in 'oman and 8talian $omedy; it also has a spe$i(i$ sour$e:
:eor.e :as$oi.ne>s translation into En.lish o( a $omedy $alled I Suppositi
?The Su'stitutes or The Impostors@ written +y the .reat 8talian poet 4udo"i$o
%riosto. Shaespeare preser"es the main theme o( the Supposes? whi$h
presents the e((orts o( a youn. man; helped +y a $le"er ser"ant to outwit the
old men who stand in the way o( his o+tainin. the .irl o( his $hoi$e; as well as
a num+er o( other elements su$h as the $han.e o( $lothes +etween master
and ser"ant or the use o( a $asual tra"eller as the lo"er>s (ather. This ind o(
intri.ue; whi$h o+"iously maes an e&$ellent $ontrast to Petru$hio>s dire$t and
open wooin. o( 1atherina and his (orward proposal to her (ather Aaptista; has
ena+led Shaespeare to treat the matter o( marria.e and its so$ial impli$ations
in a more $omple& manner than he $ould ha"e done it otherwise.
Thus; in spite o( his preser"in. the +asi$ stru$ture o( the sour$e play
+ased on mista3en identities; the playwri.ht also re=shapes it +y addin. new
elements or suppressin. the others. The (irst meetin. o( hero and heroine is
rather romanti$ and 4u$entio; transported at the si.ht o( Aian$a; e&presses his
(eelin.s in sto$ terms and phrases spe$i(i$ to $on"entional Eli*a+ethan lo"e
poetry. 2oreo"er; Aian$a; unlie Polynesta; the heroine o( The Supposes; is
.i"en a lar.er share o( a$tion and more initiati"e. <ust as 4u$entio (un$tions in
$ontrast with Petru$hio; Aian$a hersel( a$ts as a contrast to her sister;
1atherina. %t the +e.innin.; she appears to +e the sweet and su+missi"e
dau.hter; as her name itsel( su..ests it: Aian$a means 6whiteE in 8talian; a
$olour whi$h the Eli*a+ethans asso$iated with purity; +eauty and other
desira+le (eminine Dualities. Aut her .entleness and su+missi"eness pro"e not
to +e .enuine; they are part o( an a$t put on to impress the others. People are
attra$ted to her (or her .ood loos and her apparently sweet nature; +ut she
+eha"es in ways that don>t mat$h the (irst impressions. 8n dealin. with her
youn. suitors; the dis.uised 4u$entio and Hortensio; she pro"es per(e$tly
$apa+le o( assertin. her own will; .i"in. them orders and +ein. in $omplete
$ommand o( the situation. She manipulates them so as to en$oura.e 4u$entio
and dis$oura.e Hortensio. %nd she has no s$ruples a+out the de$eption +ein.
pra$ti$ed on her (ather; nor any o+7e$tions to her se$ret marria.e with
4u$entio. She .ets what she wants; e"en while she appears to $omply with
authority>s $ommands. 8n the end; as her +eha"iour at the marria.e +anDuet
shows; she really has the potential to +e$ome a 6shrewE indul.in. in +awdy
+anter and diso+eyin. her hus+and. Thus; what seemed to +e a romanti$ and
e&$itin. relationship is in (a$t unrelia+le; +e$ause in the end the hus+and is le(t
in the dar a+out his wi(e>s real nature; while; on the other hand; at the end o(
a di((i$ult road; Petru$hio and 1atherina ha"e .ained (ull nowled.e o( ea$h
other and trust ea$h other. This is also the reason why 6the writin. employed in
the tale o( Aian$a and her suitors should +e $omparati"ely tame and
$on"entional; (or here words; lie a$tions; are not intended to $reate
somethin. new or re"eal somethin. latent; +ut to ser"e as a (orm o( dis.uise
(or $hara$ters who see to hide what they are; or to tae on an identity that is
not their own; in order to .et what they want.E ?Hi++ard; 196/: 9@
There are also some other si.ni(i$ant alterations. The moti( o( the lost
son who is restored to his (ather; whi$h is essential in The Supposes; is this
time suppressed; (or it would ha"e +een rather inappropriate in a $omedy o(
wooin. and weddin.. Then; the num+er o( Aian$a>s wooers is lar.er with the
=@
appearan$e on the sta.e o( Hortensio; who; in spite o( ha"in. e"en less
indi"iduality than the other sto$ $hara$ters in the play; still plays an essential
part as a lin +etween the two plots. He is Petru$hio>s (riend; helpin. the
(ormer woo 1atherina; and at the same time; he appears; as pre"iously
mentioned; as one o( Aian$a>s wooers. He $ontri+utes to the su$$ess o( the
last s$ene o( all; where three sets o( hus+ands and wi"es are needed to .i"e
the ri.ht amount o( suspense and $lima& to the +usiness o( the wa.er.
%ll in all; the $omedy o( $han.es $onne$ted to the Aian$a=4u$entio
wooin. plot remains to a lar.e e&tent a $omedy o( situation that $ulminates in
the riotous meetin. +etween 4u$entio>s real (ather and the supposed (ather;
the Pedant. %nd lie any other $omedy o( this ind; it (un$tions due to a
num+er o( stoc3 characters; type (i.ures who remain un$han.ed throu.hout
the play and whose a$tions are always predi$ta+le: the Pedant ?or the
2er$hant; in some editions o( the play@; the old pantaloon who (ee+ly pursues
the youn. .irl and maes himsel( loo (oolish in his e&pressions o( lo"e
?:remio@; the (ather ?Aaptista@; the lo"er ?4u$entio@ and the $le"er; s$hemin.
ser"ant; who seems superior e"en to his master ?Tranio@. The only e&$eption
is Aian$a; who de"elops alon. di((erent lines; as pointed out a+o"e. The rest o(
the $hara$ters $ould +e su+di"ided into two $ate.ories: the old; who are
tri$ed; and the youn. who play tri$s on the old and on one another as well.
9ut o( the (irst $ate.ory; the one who nows the least is Aaptista; who is
$onsistently mistaen a+out e"erythin. and e"ery+ody. He nows "ery little
a+out his dau.hters; maes no attempt to understand 1atherina and is duped
+y Aian$a>s apparently su+missi"e +eha"iour. Perhaps to the Eli*a+ethan
audien$e; he mi.ht ha"e appeared as a .ood (ather interested in assurin. his
dau.hters> e$onomi$ (uture in a so$iety where they had "irtually no opportunity
o( main. a li"in.. Ay that time; it was the parents> duty to (ind a suita+le mat$h
(or their dau.htersK and the +est o( all was the wealthiest. That e&plains his
promisin. Aian$a>s hand in marria.e to the one who +id more; that is 4u$entio;
in $ase his (ather personally a.reed to the marria.e; or :remio; should the
(ormer de(ault on his promise. %(ter all; he is a wealthy +usinessman (or whom
marryin. his dau.hters means doin. a (ine +usiness.
!e&t to Aaptista; :remio should +e mentioned. He is eDually unaware
o( the e&tent to whi$h he is duped and unwittin.ly introdu$es his ri"al 4u$entio
into Aaptista>s house. He is the ind o( a.ed suitor; (oolish in his pretensions
as a lo"er; +ut he is not a $lown. There are instan$es when his $hara$ter is
remara+ly sustained and when; drawin. on that sto$ o( pro"er+ial wisdom;
he pro"es; howe"er; to +e endowed with shrewdness in as (ar as other matters
than lo"e are $on$erned.
The most o+"ious opposite o( the pre"ious two $hara$ters is Tranio; 6the
ar$h=manipulator; who has all the strin.s in his hands until the moment when
Bin$entio turns up; +y whi$h time Tranio>s main purpose o( ena+lin. 4u$entio to
marry Aian$a has +een a$hie"edE. ?Hi++ard; 196/: 2/@ 4u$entio>s dependen$e on
him is almost $omplete. He is per(e$tly aware (rom the "ery +e.innin. o( his
master>s la$ o( de"otion to learnin. and he is pro"ed ri.ht +y 4u$entio>s so easily
(allin. in lo"e with Aian$a or with what he thins Aian$a is. 8t is Tranio>s idea to
$han.e $lothes and he plays e&$ellently his part +ein. a+le to Duote (rom 9"id or
%ristotle and speain. in "erse; whereas the other ser"ants spea in prose.
7& ;& !ra#edies
>*
Ay (ar the most proli(i$ period in terms o( tra.edy writin. (or Shaespeare was
the se$ond period o( $reation. The (irst period o( $reation was mared indeed
+y a num+er o( attempts at writin. tra.edies; some o( whi$h drew on histori$al
su+7e$ts pro"ided +y the $lassi$al 'oman antiDuity. 8nspired +y Sene$an and
9"idian sour$es; Titus (ndronicus ?1#/9@; Shaespeare>s (irst tra.edy;
moulded in the Sene$an pattern a story o( utmost atro$ious "iolen$e;
mutilation and re"en.e. Pro+a+ly meant to $ompete with 1yd>s Spanish
Tragedy; the play opposes Fueen Tamora; and her "illainous sla"e=lo"er
%aron the moor; to the 'oman .eneral Titus %ndroni$us and to his (amily
whose mem+ers .radually .et to su((er the $onseDuen$es o( the :othi$
Dueen>s re"en.e: Aassianus; the emperor>s +rother and Titus>s son=in=law is
+rutally murdered; 4a"inia; his wi(e and Titus>s dau.hter; is raped and terri+ly
mutilated +y Tamora>s sons; two o( Titus>s sons are (ramed (or the murder o(
Aassianus and e&e$uted despite all Titus>s attempts at pro"in. their inno$en$e
and sa"in. their li(e ?e"en at the e&pense o( his own mutilation@. Su((erin.
e"entually trans(orms Titus into an eDually +loody a"en.er who ills Tamora>s
sons and (eeds her a pie made o( their (lesh +e(ore illin. her as well. This
play o( in$ontesta+le e&$essi"e "iolen$e a$tually aims at illustratin. the theme
o( the opposition o( moral and politi$al disorder to the uni(yin. (or$e o(
(riendship and wise .o"ernment in whi$h Shaespeare seems to ha"e taen
.reat interest and whi$h is perhaps +est epitomised in the ima.e o( the raped
and mutilated 4a"inia; as a sym+ol o( +oth moral and politi$al disorder.
The other 'oman play +elon.in. to the same (irst period o( $reation;
2ulius #aesar ?1#99@; is; howe"er; o( a di((erent type. % politi$al tra.edy; it
(o$uses on the e"ents that led to <ulius -aesar>s assassination +y the
'oman senators; $hie( amon. whi$h Arutus; and on the su+seDuent $i"il war
that opposed Arutus and the senators to 2ar$ %ntony and 9$ta"ius. Arutus;
in parti$ular; appears as 6a tra.i$ hero who; in spite o( a no+le nature and a
sense o( hi.h purpose; is +rou.ht low +e$ause he maes a wron. moral
$hoi$eE ?:a"riliu; 2555: 13/@ and is destroyed H lie Hamlet or 9thello H +y
his own "irtues. Shaespeare>s $ontemporaries; well "ersed in an$ient :ree
and 'oman history; would "ery liely ha"e dete$ted parallels +etween 2ulius
#aesar!s portrayal o( the shi(t (rom repu+li$an to imperial 'ome and the
Eli*a+ethan era>s trend toward $onsolidated monar$hi$ power. 8n 1#99; when
the play was (irst per(ormed; Fueen Eli*a+eth 8 had sat on the throne (or
nearly (orty years; enlar.in. her power at the e&pense o( the aristo$ra$y and
the House o( -ommons. %s she was then si&ty=si& years old; her rei.n
seemed liely to end soon; yet she la$ed any heirs ?as did <ulius -aesar@.
2any (eared that her death would plun.e En.land into the ind o( $haos that
had pla.ued En.land durin. the (i(teenth=$entury Wars o( the 'oses. 8n an
a.e when $ensorship would ha"e limited dire$t $ommentary on these
worries; Shaespeare $ould ne"ertheless use the story o( -aesar to
$omment on the politi$al situation o( his day.
The set o( plays o( tra.i$ $on$eption o( the (irst period is rounded o(( +y
Romeo and 2uliet ?$. 1#91=1#96@ whi$h; +y its poeti$ de$orations and
impressi"e ri$hness o( (i.urati"e lan.ua.e; announ$es Shaespeare>s
maturation as a writer. The story o( a pair o( 6star=$rossed lo"ersE; it is aimed
not only at re"ealin. the G(a$es> o( lo"e ?as ea$h $hara$ter holds herJhis own
opinion a+out it@ +ut also at praisin. man as an indi"idual a+o"e (amily and
ran. Thou.h they are dri"en sometimes too rashly into a$tion +y their youth(ul
passion ?espe$ially 'omeo@ and they seem mere toys in the Ghands o( (ate>;
>/
'omeo and <uliet e"entually triumph o"er their elders who realise too late that
their enmity $aused the "ery destru$tion o( their o((sprin.. Aut the lo"ers>
sa$ri(i$e turns out at least not to ha"e +een in "ain sin$e the 2onta.ues and
the -apulets are (inally re$on$iled. This sli.htly optimisti$ endin. whi$h
promises pea$e in Berona is a$tually one o( the reasons why the play is
$onsidered a play o( tra.i$ $on$eption indeed; +ut not a tra.edy proper.
)urin. the se$ond period o( $reation; Shaespeare>s plays display a
si.ni(i$ant $han.e in tone to sadness and a dar outloo on li(e. Whether
$aused +y personal disappointment or illustrati"e (or a more widely=spread
depression; whi$h seems to ha"e a((e$ted the Eli*a+ethan so$iety at the turn
o( the $entury; this $han.e in tone has (ound its +est e&pression parti$ularly
in the plays that .i"e the (ull measure o( Shaespeare>s maturity as a
playwri.ht; namely the tra.edies: Hamlet; /thello; 9ing Lear; Mac'eth;
Timon of (thens; (ntony and #leopatra; #oriolanus. 68n them; the world is
pi$tured as (ull o( e"il (or$es and man as +ein. either thou.htless; in whi$h
$ase he +lindly answers the $all o( elementary passions H 7ealousy; am+ition;
irrational lo"e H or meditati"e; and then his meditati"e turn o( mind paraly*es
his will.E ?:a"riliu; 2555: 13/=139@ 8n parti$ular in his so=$alled 6.reat
tra.ediesE ?Hamlet; /thello; 9ing Lear and Mac'eth@; Shaespeare has
endea"oured to translate his enhan$ed awareness o( the $omple&ity o(
human nature and to $ontain 6somethin. o( the lar.er dimensions o( li(e
within the limitin. (ormality o( artE ?)ai$hes; 1991: 231@. Ay (ar; the +est $ase
in point is his Hamlet; a play whi$h; more than any other in the
Shaespearean $reation; in"ites the readerJ spe$tator to em+ar on a
stimulatin. e&er$ise o( interpretation in order to e"entually .rasp its meanin.s
?i( that is really possi+le@.

ase Stud40 Hamlet "/=**3/=*/%
The issue o( the sour$es Shaespeare mi.ht ha"e inspired (rom in writin. his
Hamlet has also pro"ided Shaespearean s$holarship with material (or
spe$ulations. %s Sydney Aolt ?1995: 19@ points out; the te&t Shaespeare most
pro+a+ly +ased his play upon is the re"en.e tra.edy o( Hamlet; nown to ha"e
+een in the possession o( Shaespeare>s sta.e $ompany (or se"eral years
+e(ore his own tra.edy was sta.ed. Thou.h this play; also re(erred to as the
r=Hamlet; is no lon.er a"aila+le nowadays; there are do$uments whi$h
re$ord its +ein. per(ormed in di((erent theatres outside 4ondon a+out 1#94 and
1#96. E"en some o( the 0ni"ersity Wits; lie Thomas !ashe and Thomas
4od.e; mae re(eren$e to it and to its (amous :host $ryin. 6Hamlet; re"en.e]E
Sin$e Thomas !ashe in$ludes his re(eren$e to the play in a pie$e o( $riti$ism
re.ardin. the wor o( his (ellow 0ni"ersity Wit; Thomas 1yd; and; (urthermore;
r=Hamlet +asi$ally appears as a re"en.e tra.edy; 7ust lie 1yd>s Spanish
Tragedy; spe$ulations ha"e +een made that 1yd himsel( mi.ht ha"e +een the
author o( this play. ?2uir and S$hoen+aum; 1936: 216@
%s a matter o( (a$t; the story is an an$ient one; ori.inatin. in
S$andina"ia as the tale o( %mleth; the le.endary prin$e o( )enmar. 8t was
told; around 1255; +y the )anish historian Sa&o :rammati$us in his 4atin
Historia Danica; and then retold; with only sli.ht alterations; in a $olle$tion o(
tra.i$ stories +y ,raneois de Aelle(orest. There are se"eral important
elements o( Sa&o>s "ersion whi$h ha"e +een; rou.hly speain.; preser"ed in
the dramati$ wors. Sa&o mentions %mleth>s (ei.nin. madness so that the
usurpin. un$le would re.ard him as a $ompletely mindless lunati$ not worth
>)
illin.. ?Aut; in the ori.inal le.end; %mleth>s purpose is sheer sel(=
preser"ation; as his un$le; who is not a hypo$rite at all; openly de$lares his
intention o( doin. away with anyone who would $hallen.e his position@. The
usurpin. un$le sends a.ents to try to (ind out whether %mleth>s idio$y is
.enuine: one o( these a.ents is a .irl; the ori.inal o( 9phelia; while another;
presuma+ly one o( %mleth>s (riends; the ori.inal o( Polonius. The latter also
hides himsel( in the straw o( %mleth>s mother>s room to o"erhear a
$on"ersation +etween mother and son; and is dis$o"ered and illed +y
%mleth. There is also an attempt to ha"e %mleth put to death in En.land.
%nd; in the end; %mleth a$hie"es his re"en.e; slays his wi$ed un$le with his
own sword and +e$omes in.. ?See Aolt; 1995: 19=25@
The le.end appears somewhat trans(ormed in r=Hamlet and there
are sour$es whi$h maintain that 1yd; as the G(ather o( the Eli*a+ethan
re"en.e drama> so popular amon. the audien$es o( the time ?despite the (a$t
that the Eli*a+ethan laws and reli.ion stron.ly $ondemned those who too
re"en.e; espe$ially (or murder@; mi.ht ha"e su$$ess(ully in$orporated in its
matter some o( the de"i$es o( the Sene$an re"en.e play. 9ne o( them is the
.host H a Sene$an de"i$e H $ryin. (or re"en.eK here; the ori.inal murder is
done se$retly +y poisonin.; not openly as in Sa&o; so that the wi$ed un$le is
not pu+li$ly nown as wi$ed and the .host is reDuired to re"eal the truth to
Hamlet. This maes it unne$essary (or Hamlet to (ei.n madness in order to
sa"e his li(e; as he does in Sa&o; +ut 1yd was a .reat hand at madness and
ept this element in the story ?indeed he added to it +y main. 9phelia .o
mad as well@ thou.h the moti"ation (or it is now mu$h less $lear. True to the
Sene$an (ashion; he also illed o(( the hero and the other ma7or $hara$ters in
the end; and introdu$ed 4aertes; the (en$in. mat$h; and the poisoned rapier
and drin. The de"i$e o( the play=within=the=play may ha"e also +een used.
Su$h spe$ulations ha"e +een made on the +asis o( a de.raded "ersion o( the
lost Hamlet whi$h e&ists in :erman. %$tually; sin$e dire$t $omparison is
impossi+le; it is di((i$ult to say how many alterations o( the ori.inal le.end
were e((e$ted in the r=Hamlet ?those already pinpointed are $onsidered the
most pro+a+le in the li.ht o( the more .eneral nowled.e o( Thomas 1yd>s
dramati$ wor and o( the s$ar$e do$umentary e"iden$e o( the e&isten$e o(
the play@ and how many were Shaespeare>s. What $annot +e; howe"er;
denied is that Shaespeare>s tas was to rewor the melodramati$ Sene$an
re"en.e play r=Hamlet and; thus; 6to impose a new; tra.i$ meanin. on a
traditional story; +y his arran.ement and presentation o( the a$tion; +y the
ind o( li(e and moti"ation he .a"e to the $hara$ters; and +y the o"ertones o(
meanin. and su..estion set up +y his poeti$ handlin. o( the $hara$ters>
lan.ua.e.E ?)ai$hes; 1991: 26/@
,rom the "ery (irst a$t ?s$ene 2@; it +e$omes o+"ious that Hamlet; unlie
the rest o( the $ourt; is not in a 7oy(ul mood: he stands apart; all dressed in +la$;
while the $ourtiers party; merrily $ele+ratin. Fueen :ertrude>s weddin. with
-laudius; Hamlet>s un$le and the new in. a(ter his +rother>s death. !aturally;
Hamlet is still mournin. his (ather; +ut this is not the only reason (or his
melan$holy. His (irst soliloDuy ?%$t 8; S$ene 2@ re"eals; howe"er; the (a$t that he
rather seems to +e o"erwhelmed with ra.e a.ainst his mother who; too soon;
a(ter the old in.>s (uneral; married another man H and not any man H +ut her
(ormer hus+and>s +rother; -laudius. %s the soliloDuy de"elops; the readershipJ
audien$e reali*e that; thou.h a marria.e presupposes mutual $onsent o( the
spouses; Hamlet seems to settle the +urden o( the +lame parti$ularly on his
>7
mother>s shoulders. Shaespearean s$holars +elon.in. to di((erent $riti$al
s$hools ha"e tried to pro"ide "alid e&planations in this respe$t.
,or instan$e; the representati"es o( !ew Histori$ism ha"e e&plained
Hamlet>s rea$tion to :ertrude>s marria.e startin. (rom two histori$ally
a$nowled.ed aspe$ts. 9n the one hand; the marria.e is unlaw(ul +y
E$$lesiasti$al $anonsK on the other hand; it depri"es Hamlet o( his law(ul
su$$ession. 'e(eren$e should thus +e made to the ta+les o( $onsan.uinity and
a((inity drawn up in En.land under Henry B888. -onsan.uinity $on(orms +roadly
to what we mi.ht e&pe$t: a man may not marry his mother; his (ather>s sister or
his mother>s sister; his sister; his dau.hter or the dau.hter o( his own son or
dau.hter. To put it otherwise; the ta+le o( $onsan.uinity prohi+its marria.es
with $lose +lood ties; in the .enerations in whi$h it mi.ht plausi+ly o$$ur
?parent; si+lin.; o((sprin.; and .rand$hild@. ,rom this point o( "iew; the
marria.e to a dead +rother>s widow is undou+tedly $onsidered in$est. ?9(
$ourse; historians o( the (amily ha"e re.istered a dis$repan$y +etween .eneral
inship rules and le.islation $on$ernin. law(ul and unlaw(ul unions in parti$ular
and a$tual pra$ti$es. The pau$ity o( $on$rete e"iden$e su..ests that these
$odes rarely led to le.al a$tion.@ %s (or the ta+le o( a((inity; it re(le$ts unions
whi$h mi.ht produ$e $on(li$tin. inheritan$e $laims. 9r; as the words in whi$h
-laudius addresses Hamlet (rom the +e.innin. indi$ate that; +y marryin.
:ertrude; he has $aused the alienation o( Hamlet>s line:
61in.: Aut now; my $ousin Hamlet; and my son H
Hamlet: % little more than in and less than ind.
1in.: How is it that the $louds still han. on youX
Hamlet: !ot so; my lord; 8 am too mu$h in the sun.E ?255#: /51@
8n his prolon.ed mournin.; wearin. +la$; Hamlet insistently eeps the
dire$t line; old HamletJ youn. Hamlet present. 8( Hamlet is -laudius>s $ousin
?simply; in@; Hamlet should +e in.K i( Hamlet is -laudius>s son; then he is
$on(irmed as line=dependent on -laudius. The o((en$e is -laudius>s
$ommitted a.ainst the Hamlet line. ?See <ardine; 1996@
9( $ourse; one mi.ht say that this matter o( su$$ession is; in (a$t;
rather am+i.uous; .i"en the (a$t that; a$$ordin. to the S$andina"ian system;
the )anish throne was an ele$ti"e one; with the royal $oun$il namin. the ne&t
in.K there(ore; e"en a(ter his (ather>s death; there was no a$tual .uarantee
that Hamlet and not his un$le mi.ht +e ele$ted to the throne. Aut; thou.h
settin. the a$tion o( the play in )enmar; Shaespeare $hooses to represent
the matter o( su$$ession as $on$ei"ed in the En.lish so$iety; a$$ordin. to
whi$h Hamlet; as his (ather>s only son; is the ri.ht(ul heir; whi$h maes his
un$le a usurper. ?That Shaespeare>s intention was indeed to mould the
Eli*a+ethan reality in his tra.edy mi.ht (urther (ind support in the parallelism
that some s$holars ha"e identi(ied +etween $ertain $hara$ters and;
respe$ti"ely; pu+li$ (i.ures o( the time: Hamlet>s (i.ure seems to ha"e +een
inspired +y that o( the Earl o( Esse&; whose re+ellion (ailed and +rou.ht
a+out his e&e$ution under the $har.e o( treason on ,e+ruary 2#th; 1651K
Polonius H +orin.; meddlin.; .i"en to wise old senten$es and truisms;
maintainin. an ela+orate spyin. system on +oth (riend and (oe H mi.ht ha"e
+een modelled a(ter Eli*a+eth>s treasurer; William -e$il. 9ther $hara$ters
$orrespond to some sto$ $hara$ters o( those days that $ould +e easily
identi(ied amon. the aristo$rats su$h as: 9sri$ H the Eli*a+ethan dandyK
'osen$rant* and :uildenstern H the o+seDuious $ourtiersK 4aertes and
,ortin+ras H the men o( (ew words; +ut o( .reat deedsK Horatio H the 'oman
>:
(riendK 9phelia H the ine((e$tual $ourtly lo"e heroine.@ ?2uir and
S$hoen+aum; 1936: 16/=139@
!e"ertheless; (or se"eral .enerations o( psy$hoanalyti$ s$holars; the
e&planation (or Hamlet>s melan$holy mi.ht +e $ompletely di((erent. 2ost o(
them a.ree on the (a$t that 6the Pro+lem o( HamletE H to use the "ery terms
,reud himsel( pre(erred in his e&aminin. the matter H resides in his 9edipal
(eelin.s. %$$ordin. to ,reud and his (ollowers ?$hie( amon. whom Ernest
<ones should +e mentioned H see Hamlet and 9edipus@; it is the (ate o( all
men; perhaps; to dire$t their (irst se&ual impulse towards their mother and
their (irst hatred and their (irst murderous wish a.ainst their (ather ?lie
9edipus who slew his (ather 4afus and married his mother <o$asta@.
!e"ertheless; it is $lear that an innate desire to ill one>s (ather and sleep
with one>s mother runs $ontrary to the "ery (a+ri$ o( the so$iety. The
di((eren$e +etween this innate ur.e and the demands o( the $i"ili*ation is
then mediated +y repression and su+limation. Either the inappropriate ur.es
are repressed ?whi$h riss mani(estin. itsel( in psy$holo.i$al illness@ or they
are trans(ormed into some e&pression whi$h is use(ul to so$iety. %t a (irst
si.ht; 7ud.in. +y the way in whi$h Hamlet re(ers to his dead (ather in the (irst
soliloDuy and +y his de$ision o( a"en.in. his death; the idea that he mi.ht
su((er (rom an 9edipus $omple& mi.ht seem rather preposterous. Aut ,reud
e&plains the di((eren$e +etween what he taes to +e an innate uni"ersal
psy$holo.i$al me$hanism and the a$$epted ran.e o( e&pression o(
$i"ili*ation with the notion o( repression. That Hamlet has (undamental ur.es
whi$h are not "isi+le in the $ourse o( the play is a tri+ute to the ener.y he has
in"ested in repressin. them. ?See ,reud; 1999: 14=1# and <ones;
http:JJwww.$li$notes.$omJ7ones@ %nd he is su$$ess(ul in repressin. his
7ealousy (or his (ather and attra$tion to his mother until :ertrude>s remarria.e
with -laudius. 0nder the new $ir$umstan$es; repression o( in$estuous and
parri$idal dri"es must +e $arried out a.ain; +ut it is hindered +y the :host>s
in7un$tion to ill -laudius; that is; to .i"e "ent to what he is tryin. to hold
+a$. The su((erin. (or the initial maternal loss is pain(ully re=li"ed and this
6in$omplete or unsu$$ess(ul deta$hment (rom the mother;E in <ulia 1riste"a>s
terms; ?-runelle=Banri.h; http:JJwww.hull.a$.uJren(orumJ"2no2J$runelle.htm@
leads to what the Eli*a+ethans $alled melan$holy; in modern terms mania$=
depressi"e psy$hosis; $hara$teri*ed; as it $an +e seen throu.hout the play;
+y symptoms o( de7e$tion; re(usal o( (ood; insomnia; $ra*y +eha"iour; (its o(
delirium; and (inally ra"in. madness. 9n$e his (ather dead; the pre=oedipal
dyad; the ideal state o( (usion +etween mother and $hild $ould ha"e +een
re$reated; +ut the new hus+and (i.ure that is -laudius inter(eres;
supersedin. the son. The ori.inal parental $ouple 9ld Hamlet = :ertrude;
whi$h; as a result o( an initially su$$ess(ul repression o( oedipal ur.es; was
$on$ei"ed as per(e$t; pure is repla$ed +y a new one; -laudius H :ertrude;
whi$h in the li.ht o( the newly rea$ti"ated $omple& appears shame(ul; lusty
and $orrupted. ?See the rhetori$ o( dis.ust in the (irst lines o( the soliloDuy:
6How weary; stale MprostituteN; (lat Mto $opulateN; and unpro(ita+le
Seem Mto (orni$ate; with additional pun on SseamS: (ilthN to me all the uses
Mse&ual en7oymentN o( this world]
,ie onSt; ah (ie Mdun.N; Stis an unweeded .arden Mwom+N
That .rows M+e$omes pre.nantN to seed MsemenN; thin.s Mmale se&N ran Min
heatN and .ross MlewdN in nature M(emale se&N
>;
Possess it Mse&uallyN merely MSmerrilyS; le$herouslyNE. ?-runelle=Banri.h;
http:JJwww.hull.a$.uJren(orumJ"2no2J$runelle.htm@
The sur(a$e stru$ture o( the te&t appears to +e one in whi$h the
in$estuous mother; whose (emininity emer.es (rom underneath the maternal
o+7e$t es$apin. $ontrol; is re"iled and the dead (ather is ideali*ed and
mourned. 8ts deeper layers o( ima.ery ?here in$ludin. its mytholo.i$al
+a$.round H the re(eren$es to !io+e and Hyperion@ su..est a stru$ture in
whi$h the (ather as male prin$iple is +y=passed and the emphasis is laid on
the son as +e.etter. The death o( old Hamlet prompts a 6re.ressi"e re"erieE;
?1riste"a 19/3: 2# in http:JJwww.hull.a$.uJren(orumJ"2no2J$runelle.htm@ a
pre=oedipal (antasy o( (usion with the mother. The emer.en$e o( a new (ather
e&plodes Hamlet>s $onstru$t; rea$ti"atin. oedipal issues. Hamlet>s (irst
soliloDuy thus 7u&taposes the pre=oedipal and the oedipal pattern; the dyad
and the triad; the mer.er and the end o( the mer.er. Tain. (urther the
ar.umentation in ,reudian terms; alon. <ulia 1riste"a>s lines; the $on$lusion
we rea$h is that Hamlet>s melan$holia results (rom an in$omplete
deta$hment (rom the mother as mu$h as (rom .rie"in. (or a dead (ather.
?9+ser"ation: !ot all psy$hoanalysts ha"e a.reed with the idea that Hamlet>s
+eha"iour is de(initely mared +y an 9edipus $omple&; +ut ha"e ar.ued; lie
,rederi$ Wertham; (or instan$e; that; the 69restes $omple&E pro"ides a more
appropriate model (or the a$tion in Hamlet; i.e. this "ariety o( parent $omple&
whi$h $entres on the mother; and more spe$i(i$ally on hostility toward her.
69restes illed his mother -lytemnestra and her lo"er; his (ather>s insman;
%e.isthus. The le.end o( 9restes; whi$h histori$ally mars a turnin. point in
the so$ial position o( the mother; has (ar more similarity to the story o( Hamlet
than has the story o( 9edipus.E H ,. Wertham; 6-ritiDue o( ,reud>s
8nterpretation o( HamletE in 2.). ,a+er: 125 a"aila+le on
http:JJarts.u$s$.eduJ(a$ultyJ+iermanJElsinoreJ,reudJ(reud,irst.html@.
8n this $onte&t; the (un$tion o( the .host should also +e re$onsidered. The
(a$t has already +een underlined that the appearan$e o( the .host does not
allow (or a su$$ess(ul repression o( the oedipal ur.es (or a se$ond time. The
:host a$tually +e$omes 6the pla$e (or the pro7e$tion o( the missin. si.ni(ierE
?Stetner; http:JJwww.$olum+ia.eduJV(s15J.ar+er.htm@; a messen.er o( the 64aw
o( the ,atherE in 4a$anian terms; whi$h; +y edu$ation; has +een already
assimilated +y Hamlet. 2ore o( a $onstru$tion o( Hamlet>s psy$he; it is meant to
$onstantly +rin. +a$; +y trans(eren$e; the memory o( the (ather o( the Sym+oli$
it stands (or; in a $onte&t in whi$h the 8ma.inary; em+odied +y :ertrude; seems
to +e re=.ainin. .round. Hamlet must mae a $hoi$e on whi$h his identity
depends. 6Hamlet; torn +etween his dead (ather and his all=too present mother
is a man to dou+le +usiness +ound. The duty o( remem+erin. the (ather taes
him alon. the paths o( re"en.eK the ne$essity o( deta$hin. himsel( (rom the
mother taes him alon. that o( 1riste"an Gmatri$ide>; the only alternati"e to
asym+olia; depression and sel(=destru$tion. Su$h $omplementary demands are
re.istered in the play. -oe&tensi"e with the (ather>s Gdread $ommand> to a"en.e
him is Hamlet>s readiness to a"en.e himsel( on his motherE ?-runelle=Banri.h;
http:JJwww.hull.a$.uJren(orumJ"2no2J$runelle.htm@; in spite o( the :host>s
reDuest to 6lea"e her to hea"en.E ?%$t 8; S$ene #; l. /6; 255#: /5#@ The -loset
S$ene is a ey moment in the play (or the understandin. o( Hamlet>s
relationship with his mother and his stri"in. (or Gmatri$ide;> whi$h is essential (or
indi"iduation. When Hamlet responds to his mother>s summons and $omes to
her $loset; he intrudes where $ustomarily a woman would only entertain her
hus+and or lo"er. ,or an adult son; intimations o( eroti$ possi+ility are almost
>=
ine"ita+leK the son $rosses into the en$losure o( his mother>s pri"a$y to
en$ounter her as a se&uali*ed o+7e$t. Per(ormin. +e(ore Polonius H an
ille.itimate intruder in her intimate spa$e H; :ertrude (rames her reproa$h
(ormallyK +elie"in. himsel( alone; Hamlet responds (amiliarly. The upshot is that
the lan.ua.e o( pu+li$ disappro"al $ollides with that o( personal hurt; $oloured
+y the present reminders o( maternal se&uality. 'epro"ed (or his o((ensi"e
+eha"iour ?with the (amiliar thou o( maternal s$oldin.@; Hamlet retaliates with the
more .rie"ous o((en$e a.ainst his de$eased natural (ather o( his mother>s
remarria.e to his +rother. ,or on$e; his pre"iously "er+al assault is taen to the
point o( turnin. into "iolen$e and he appears to +e on the "er.e o( illin.
:ertrude; o( illin. o(( the mother. ?%$t 888; S$ene 3; l. 21; 255#: /13@ Cet; he (ails.
He turns his "iolen$e towards the man +ehind the $urtain; presuma+ly the in. H
in (a$t Polonius H; turnin. matri$idal intents into pseudo=parri$ide. 6Hamlet the
$hara$ter unsu$$ess(ully $ondu$ts ?L@ his +attle with Sym+oli$ $ollapse.E
?-runelle=Banri.h; http:JJwww.hull.a$.uJren(orumJ"2no2J$runelle.htm@
0n(ortunately; his (ailure in de(initely separatin. (rom the mother also
$ompromises any attempt at .ettin. in"ol"ed with another woman; i.e.
9phelia. Ernest <ones has postulated that Hamlet>s se&ual repression leads to
hostile; miso.ynist +eha"iour re.ardless o( whether the woman is per$ei"ed to
+e "irtuous or las$i"ious. This ar.ument .oes hand in hand with the 1riste"an
one in the sense that; as lon. as Gthe mother has not +een illed o((;> any
woman will only +e re7e$ted as an eroti$ o+7e$t; 6the melan$holia$ $annot $ope
with Eros;E there(ore he is a miso.ynist. This mi.ht +e the underlyin.
e&planation o( a $ruel; "i$timi*in. treatment in(li$ted; in the !unnery S$ene;
upon 9phelia. %.ain; the (a$t must +e mentioned here that this is not the only
e&planation psy$hoanalysis has $ome up with as to the Hamlet H 9phelia
relationship. Some; lie <ane %delman; ha"e seen in 9phelia; the sweet .irl;
who; .i"en her o+edient nature; is easily dominatedJ manipulated +y the other
two rulin. male (or$es in her li(e; her $yni$al (ather and her unper$epti"e
+rother; a "i$tim o( a Hamlet who pro7e$ts upon her 6the .uiltE o( (eminine
power threatenin. mas$uline identity H (irst em+odied +y his mother =;
+reain.; +y its un$ontrolled se&uality; the limits o( the patriar$hal "alues o(
womanhood. ?http:JJwww.hull.a$.uJren(orumJ"2no2J$runelle.htm@
The result o( this undenia+le triple "i$timi*ation +y the (ather; the
+rother and the lo"er is that; o"erwhelmed with the (eelin. o( .uilt ?(or
Hamlet>s madness and her (ather>s death@; 9phelia .oes mad and e"entually
$ommits sui$ide. Her death is presented +y :ertrude in %$t 8B; S$ene 3 ?See
%ppendi&@. The Fueen apparently tries to su..est that 9phelia>s drownin. 6in
the .lassy streamE ?255#: /26@ was an a$$ident; +ut her des$ription Hlie the
entire play; as a matter o( (a$t H is mared +y unresol"ed am+i.uity and
Shaespeare>s stylisti$ $hoi$es indi$ate "oluntary drownin.: 9phelia returns
to Gher element;> i.e. water; to satis(y her .rie(. ?,or (urther details; see
Aa$helard>s $omments on what he $alls 6the 9phelia $omple&;E 199#@
8( the pre"ious analysis in psy$hoanalyti$al terms has pro"ided us with
more insi.ht re.ardin. Hamlet>s relation espe$ially with the women in his li(e
and has led to the $on$lusion that; torn apart +etween the two poles in his
li(e; the mother and the (ather; the 8ma.inary and the Sym+oli$; the
melan$holi$ Hamlet does not mana.e to $learly de(ine his identity; the ne&t
part o( the le$ture should try to pro"ide another possi+le answer to the
Duestion Gwhy does Hamlet delay his re"en.eX> % return to a (ew aspe$ts
>>
related to the tradition o( re"en.e tra.edy and; impli$itly; Shaespeare
de"iation (rom it mi.ht +e wel$ome under the $ir$umstan$es.
,irst o( all; the point should +e made that Hamlet is not the only a"en.er
(i.ure in the play. %s a matter o( (a$t; Shaespeare in$ludes three a"en.ers:
Hamlet; 4aertes and ,ortin+ras. Aut they are all di((erent. 8n the $on"entional
re"en.e tra.edy; the a"en.er does not loo (or 7usti$e; +ut (or personal
satis(a$tion; +ased on passion. )arin. damnation; he sins to the moral le"el o(
his "i$tim and ha"in. usurped hea"en>s ri.ht to punish; is also $ondemned to
death. ?Aolt; 1995: 13=14@ This is a pattern in whi$h 4aertes seems to per(e$tly (it.
%t the opposite pole; there is ,ortin+ras. He also has a slain (ather; a
(all in (ortune; and; lie Hamlet (or instan$e; an un$le on the throne to $ontend
with. He is ready to tae a$tion and re.ain his (ather>s lands (rom )enmar.
Cet; when he is re$alled to order +y the law; he is o+edient; .i"es up tain.
7usti$e into his own hands and he will +e e"entually rewarded (or that.
8n +etween these two e&tremes; there is Hamlet. %s a matter o( (a$t;
Hamlet>s is a $ase o( shi(tin. roles. 8n the +e.innin. o( the play; he appears
as a no+le prin$e; unam+i.uously Eli*a+ethan. Edu$ated at a new uni"ersity
?Witten+er.@; he li"es in a spe$i(i$ e&tant $astle ?Elsinore@ and is a
$onnoisseur o( modern plays and modern (en$in.. 8n this intelle$tual milieu;
.hosts are hard to +elie"e in and Hamlet>s (ellow=student Horatio speas (or
+oth o( them when he says 68 mi.ht not this +elie"eJ Without the sensi+le and
true a"ou$hJ 9( mine own eyes.E ?%$t 8; s$ene 1; 255#: /55@ % man o( no+le
prin$iples; he passes +rilliantly the test o( (idelity H while most o( the others at
the $ourt; here in$ludin. his own mother; (ail it H remainin. (aith(ul to the
memory o( his (ather and; at the same time; hidin. his dis$ontent with their
+eha"iour. 4o"ed +y his people; espe$ially +y his soldiers; he sees their
$ompany; understands and respe$ts them. He tries in (a$t to re$on$ile his
position o( a no+le prin$e with the other role whi$h he re"eals only when he is
alone; i.e. the mal$ontent.
The turnin. point in his li(e is; as already emphasi*ed; the en$ounter
with the .host whi$h re"eals him the terri+le truth a+out his (ather>s death
and ur.es him; in a rather medie"al=lie (ashion; to tae re"en.e. His (urther
de"elopment +e$omes pu**lin.; e"en sho$in. pre$isely +e$ause the role
that he needs to assume; that o( the a"en.er; is in$ompati+le with that o( the
mal$ontent. ?Aolt; 1995: #4=62@
6%s a re"en.er; he $eases to +e a no+le prin$e and +e$omes a sla"e.
8t is a role in whi$h he $annot tae e"en his trusty (riends into his $on(iden$e.E
?Aolt; 1995: 6#@ The aim o( his re"en.e should +e to punish a 6murder most
(oulE +y an eDually (oul one. This aspe$t mi.ht $ast a new li.ht on his
de$ision not to ill -laudius when he (inds him alone; on his nees in prayer.
What; (or some psy$hoanalysts; is a proo( o( Hamlet a$nowled.in. in
-laudius the "ery em+odiment o( his oedipal ur.es ?he illed his (ather and
married his mother@; mi.ht appear; (rom a di((erent perspe$ti"e; a re(usal to
in(li$t too .ood an end (or -laudius: 6the :host>s detailed a$$ount o( the
horrors o( 1in. Hamlet>s death; whi$h Hamlet re$alls at the moment;
amounts to a demand that -laudius>s death must +e no less horri+le. The
re"en.er must sin to the same le"el as his "i$tim.E ?Aolt; 1995: 66@
The .host is also responsi+le (or the release o( the mal$ontent H
eDually passionate and alienated. When in pri"ate; he may (reely e&press in
soliloDuies his inner torment resultin. (rom the $lash +etween two $odes o(
"alues: the morality o( re"en.e; reminis$ent o( a dar; medie"al past and the
di$tates o( his own temperament as a 'enaissan$e philosopher and
>+
-hristian. The GTo +e or not to +e> SoliloDuy ?%$t 888; S$ene 1@ is +y (ar the
+est instrument (or the e&ploration o( the role o( the mal$ontent. 8ts (low o(
thou.ht; moulded in Gstret$hed> iam+i$ pentameter ?11 sylla+les instead o(
15@; displays the pain(ul Duest (or a solution to what Hamlet per$ei"es as an
insupera+le deadlo$; or aporia. %m+i.uity maes the soliloDuy prone to
di((erent interpretations. What does Gto +e or not to +e> meanX 9( $ourse; one
$ould stop at the (irst le"el o( meanin. and tae it as Gto li"e or not to li"e>: i(
li(e is nothin. +ut 6a sea o( trou+lesE; a (ield o( 6heart=a$heE and o( 6thousand
natural sho$sE ?255#: /12@; then the only possi+le es$ape seems sui$ide;
the deed with the 6+are +odinE that the (ear o( death pre"ents. Cet; this is not
the only "alid meanin.. 6To really G+e> you must +e some+ody; an a$ti"e
rational +ein. H in short; a man; as Hamlet proudly reminds Horatio his (ather
was a man ... This meanin. o( Gto +e> was $ommon intelle$tual $urren$y at
the time the play was written. ?L@ To +e in"ol"ed reali*in. one>s essen$e;
whi$h $alled (or moral e((ort.E ?Aolt; 1995: #5@ 8n the :reat -hain o( Aein. o(
the Eli*a+ethan times; people were (ree to re7e$t their roles; +ut when they
did; whether they $ontinued to li"e or not; they $eased to +e. Thus; the deed
with the 6+are +odin;E dire$tly related to that so mu$h wished=(or 6Duietus;E is
$ast a new li.ht upon. The (ear o( death mi.ht pre"ent two inds o(
in$ompati+le a$tions: sel(=destru$tion or sel(=assertion. 6FuietusE may mean
then pa$i(i$ation or the dis$har.e o( an o+li.ation. 6)ispassionately e&plorin.
the ma*e o( these impli$ations; the ironist is not looin. (or the ri.ht dire$tion.
8nstead he Duestions the "ery "alue o( any sort o( mo"ement; while a$$eptin.
that immo+ility too is pain(ul.E ?Aolt; 1995: #1@
When in pu+li$; Hamlet the mal$ontent $hooses to wear the mas o( the
(ool and $onseDuently adapts his spee$h shi(tin. (rom the +lan "erse; more
appropriate (or the no+le prin$e; to prose. That ena+les him to re7e$t the so$iety
o( Elsinore e"en while remainin. within it. %s a (ool; he may not +e held
responsi+le (or what he says; +ut he $an use his (olly as a stalin.=horse to
e&pose the truth. ,urthermore; 6+e$ause o( the traditional asso$iation o( his role
with the +awdy; the (ool lends itsel( with (a$ility to the e&pression o( miso.ynyE
?Aolt; 1995: 32@; whi$h; as pointed out; $hara$teri*es the mal$ontent.
There is a $ru$ial moment when; thou.h in pu+li$; he temporarily drops
his mas: when he is in the $ompany o( the a$tors. The latter +e$ome
instruments in his $at=and=mouse .ame with the in. and their play=within=the=
play; the dum+=show that Hamlet ass to +e per(ormed; has +een o(ten re(erred
to as the 6mousetrap.E To .et a de(inite $on(irmation o( the .host>s story a+out
the murder; and thus o( -laudius>s .uilt or inno$en$e; he has the 2urder o(
:on*a.o per(ormed in (ront o( the royal audien$e. There is; howe"er; a pe$uliar
point where the story o( :on*a.o>s death di((ers (rom 9ld Hamlet>s. The in. is
illed; the iller marries the Dueen; +ut he is not the un$le; he is the nephew.
This has raised a lot o( Duestions a.ain. ,rom the 1riste"an perspe$ti"e; this
mi.ht +e the moment o( artisti$ triumph o( the melan$holia$. The mousetrap
6ena+les him to se$ure the Gsu+limatory .rasp o( the lost Thin.> whi$h 1riste"a
des$ri+es; to $reate a :ertrude swearin. e"erlastin. (aithE ?-runelle=Banri.h;
http:JJwww.hull.a$.uJren(orumJ"2no2J$runelle.htm@. 9therwise; it mi.ht +e
Hamlet>s way o( threatenin. the in.; lettin. him now that he nows. %nd i( its
e((e$ti"eness is not to +e seen in the in.>s stormin. out o( the hall where the
play was per(ormed; then it de(initely +e$omes o+"ious in the prayer s$ene;
a(ter the mousetrap.
>@
9n$e he has a$$epted his role as an a"en.er; Hamlet re.ains his
$alm and the readiness o( the soldier to die. He returns to Elsinore as the
prin$e ready to per(orm his allotted tas. He does no lon.er (eel he must
somehow manipulate the e"ents. He 7ust wat$hes out (or the opportunity
whi$h; sooner or later; is sure to present itsel(. He dies an a"en.er; +ut
e"entually redeemed +y the renewal o( $ons$ien$e.
Se$ond in line $hronolo.i$ally amon. the .reat tra.edies; /thello ?1653=
1654@ 6e&ploreMsN a.ain some o( the parado&es o( .ood and e"il and the irony
o( e"il +ein. +red out o( inno$en$eE +ut it 6$on$entrates on a domesti$ issue
and produ$es the most relentless and the saddest o( MShaespeare>sN
tra.edies.E ?)ai$hes; 1991: 233@ The de"ious s$hemin. o( Shaespeare>s
ar$h=2a$hia"ellian "illain 8a.o that turns the 2oorish .eneral 9thello a.ainst
his (riend and lieutenant -assio and espe$ially a.ainst his (aith(ul wi(e
)esdemona draws on man>s darest (eelin.s lie 7ealousy and hatred. %
$ultural and ra$ial outsider in Beni$e; 9thello is a silled soldier and leader;
"alua+le and ne$essary to the Benetian state; +ut he seems in$apa+le o(
adaptin. to a li(e $on(ined to the limited spa$e o( the isle o( -yprus and
espe$ially o( his own +edroom; and it is his uneasiness in the pri"ate spa$e
that 8a.o e&ploits in stirrin. and then (uellin. 9thello>s 7ealousy that leads him
to $ommittin. murder. %$tin. mostly as a sel(=e((a$in.; (aith(ul wi(e; +ut also;
o$$asionally; as a +old; independent personality; )esdemona dies tryin. to
li(t the G"eil> on 9thello>s eyes and to mae him see the truth; +ut she
e"entually (alls a "i$tim to 8a.o>s talent (or understandin. and manipulatin.
the desires o( those around him as well as (or a+usin. their trust in him.
9ing Lear ?165#=1656@ +rin.s to the (ore.round an old ar$hetypal story
to illustrate the disastrous $onseDuen$es o( (oolish $on(iden$e in the
appearan$es and o( the "iolent disruption in the (amily dynami$s and the
politi$al authority. 8n diso+eyin. his duties as a in. ?he prematurely di"ides
his in.dom to his eldest dau.hters; :oneril and 'ea.an; $ausin. them to
(i.ht (or power@ and (ather ?he disinherits -ordelia; the only dau.hter who is
indeed true to him@; he introdu$es tra.i$ $haos into +oth (amily and state.
?His story is $losely paralleled in a su+plot +y that o( :lou$ester who also
mis7ud.es reality +e$ause o( his i.noran$e. Hen$e the themes o( madness H
in 4ear>s $ase H and +lindness H in :lou$ester>s H $on"er.e to $on"ey the
same parado&i$al relationship +etween (athers and loyalJdisloyal $hildren.@
69nly the ,ool reali*es (rom the +e.innin. that; ha"in. .i"en way his in.ly
power; his arti(i$ial personality; 4ear $an no lon.er $ount on the arti(i$ial
relationships whi$h it produ$edE ?)ai$hes; 1991: 23/@: 6a remara+le
trans(ormation o( a sto$ Eli*a+ethan dramati$ $hara$terE ?)ai$hes; 1991:
23/@; the ,ool is; ironi$ally; the "oi$e o( wisdom and truth meant to penetrate
the in.>s $ons$iousness; yet una+le to $han.e anythin. or to oppose the
destru$ti"e $ollision o( the ri"al .roups and the ensuin. su((erin. and $haos.
8nspired +y histori$al e"ents mentioned in Holished>s #hronicle of
Scottish History; Mac'eth ?1656@ was Shaespeare>s shortest and +loodiest
tra.edy and it was pro+a+ly meant as a tri+ute to <ames 8 Stuart; Eli*a+eth>s
su$$essor to the throne. The initial impression o( 2a$+eth as a +ra"e and
$apa+le warrior is $ompli$ated when he intera$ts with the three wit$hes
?striin.ly resem+lin. the ,ates; whi$h lur lie dar thou.hts and
un$ons$ious temptations to e"il@. Ara"ery; am+ition; and sel(=dou+t stru..le
(or mastery o( 2a$+eth throu.hout the play. Shaespeare uses 2a$+eth to
show the terri+le e((e$ts that am+ition and .uilt $an ha"e on a man who la$s
+*
stren.th o( $hara$ter. 8t taes 4ady 2a$+eth>s steely sense o( purpose to
push him to $ommit the murder ?)un$an@ that would allow him a$$ess to the
throne. %(ter the murder; howe"er; her power(ul personality +e.ins to
disinte.rate; lea"in. 2a$+eth in$reasin.ly alone. He (lu$tuates +etween (its
o( (e"ered a$tion; in whi$h he plots a series o( murders to se$ure his throne;
and moments o( terri+le .uilt ?as when AanDuo>s .host appears@ and
a+solute pessimism ?a(ter his wi(e>s death; when he seems to su$$um+ to
despair@. These (lu$tuations re(le$t the tra.i$ tension within 2a$+eth: he is at
on$e too am+itious to allow his $ons$ien$e to stop him (rom murderin. his
way to the top and too $ons$ientious to +e happy with himsel( as a murderer.
%s thin.s (all apart (or him at the end o( the play; he seems almost relie"edI
with the En.lish army at his .ates; he $an (inally return to li(e as a warrior. He
.oes down (i.htin.; +rin.in. the play (ull $ir$le: it +e.ins with 2a$+eth
winnin. on the +attle(ield and ends with him dyin. in $om+at.
E&pandin. on the theme o( misanthropy; Shaespeare>s pro+a+ly
un(inished tra.edy Timon of (thens ?165#=1659@ (ollows the sta.es o( the
main $hara$ter>s trans(ormation (rom a .ood=natured and .enerous ri$h
%thenian into a poor; deserted man who rea$ts "iolently to human in7usti$e
and parasitism and e"entually $omes to detest manind. 8n doin. that; the
play denoun$es 6lo"e o( money as the root o( all e"il.E ?:a"riliu; 2555: 143@
,or his last tra.edies; Shaespeare turned a.ain (or inspiration to the
'oman world. (ntony and #leopatra ?1653=165/@ presents the e"ents that
(ollowed -aesar>s death; (o$usin. on 2ar$ %ntony>s stru..lin. +etween
'oman loyalty ?to 9$ta"ius -aesar; his (ormer ally in the $i"il war a.ainst the
murderous senators and 'ome>s emperor; and to his wi(e 9$ta"ia; 9$ta"ius>s
sister@ and E.yptian ma.i$ em+odied +y Fueen -leopatra. 6This is one o(
Shaespeare>s lon.est plays whi$h $ontains a tremendous histori$al
spe$ta$le en$ompassin. the whole o( the 2editerranean world (rom 'ome to
%le&andria. -onstant emphasis is put upon the world=shain. importan$e o(
the e"ents and the prin$ipal (i.ures. Politi$al e"ents a$$ount (or almost the
entire a$tion o( the play; yet are ultimately su+ordinated in importan$e to the
pri"ate drama o( the two prota.onists.E ?:a"riliu; 2555: 1#5@
,inally; the politi$al tra.edy o( #oriolanus ?1653=165/@ de"elops the
su+7e$t o( $lass stru..le +etween the patri$iansJ the ri$hJ the power(ul and
the ple+eiansJ the poorJ the wea; whi$h a$tually re(le$ts on the
$ontemporary situation in En.land; i.e. the popular re"olt a.ainst the
en$losure o( .reat areas o( a.ri$ultural land ?1653@. 6-oriolanus is portrayed
as an aristo$rati$ politi$ian pro(essin. humanitarian (eelin.s (or 2an +ut
despisin. the mo+. He +rin.s disaster on his own head and on the state
throu.h his $ontempt (or the people and his ri.idity o( $hara$ter. MLN His
(ailure is that o( a mispla$ed personality; a politi$al leader (a$ed with the
$ontradi$tion +etween the ideal and its misappli$ation.E ?:a"riliu; 2555: 1#1@
7& =& Ro6ances
%part (rom the last plays whi$h Shaespeare is said to ha"e written in
$olla+oration with a youn.er (ellow=playwri.ht <ohn ,let$her; namely the
$hroni$le play Henry ,III ?1612=1613@ and the dramati*ation o( -hau$er>s
9night!s Tale nown as The Two &o'le 9insmen ?1613=1614@; all the 155g
Shaespearean $reations pertainin. to the third period o( $reation may +e
la+elled as roman$es. -om+inin. elements o( +oth $omedy and tra.edy ?as
+/
a matter o( (a$t; another term (or romance is tragicomedy H %+rams; 1999:
32#@; these plays H namely Pericles. Prince of Tyre ?1656=165/@; #ym'eline
?1659=1615@; The -inter!s Tale ?1615=1611@ and The Tempest ?1611@ H share
the (ollowin. (eatures:
a redempti"e plotline with a happy endin. in"ol"in. the re=unitin. o(
lon.=separated (amily mem+ersK
ma.i$ and other (antasti$al elementsK
a deus=e&=ma$hina; o(ten mani(estin. as a 'oman .od ?su$h as
<upiter in #ym'eline or )iana in Pericles@K
a mi&ture o( T$i"ili*edT and TpastoralT s$enes ?su$h as the .entry and
the island residents in The Tempest@K
T...and the poetry is a return to the lyri$al style o( the early plays;
thou.h more mellow and pro(ound.T ?Halliday; 1964: 419@
Shaespeare>s (irst e&periment in the $reation o( this ind o( play;
Pericles is simple in plot; +ut at the same time $rowdin. numerous stran.e
and sensational e"ents: Peri$les>s mira$ulous sur"i"al a(ter the shipwre$ in
Pentapolis; his marria.e with Thaisa; 1in. Simonides>s dau.hter; the storm in
whi$h Thaisa .i"es +irth to their $hild; 2arina; and is thou.ht to ha"e died;
2arina>s ordeals $aused +y )iony*a>s 7ealousy; her +ein. idnapped +y
pirates and sold to a +rothel in 2itylene; her wonder(ul lo"e story with
4ysima$hus; the .o"ernor; and her +ein. mira$ulously reunited with +oth her
(ather and her supposedly dead mother Thaisa ?who had +e$ome a priestess
in )iana>s temple@. 2any moti(s Shaespeare uses in Pericles will +e (urther
de"eloped in the ne&t roman$es: the supposedly dead wi(e>s resurre$tion
theme and the dis$o"ery o( the lost $hild whi$h is instrumental in the
re$on$iliation o( the parents will appear in The -inter!s Tale; while the storm
$ausin. separation and later reunion pro"ides the +a$.round (or The
Tempest. 62as=lie dan$in.; son. and instrumental musi$ are other
theatri$al (eatures o( the roman$e.E ?:a"riliu; 2555: 1#3@
)rawin.; on the one hand; on a (ra.ment (rom Aritish history as
adapted in Holinshed>s #hronicles; and; on the other hand; on a story (rom
Ao$$a$$io>s Decameron; #ym'eline seems to +e +uild upon a (airy tale
pattern: 68mo.en; the prin$ess who marries Mthe 'oman 4eonatus PosthumusN
a.ainst her parents> wishesK -ym+eline>s Fueen; the wi$ed stepmotherK the
potion whi$h +rin.s apparent death +ut really only sends the driner into a
prolon.ed swoonK the 6Snow WhiteE theme o( the apparently dead .irl $o"ered
with (lowers +y her simple $ompanions.E ?)ai$hes; 1991: 29/@ Aut the main
theme o( the play is; as in the pre"iously mentioned roman$e; the triumph o(
inno$en$e: thus; 6her own +anished hus+and turned a.ainst her +y the "ile
tri$ o( 8a$himoK the wi$ed -loten pursuin. herK mis(ortune and e"il do..in.
her (ootsteps where"er she .oesK she yet taes her destiny into her own hands
and; ha"in. sur"i"ed the sho$ o( hearin. that her hus+and has ordered her to
+e murdered and the $ounter sho$ o( seein. what she thins is the dead
+ody o( her hus+and; sur"i"es to win her hus+and +a$ in the (inal s$ene o(
e&planation and re$on$iliation.E ?)ai$hes; 1991: 29/@
6!otorious (or (loutin. the Gunity o( time> as well as o( pla$e with
supreme $on(iden$eE ?)ai$hes; 1991: 355@; The -inter!s Tale introdu$es; 7ust
lie /thello; the theme o( un7usti(ied 7ealousy that leads to the destru$tion o(
a on$e happy (amily: it is +e$ause o( 1in. 4eontes>s wi$ed 7ealousy ?he
thins his wi(e Hermione has an a((air with his (riend Poli&enes; 1in. o(
Aohemia@ that his son 2amillius dies; that Hermione; his wi(e; is said to +e
+)
dead in prison and that his new=+orn dau.hter Perdita is lost to him. Aut;
unlie /thello; this roman$e allows e"il to +e at least partly undone:
Hermione li"es and is hidden +y her (aith(ul attendant Paulina and Perdita is
(ound and +rou.ht up +y a shepherd. 8n the Aohemian G(airyland> typi$al o(
pastoral roman$es; Perdita li"es a (airytale=lie lo"e story with in.
Poli&enes>s son; ,lori*el; whi$h is nonetheless put a $ruel end to +y
Poli&enes>s +ein. a.ainst his son>s relationship with a poor shepherdess. So;
the lo"ers (lee to Si$ily where truth is (inally dis$o"ered: Perdita>s identity is
re"ealed and; in a $limati$ moment; Hermione is pro"en to +e ali"e; there(ore
the whole (amily is reunited. 6The play also sounds o"ertones o( pa.an myth.
Perdita>s ad"entures $ounterpart those o( Persephone and her mother;
)emeter; Perdita>s apparent death and prolon.ed disappearan$e parallel
Persephone>s departure into the lower world at the onset o( winter and her
7oyous reunion with her mother is lie the +loomin. o( all nature at
Persephone>s return to her earth=mother.E ?:a"riliu; 2555: 1##@
ase Stud40 The Tempest "/=//%
The Tempest is most liely the last play written entirely +y Shaespeare; and
it is remara+le (or +ein. one o( only two plays +y Shaespeare ?the other
+ein. Lo%e!s La'or!s Lost@ whose plot is entirely ori.inal. The play does;
howe"er; draw on tra"el literature o( its time. The En.lish $olonial pro7e$t
seems to +e on Shaespeare>s mind throu.hout The Tempest; as almost
e"ery $hara$ter; (rom the lord :on*alo to the drun Ste(ano; ponders how he
would rule the island on whi$h the play is set i( he were its in.. Shaespeare
seems also to ha"e drawn on 2ontai.ne>s essay /f the #anni'als; whi$h
was translated into En.lish in 1653. The name o( Prospero>s ser"ant=
monster; -ali+an; seems to +e an ana.ram or deri"ati"e o( 6-anni+al.E
The play opens with a storm whi$h $auses a ship to sin. The ship
was $arryin. %lonso; ,erdinand; Se+astian; %ntonio; :on*alo; Ste(ano; and
Trin$ulo +a$ (rom %(ri$a to 8taly a(ter the weddin. o( %lonso>s dau.hter. The
se$ond s$ene introdu$es a Duieter atmosphere with 2iranda and Prospero
standin. on the shore o( their island; looin. at the re$ent shipwre$.
2iranda hopes her (ather $ould help the sur"i"ors and Prospero promises to
her that e"erythin. will +e all ri.ht. He re"eals to his dau.hter the truth a+out
their past; namely that Prospero was the )ue o( 2ilan until his +rother
%ntonio; $onspirin. with %lonso; the 1in. o( !aples; usurped his position; that
they mana.ed to es$ape with the help o( :on*alo and that they were (or$ed;
there(ore; to settle; twel"e=years a.o; on the island with the +oos that are
the sour$e o( his ma.i$ and power. He tells her that he raised the tempest
that $aused the ship o( his enemies to wre$ +e$ause he wanted to mae
thin.s ri.ht with them on$e and (or all. %(terwards; he $asts a spell on his
dau.hter to mae her sleep and $alls (or his ma.i$al a.ent; the sprite %riel;
whom he had sa"ed (rom the tree=trun prison in whi$h the (ormer master o(
the island; the wit$h Sy$ora&; imprisoned him; in e&$han.e (or his +e$omin.
his (aith(ul ser"ant. Prospero orders %riel to tae the shape o( a sea nymph
and mae himsel( in"isi+le to all +ut Prospero and to separate those whom
he sa"ed (rom the shipwre$ into small .roups.
% Duarrel +etween Prospero and -ali+an; the dead Sy$ora&>s son;
now Prospero>s sla"e; re"eals the +itter enmity +etween the G$onDueror> o(
the island ?Prospero@ and the G$onDuered> ?-ali+an@. %s instru$ted +y Propero
+7
who has made a plan to .et his dau.hter married; %riel maes 2iranda and
,erdinand; 1in. %lonso>s son; to meet and the two instantly (all in lo"e. Aut
the a((air will not +e allowed to de"elop too Dui$ly so Prospero a$$uses
,erdinand o( merely pretendin. to +e the Prin$e o( !aples and; at
,ernando>s "iolent rea$tion; he $harms him and leads him o(( to prison.
%riel is sent then to Gplay> with the other sur"i"ors %lonso; Se+astian;
%ntonio; :on*alo; and other mis$ellaneous lords. While %lonso laments his
son>s tra.i$ (ate and :on*alo tries to maintain his spirits hi.h; %ntonio and
Se+astian mae sar$asti$ remars. The latter are a$tually the only ones to
remain awae a(ter %riel $asts a spell; so they $an dis$uss (reely the
ad"anta.es o( illin. %lonso and his $ompanions. To pre"ent them (rom
puttin. their murderous intentions into pra$ti$e; %riel awaes :on*alo and
the rest o( the party; so %ntonio and Se+astian ha"e to mae up a ridi$ulous
story a+out ha"in. drawn their swords to prote$t the in. (rom lions; a(ter
whi$h they all set out to loo (or ,erdinand.
-ali+an also meets another .roup o( sur"i"ors made up o( Trin$ulo
and Ste(ano; whom he is (irst a(raid o( and whom he taes (or spirits sent +y
Prospero to torment him. To tame the (ri.htened monster; Trin$ulo and
Ste(ano .i"e him some liDuor to drin. -ali+an .ets drun and +e.ins to sin..
Propero $ontinues to su+tly mana.e the issue o( his dau.hter>s
marria.e: he has ,erdinand to $arry wood and pretends then to (all asleepK
unseen; he is then pleased to witness the two lo"ers> (lirtatious .ames and
their main. the de$ision to .et married.
Stirred +y the in"isi+le %riel; the drunards H Ste(ano; Trin$ulo and
-ali+an H +e.in to (i.ht and -ali+an e"en +oasts a+out nowin. how to ill
Prospero. He proposes that they ill Prospero; tae his dau.hter; and set
Ste(ano up as in. o( the island. Ste(ano thins this a .ood plan; and the
three prepare to set o(( to (ind Prospero; +ut they are distra$ted +y %riel>s
musi$ and (ollow it.
%lonso; :on*alo; Se+astian and %ntonio are se$retly o+ser"ed +y
Prospero who sees Se+astian and %ntonio plot to ill %lonso and :on*alo
and puts on; with %riel>s help; a (east to +e set out +y stran.ely shaped
spirits; that is +roen at the "ery last moment +y a harpy ?%riel; in (a$t@. %riel
then a$$uses the men o( supplantin. Prospero and says that it was (or this
sin that %lonso>s son; ,erdinand; has +een taen. He "anishes; lea"in.
%lonso (eelin. "e&ed and .uilty.
,inally; ,erdinand is a$$epted +y Prospero as his dau.hter>s hus+and=
to=+e and a masDue is per(ormed +y the spirits in (ront o( the soon=to=+e=wed
$ouple. Then Prospero and %riel prepare a trap (or the three drunards
?Trin$ulo; Ste(ano; and -ali+an@ whom the latter had dri"en near Prospero>s
$ell; +y han.in. inside it +eauti(ul $lothin.. When they are $au.ht tryin. to
steal the $lothes; the drunards are immediately set upon +y a pa$ o( spirits
in the shape o( do.s and hounds; dri"en on +y Prospero and %riel.
E"entually; all sur"i"ors o( the shipwre$ are +rou.ht to.ether: Prospero
$on(ronts %lonso; %ntonio; and Se+astian with their trea$hery; +ut he (or.i"es
them and re"eals that ,erdinand is ali"e and is to marry his own dau.hter. %t
Prospero>s +iddin.; %riel releases -ali+an; Trin$ulo and Ste(ano; who then
enter wearin. their stolen $lothin.. Prospero and %lonso $ommand them to
return it and to $lean up Prospero>s $ell. Prospero in"ites %lonso and the
others to stay (or the ni.ht so that he $an tell them the tale o( his li(e in the past
twel"e years. %(ter this; the .roup plans to return to 8taly. Prospero; restored to
his duedom; will retire to 2ilan. Prospero .i"es %riel one (inal tasIto mae
+:
sure the seas are $alm (or the return "oya.e H +e(ore settin. him (ree. 8n the
end; Prospero deli"ers an epilo.ue to the audien$e; asin. them to (or.i"e him
(or his wron.doin. and set him (ree +y applaudin..
MThe E*ploration of the &ature of (rt
The Tempest is a "ery theatri$al play; that is; it is o+"iously a wonder(ul
"ehi$le (or displayin. the (ull resour$es o( the theatre: dramati$ a$tion; spe$ial
e((e$ts; musi$; ma.i$; monsters; dan$in.; storms; drunen humour; and so on.
The Tempest does depend (or mu$h o( its e((e$ti"eness on a wide ran.e o(
spe$ial e((e$ts H sound; li.htin.; (antasti$ "isions; a whole realm o( Tma.i$T ?it may
well ha"e +een written in response to the $han.in. theatri$al tastes o( an
audien$e that was reDuirin. more theatri$al e((e$ts in the presentation o( dramati$
produ$tions@. Aut thereSs more to the theatri$ality o( the play than 7ust its style. %
$entral issue o( the Tempest is an e&ploration into the nature o( theatre itsel(.
The Tempest seems; in some ways; to re"isit many earlier
Shaespearean themes and $hara$ters; so that at times it $omes a$ross
almost as a (inal summary loo at some "ery (amiliar material; somethin.
Stephen :reen+latt $alls Ta ind o( e$ho $ham+er o( Shaespearean moti(sT:
8ts story o( loss and re$o"ery and its air o( wonder lin it $losely to the
.roup o( late plays that modern editors .enerally $all Troman$esT ?Pericles;
The -inter4s Tale; #ym'eline@; +ut it resonates as well with issues that
haunted ShaespeareSs ima.ination throu.hout his $areer: the pain(ul
ne$essity (or a (ather to let his dau.hter .o ?/thello; 9ing Lear@K the
trea$herous +etrayal o( a le.itimate ruler ?Richard II; 2ulius #aesar; Hamlet;
Mac'eth@K the murderous hatred o( one +rother (or another ?Richard III; (s
Dou Li3e It; Hamlet; 9ing Lear@K the passa.e (rom $ourt so$iety to the
wilderness and the promise o( a return ?( Midsummer &ight4s Dream; (s Dou
Li3e It@K the wooin. o( a youn. heiress in i.noran$e o( her pla$e in the so$ial
hierar$hy ?Twelfth &ight; Pericles; The -inter4s Tale@K the dream o(
manipulatin. others +y means o( art; espe$ially +y sta.in. miniature plays=
within=plays ?G Henry I,; Much (do ('out &othing; Hamlet@K the threat o( a
radi$al loss o( identity ?The #omedy of Errors; Richard II; 9ing Lear@K the
relation +etween nature and nurture ?Pericles; The -inter4s Tale@K the
harnessin. o( ma.i$al powers ?J Henry ,I; ( Midsummer &ight4s Dream;
Mac'eth@.
So; .i"en this ri$h allusi"eness to other plays; at the end o( a $ourse lie
this there is a natural tenden$y to want to lin the $on$erns o( the play with a
$ele+ration o( the wonder(ul a$hie"ement we ha"e +een studyin. so (ar.
Aut there is more to this approa$h to the play than simply nostal.ia.
Two Duestions seem to pu**le the readership in this respe$t. The (irst is this:
8( ProsperoSs power is so e((e$ti"e a.ainst his opponents as it appears to +e;
then why didnSt he use it +a$ in 2ilan to a"oid ha"in. to +e e&iled in the (irst
pla$eX %nd the se$ond one; whi$h arises naturally (rom that (irst one; is this:
:i"en that Prospero is so een on his ma.i$ and taes su$h deli.ht in it and
that it .i"es him so mu$h power; why does he a+andon it +e(ore returnin. to
2ilanX The most satis(yin. answer is a "ery o+"ious one: the ma.i$ does not
wor in 2ilanK it is e((e$ti"e only on the island; away (rom the 2a$hia"ellian
world o( the $ourt; where plottin. a.ainst ea$h other; e"en a.ainst oneSs own
(amily; (or the sae o( politi$al power is the order o( the day and where; i( you
tae your mind o(( the politi$al realities (or "ery lon.; you may (ind yoursel( in
a +oat with a load o( +oos headin. to an unnown e&ile. ProsperoSs ma.i$
+;
$an only +e$ome e((e$ti"e in a spe$ial pla$e; a world o( spirits; o( illusion;
son.; and en$hantment; on a ma.i$ island; in other words; in the theatre. MLN
Prospero4s E*periment
The Tempest; it is $lear; (eatures an e&periment +y Prospero. He has
not +rou.ht the Europeans to the "i$inity o( the island; +ut when they do
$ome $lose to it; he has; throu.h the power o( illusion; lured them into his
"ery spe$ial realm. The e&periment (irst o( all +reas up their so$ial solidarity;
(or they land in di((erent .roups: ,erdinand +y himsel(; the $ourt .roup;
Stephano and Trin$ulo +y themsel"es; and the sailors remain asleep. The
ma.i$ leads them +y separate paths until they all meet in the $ir$le drawn +y
Prospero in (ront o( his $a"e. There he remo"es the spell o( the illusionsK the
human (amily re$o.ni*es ea$h other; and to.ether they resol"e to return to
8taly; lea"in. +ehind the powers o( the ma.i$ asso$iated with the island.
Ae(ore $onsiderin. the purpose o( ProsperoSs e&periment; we should
note how $entral to all his ma.i$ %riel is. %nd %riel is not human +ut a ma.i$al
spirit who has +een released (rom natural +onda.e ?+ein. ri"en up in a tree@
+y ProsperoSs +oo learnin.. The earlier inha+itants o( the island; Sy$ora&
and -ali+an; had no sense o( how to use %riel; and so they simply
imprisoned him in the world whi$h .o"erns them; raw nature. ProsperoSs
power depends; in lar.e part; on %rielSs release and willin. ser"i$e. 8n that
sense; %riel $an +e seen as some ima.inati"e power whi$h maes the e((e$ts
o( the theatre ?lie li.htnin. in the masts o( the +oat@ possi+le. 9ne o( the
.reat attra$tions o( this "iew o( the play as a $ele+ration o( the powers o(
theatre is that it maes the +est sense o( %rielSs $hara$ter; somethin. whi$h;
as we shall see; is not Duite so strai.ht(orward in other approa$hes.
What is the purpose o( ProsperoSs e&perimentX He ne"er .i"es us a $lear
statement; +ut it seems $lear that one important element in that purpose is
2iranda. He wants to arran.e thin.s on her +ehal(; and o( all the people in the
play; her situation is the most trans(ormed: she is .oin. +a$ to Europe a royal
+ride; (illed with a sense o( enthusiasm and 7oy at the prospe$t o( li"in. amon.
so many (ine people in a so$iety that; Duite literally; thrills her ima.ination. 8t
seems that ProsperoSs ma7or intention in$ludes a re$ommitment to $i"ili*ed li(e
in 2ilan; so that his dau.hter $an tae up her ri.ht(ul pla$e in so$iety. %s with (s
Dou Li3e It; there is no sense here that any appropriate li(e $ould +e +ased on
remainin. on the island when they no lon.er ha"e to.
Whether ProsperoSs e&periment is a su$$ess or not; it seems $lear that
one .reat su$$ess is the marria.e o( ,erdinand and 2iranda. The e&periment
+rin.s them to.ether; awaens their sense o( wonder at the world and at
ea$h other; and is sendin. them +a$ to 2ilan (ull o( the (inest hopes (or the
world. These two youn. people $arry with them the ma7or wei.ht o( the
optimisti$ $omi$ hopes o( the playSs resolution. Their lo"e (or ea$h other;
whi$h is presented to us as a true lo"e (irmly under the $ontrol o( their moral
(eelin.s; will; in a sense; re.enerate 2ilan.
%nother su$$ess in ProsperoSs e&periment is the $han.e o( heart
whi$h taes pla$e in his earlier enemy %lonso. ProsperoSs a$tions +rin.
%lonso (a$e to (a$e with his past e"il $ondu$t and prompt him to repent and
re$on$ile himsel( with Prospero; e"en to the point o( surrenderin. the politi$al
power he too away so lon. a.o. 2oreo"er; we mi.ht want to ar.ue that
thereSs is the +e.innin. o( a similar $han.e in the animalisti$ -ali+an; who at
least $omes to reali*e somethin. o( his own (oolishness in resistin. Prospero
in (a"our o( two drunen European low=li(es.
+=
The most $omple& $han.e in the play; howe"er; taes pla$e within
Prospero himsel(. 8n $onsiderin. his moti"es (or undertain. the e&periment;
we $annot es$ape the sense that Prospero har+ors a .reat deal o(
resentment a+out his treatment +a$ in 2ilan and is ne"er "ery (ar (rom
wantin. to e&a$t a harsh re"en.e. %(ter all; he has it in his power si.ni(i$antly
to in7ure the parties that treated him so +adly. WhatSs "ery interestin. a+out
this is that Prospero learns that that is not the appropriate response. %nd he
learns this $entral insi.ht (rom %riel; the "ery spirit o( ima.inati"e illusion; who
is not e"en human. MLN Birtue e&pressed in (or.i"eness is a hi.her human
attri+ute than "en.ean$e. %nd in the $on$lusion o( the play; Prospero does not
e"en mention the list o( $rimes a.ainst him. He simply o((ers to (or.i"e and a$$ept
what has happened to him; in a spirit o( re$on$iliation. 0nlie earlier plays whi$h
(eatured (amily Duarrels; the endin. here reDuires neither the death nor the
punishment o( any o( the parties. Here that $han.e is initiated +y %rielSs remars.
Prospero4s Magic as the -orld of the Theatre
8t maes sense to see in this ShaespeareSs sense o( his own art H
+oth what it $an a$hie"e and what it $annot. The theatre H that ma.i$al world
o( poetry; son.; illusion; pleasin. and threatenin. apparitions H $an; lie
ProsperoSs ma.i$; edu$ate us into a +etter sense o( oursel"es; into a (inal
a$$eptan$e o( the world; a state in whi$h we (or.i"e and (or.et in the
interests o( the .reater human $ommunity. The theatre; that is; $an re$on$ile
us to the 7oys o( the human $ommunity so that we do not destroy our (amilies
in a sear$h (or ri.htin. past e"ils in a spirit o( personal re"en.e or as $rude
assertions o( our own e.os. 8t $an; in a "ery real sense; help us (ully to
understand the $entral -hristian $ommitment to $harity; to lo"in. our
nei.h+our as oursel"es. The ma.i$ here +rin.s a+out a total re$on$iliation o(
all le"els o( so$iety (rom sophisti$ated rulers to semi=human +rutes;
momentarily holdin. o(( 2a$hia"ellian de$eit; drunen (oolishness; and
animalisti$ re+ellion==ea$h person; no matter how he has li"ed; has a pla$e in
the ma.i$ $ir$le at the end. %nd no one is asin. any awward Duestions.
8n the same way; ProsperoSs world $an awaen the youn. ima.ination
to the wonder and 7oy o( the human $ommunity; $an trans(orm our
per$eptions o( human +ein.s into a T+ra"e new world;T (ull o( +eauty;
promise; and lo"e; and e&$ite our ima.inations with the prospe$ts o( li"in. li(e
in the midst o( our (ellow human +ein.s.
8n the world o( the Tempest; we ha"e mo"ed +eyond tra.edy. MLN This
play seems to +e sayin. that theatri$al art; the ma.i$ o( Prospero; $an a$hie"e
what is not possi+le in the world o( 2ilan; where e"eryone must always +e on
.uard; +e$ause itSs a 2a$hia"ellian world ruled +y the realities o( power and
in7ury and there is no %riel to ser"e us with the power o( illusions.
9n this readin. o( the play; what would we mae o( -ali+an; who stands
in opposition to ProsperoSs power and who is its most immediate "i$timX This
readin. would pro+a+ly stress ?as many produ$tions ha"e always done@
-ali+anSs dan.erous; anar$hi$ "iolen$e. He is an earth=animal ?some
intermediate (orm perhaps@ who represents a $lear and present dan.er;
+e$ause he is not $apa+le o( +ein. edu$ated out o( the state he was +orn into.
ProsperoSs T$i"ili*in.T arts eep him in $ontrol; thou.h with di((i$ulty. -ali+an is at
times Duite sensiti"e to the emotional Dualities o( ProsperoSs ma.i$; espe$ially
the wonder(ul musi$ he hears; +ut is too mu$h in the .rip o( his raw instin$ts (or
rape and re+ellion to respond with anythin. other than an.er to his $ondition.
+>
-ali+an mi.ht well +e $onsidered in some sense a natural sla"e ?as ).
H. 4awren$e pointed out@ +e$ause his idea o( (reedom (rom Prospero seems
to in"ol"e +e$omin. the sla"e o( someone else; someone who will ill
Prospero. So -ali+an throws in his lot with two drunen Europeans; not
ha"in. the wit to see them (or what they are. -ali+an is thus not so mu$h
interested in (reedom as he is in re+ellionK his "iolen$e is natural to him and
is not an out.rowth o( the way he is treated. Hen$e; ProsperoSs $ontrol o( him
throu.h his ma.i$ is not only 7usti(ied +ut ne$essary.
)oes -ali+an under.o any sort o( si.ni(i$ant $han.e at the endin. o(
the playX ThereSs a su..estion that he has learned somethin. (rom the
mistaes he has made; and his (inal $omment ?T8Sll +e wise herea(ter;J %nd
see (or .ra$eT@ may +e a $rypti$ a$nowled.ment o( some restraint. Aut he
doesnSt .o with the Europeans and remains on his island. -ali+anSs (uture li(e
has always spared interest amon. $ertain writers; (or there is a tradition o(
seDuels to the Tempest in whi$h -ali+an is the $entral $hara$ter ?nota+ly
Arownin.Ss lon. dramati$ monolo.ue T-ali+an on Sete+osT@.
,or all the potentially warm re$on$iliations at the end o( the play;
howe"er; it is not without its potentially so+erin. ironies. %nd there is a .ood
deal o( dis$ussion o( 7ust how uneDui"o$al the $ele+ration is at the end. ,or
Prospero is no sentimentalist. He re$o.ni*es the silen$e o( Se+astian and
%ntonio at the end (or what it is; an indi$ation that they ha"e not $han.ed;
that they are .oin. to return to !aples and 2ilan the same people as le(t it;
politi$al dou+le dealers; am+itious and potentially murderous power seeers;
7ust as Stephano and Trin$ulo are .oin. +a$ as stupid as when they le(t.
ProsperoSs theatri$al ma.i$ has +rou.ht them to.ether; has (or$ed them to
see themsel"es; +ut it has had no e((e$t on some $hara$ters ?unless the
sta.in. o( the end o( the play $on"eys in non="er+al ways that the two no+le
would=+e illers are as $ontrite as %lonso appears to +e@.
8( we see the irony here as present +ut not totally $orrosi"e; then +y
+rin.in. us su$h a re$on$iliation; theatre ?ProsperoSs e&periment in the play
and The Tempest itsel(@ $an help to maintain our +est hopes (or a meanin.(ul
li(e; (aith that in time we will wor thin.s out; that; in spite o( e"il; the end o(
our story will mani(est a pattern o( moral si.ni(i$an$e. 4o$ed into the
$ontin.en$ies o( history in our politi$al and +usiness li"es; where $ompetition
and de$eit(ul sel(=interest hold sway; we may easily lose this (aith. The
theatre is; in a sense; a pla$e whi$h $an restore us.
Aut that restoration is pro"isional and (ra.ile; more o( a hope than a
ro+ust $ertainty. ThatSs why in a$nowled.in. the most (amous sin.le line
Duotation (rom the play; one needs also to e&amines the (our words whi$h
immediately (ollow: 2iranda; o"erwhelmed with the wonder and deli.ht o(
seein. so many (inely dressed $i"ili*ed Europeans $ries out; T9 +ra"e new
worldJ That has su$h people inSt]T to whi$h the more so+er minded and mature
Prospero $omments only; TSTis new to thee.T Those (our words o( Prospero are
wonder(ully pre.nant. 8n them he a$nowled.es his earned awareness into the
nature o( human +ein.s; into the $omple&ity o( human li(e; whi$h does not
always ?or usually@ answer to 2irandaSs 7oyous a((irmation.
Aut he is not a+out to deli"er 2iranda another sermon; (or he nows
that the sense o( 7oy(ul and optimisti$ wonder whi$h she; as a youn. woman;
is $arryin. +a$ to 8taly is the worldSs +est hope. 8t may +e; as he well nows;
nai"e; (or 2iranda has; as yet; no sense o( the e"ils that lur +a$ in the
politi$al world o( the $ity. She sees only the attra$ti"e e&terior o( her human
surroundin.s with no sense yet o( the potential de$eptions within. Aut she is
++
as well eDuipped as he $an mae her; and it is not up to him to sour her
youth(ul enthusiasm with a more $omple& and less a((irmin. mature
re(le$tion. That is somethin. she will ha"e to dis$o"er in her turn.
9ne mi.ht ar.ue that i( ProsperoSs e&periment is desi.ned to mae
e"eryone +etter; then itSs a (ailure in lar.e part. %nd it may +e; as mentioned
a+o"e; that Prospero re$o.ni*es that (a$t. 8t is not unusual to sta.e this play
in su$h a way that the $on"entional $omi$ stru$ture o( the endin. is seriously
under$ut +y the sense o( sadness in Prospero; who is returnin. to 2ilan to
die. The endin. o( this play may not +e the unalloyed triumph o( the $omi$
spirit that we are tempted to see there. ProsperoSs so+er awareness o( what
the silen$e o( Se+astian and %ntonio means Duali(ies our sense o( 7oy +y
indi$atin. that the eternal pro+lem o( human e"il has not +een sol"ed or
dismissed. 9ne ma7or interpretati"e de$ision any dire$tor o( the play has to
mae $on$erns this endin.. <ust how e"ident and serious should those
ironies +e: non=e&istent; a li.ht shadow under the $ommunal 7oy; or a hea"y
reminder o( what is in store +a$ in 8talyX
The stren.th o( this so+erin. irony at the end will determine the parti$ular
tone whi$h .o"erns the return. 8n some produ$tions; the irony is hardly noti$ea+le
and the $ele+ration is thus dominant. 8n others; the irony is su((i$iently stron. to
introdu$e an ominous note into the whole pro$eedin.s; e"en to the point o(
su..estin. that ProsperoSs e&periment has; in a sense; (ailed. Ces; 2iranda and
,erdinand will +e happily married; +ut the politi$al world they are returnin. to
?where Prospero will soon die@ is un$han.ed and will remain mu$h the same.
Prospero4s Farewell to the Stage
The theatre metaphor also helps to e&plain why; in the last analysis;
Prospero has to surrender his ma.i$al powers. 4i(e $annot +e li"ed out in the
world o( illusions; deli.ht(ul and edu$ati"e as they $an o(ten +e. 4i(e must +e
li"ed in the real world; in 2ilan or in !aples; and 2iranda $annot thus entirely
(ul(ill hersel( on the island. The realities o( li(e must +e en$ountered and dealt
with as +est we $an. The world o( the theatre $an remind us o( thin.s we may
too easily (or.etK it $an li+erate and en$oura.e youth(ul wonder and
e&$itement at all the di"erse ri$hness o( li(eK it $an; at times; e"en wae
people up to more important issues than their own 2a$hia"ellian ur.e to sel(=
a..randi*ement; and; most important o( all; it $an edu$ate us into
(or.i"eness. Aut it $an ne"er (inally sol"e the pro+lem o( e"il; and it $an ne"er
pro"ide an a$$epta+le en"ironment (or a (ully reali*ed adult li(e.
Prospero doesnSt start the play (ully reali*in. all this. He laun$hes his
e&periment (rom a mi&ture o( moti"es; perhaps not entirely sure what he
.oin. to do ?a(ter all; one .ets the sense that thereSs a .ood deal o(
impro"isin. .oin. on@. Aut he learns in the play to a"oid the twin dan.ers to
his e&periment; the two main threats to the "alue o( his theatri$al ma.i$.
The (irst that should +e alluded to; namely; the dan.er o( usin. o( his
powers purely (or "en.ean$e. Prospero; lie Shaespeare; is a master
illusionist; and he is tempted to $hannel his personal (rustrations into his art; to
e&a$t "en.ean$e a.ainst wron.s done in 2ilan throu.h the power o( his art
?perhaps; as some ha"e ar.ued; as Shaespeare is doin. (or unnown personal
reasons a.ainst women in Hamlet and Lear@. Aut he learns (rom %riel that to do
this is to deny the moral "alue o( the art; whose ma7or purpose is to re$on$ile us
to oursel"es and our $ommunity; not to e"en a personal s$ore.
The se$ond .reat threat whi$h we see in this play is that Prospero
may .et too in"ol"ed in his own wonder(ul $apa+ilities; he may +e$ome too
+@
mu$h the showman; too proud o( showin. o(( his sill to attend to the (inal
purpose o( what he is doin.. We see this in the s$ene in whi$h Prospero puts
on a spe$ial display o( his theatri$al powers (or ,erdinand and 2iranda==his
desire to show o(( maes him (or.et that he has more important issues to
attend to; on$e a.ain puttin. his art in the ser"i$e o( the so$ial e&periment.
%nd itSs interestin. to note that it was his sel(=a+sorption in his own ma.i$
that .ot Prospero in trou+le in the (irst pla$e in 2ilan ?as he admits@; when he
ne.le$ted his responsi+ilities (or the sel(=a+sor+in. pleasures o( his +oos.
ThereSs a stron. sense in this play that; whate"er the powers and wonders o(
the illusion; one has to maintain a (irm sense o( what it is (or; what it $an and
$annot do; and where it is most appropriate. 8t $an ne"er su+stitute (or or
$on7ure away the $omple&ities o( li(e in the $ommunity.
This approa$h helps me to understand; too; the lo.i$ +ehind
ProsperoSs surrender o( his ma.i$. He has done all he $an do. Ha"in.
wrou.ht what his art $an +rin. a+out; ha"in. rea$hed the *enith o( his sill;
he has nothin. le(t to a$hie"e as an artist. He is .oin. home; +a$ to the
human $ommunity; perhaps to die; perhaps to en7oy a di((erent li(e; now a+le
to appre$iate more (ully what he did not understand so lon. a.o; the proper
relationship +etween the world .o"erned +y ma.i$ and illusion and the world
in whi$h most o( us ha"e to li"e most o( the time==the $ompromised world o(
politi$s; al$ohol; +uyin. and sellin.; (amily stri(e. So he releases %rielK he has
no more wor (or him to do; and %riel does not +elon. in 2ilan.
9( $ourse; it is $riti$ally ille.itimate and no dou+t "ery sentimental to lin
ProsperoSs .i"in. up o( his art with ShaespeareSs de$ision to .i"e up writin.
plays and to return to Strat(ord to en7oy li(e with his .rand$hildren ?in (a$t; he did
not .i"e up the theatri$al li(e immediately a(ter writin. this play@. Aut itSs a "ery
temptin. $onne$tion; espe$ially in the li.ht o( the wonder(ul spee$h in %$t B;
S$ene 1 one o( the most (reDuently Duoted passa.es in the play; a spee$h
whi$h has $ome to +e $alled TShaespeareSs ,arewell to the Sta.e.T )reams
may +e the stu(( o( li(e; they may ener.i*e us; deli.ht us; edu$ate us; and
re$on$ile us to ea$h other; +ut we $annot li"e li(e as a dream. We may $arry
what we learn in the world o( illusion with us into li(e; and perhaps we may +e
a+le; throu.h art; to learn a+out how to deal with the e"il in the world; in$ludin.
our own. Aut art is not a su+stitute (or li(e; and it $annot alter the (undamental
$onditions o( the human $ommunity. The ma.i$ island is not 2ilan; and human
+ein.s +elon. in 2ilan with all its dan.ers; i( they are to +e (ully human. 4i(e
must +e li"ed histori$ally; not aestheti$ally.E ?<ohnston; 1999:
http:JJwww.mala.+$.$aJV7ohnstoiJen.366Jle$turesJtempest.htm@
Masters and Ser%ants
!early e"ery s$ene in the play either e&pli$itly or impli$itly portrays a
relationship +etween a (i.ure that possesses power and a (i.ure that is su+7e$t
to that power. The play e&plores the master=ser"ant dynami$ most harshly in
$ases in whi$h the harmony o( the relationship is threatened or disrupted; as +y
the re+ellion o( a ser"ant or the ineptitude o( a master. ,or instan$e; in the
openin. s$ene; the 6ser"antE ?the Aoatswain@ is dismissi"e and an.ry toward his
6mastersE ?the no+lemen@; whose ineptitude threatens to lead to a shipwre$ in
the storm. ,rom then on; master=ser"ant relationships lie these dominate the
play: Prospero and -ali+anK Prospero and %rielK %lonso and his no+lesK the
no+les and :on*aloK Ste(ano; Trin$ulo; and -ali+anK and so (orth. The play
e&plores the psy$holo.i$al and so$ial dynami$s o( power relationships (rom a
num+er o( $ontrastin. an.les; su$h as the .enerally positi"e relationship
@*
+etween Prospero and %riel; the .enerally ne.ati"e relationship +etween
Prospero and -ali+an; and the trea$hery in %lonso>s relationship to his no+les.
The coloni+ers and the coloni+ed
The nearly uninha+ited island presents the sense o( in(inite possi+ility
to almost e"eryone who lands there. Prospero has (ound it; in its isolation; an
ideal pla$e to s$hool his dau.hter. Sy$ora&; -ali+an>s mother; wored her
ma.i$ there a(ter she was e&iled (rom %l.eria. -ali+an; on$e alone on the
island; now Prospero>s sla"e; laments that he had +een his own in.
?8.ii.344H34#@. %s he attempts to $om(ort %lonso; :on*alo ima.ines a utopian
so$iety on the island; o"er whi$h he would rule ?88.i.14/H1#6@. 8n %$t 888; s$ene
ii; -ali+an su..ests that Ste(ano ill Prospero; and Ste(ano immediately
en"isions his own rei.n: 62onster; 8 will ill this man. His dau.hter and 8 will
+e 1in. and FueenIsa"e our .ra$es]Iand Trin$ulo and thysel( shall +e my
"i$eroysE ?888.ii.151H153@. Ste(ano parti$ularly loos (orward to tain.
ad"anta.e o( the spirits that mae 6noisesE on the isleK they will pro"ide musi$
(or his in.dom (or (ree. %ll these $hara$ters en"ision the island as a spa$e o(
(reedom and unreali*ed potential.
The tone o( the play; howe"er; toward the hopes o( the would=+e
$oloni*ers is "e&ed at +est. :on*alo>s utopian "ision in %$t 88; s$ene i is under$ut
+y a sharp retort (rom the usually (oolish Se+astian and %ntonio. When :on*alo
says that there would +e no $ommer$e or wor or 6so"erei.ntyE in his so$iety;
Se+astian replies; 6yet he would +e in. on>t;E and %ntonio adds; 6The latter end
o( his $ommonwealth (or.ets the +e.innin.E ?88.i.1#6H1#3@. :on*alo>s (antasy
thus in"ol"es him rulin. the island while seemin. not to rule it; and in this he
+e$omes a ind o( parody o( Prospero.
While there are many representati"es o( the $olonial impulse in the
play; the $oloni*ed ha"e only one representati"e: -ali+an. We mi.ht de"elop
sympathy (or him at (irst; when Prospero sees him out merely to a+use him;
and when we see him tormented +y spirits. Howe"er; this sympathy is made
more di((i$ult +y his willin.ness to a+ase himsel( +e(ore Ste(ano in %$t 88;
s$ene ii. E"en as -ali+an plots to ill one $olonial master ?Prospero@ in %$t 888;
s$ene ii; he sets up another ?Ste(ano@. The ur.e to rule and the ur.e to +e
ruled seem ine&tri$a+ly intertwined.
7&>& 5ractical A((lications& E1a6ination !ests&
1. :i"e e&amples o( a@ three $hroni$le plays; +@ three $omedies; $@ three
tra.edies; and d@ three roman$es +y William Shaespeare and indi$ate their
most prominent (eatures ?e... types o( $hara$ters; themes; moti(s; type o(
dis$ourse; et$@.
2. E&plain the artisti$ purpose o( 'i$hard 888>s soliloDuy ?%$t 8; S$ene 1@ and
$omment upon Shaespeare>s arts o( lan.ua.e as illustrated in the (ollowin. lines:
GL.UES!ER. !ow is the winter o( our dis$ontent
2ade .lorious summer +y this sun o( CorK
%nd all the $louds that lourSd upon our house
8n the deep +osom o( the o$ean +uried.
!ow are our +rows +ound with "i$torious wreathsK
9ur +ruised arms hun. up (or monumentsK
9ur stern alarums $han.Sd to merry meetin.s;
9ur dread(ul mar$hes to deli.ht(ul measures.
:rim="isa.Sd war hath smoothSd his wrinled (ront;
%nd now; instead o( mountin. +ar+ed steeds
To (ri.ht the souls o( (ear(ul ad"ersaries;
GL.UES!ER& %*i iarna "ra7+ei noastre s=a
s$him+at;
Prin soarele lui Cor; \n toi de "arYK
8ar norii toî $e $asa ne=o stri"eau
Sunt \n.ropaî \n s_nu=ad_n$ al mYrii.
PurtYm pe (runî $ununi de +iruin^YK
)in $iunte arme am (Y$ut tro(euK
)in aspre tr_m+iî; .las de "oioZie;
)in marZ de spaimY; paZi sua"i de dan^.
ArY*datul 2arte $hipul Zi=l des$runtY;
[i=a$um; \n lo$ sY sperie "rY7maZii
@/
He $apers nim+ly in a ladySs $ham+er
To the las$i"ious pleasin. o( a lute.
Aut 8=that am not shapSd (or sporti"e tri$s;
!or made to $ourt an amorous looin.=.lass=
8=that am rudely stampSd; and want lo"eSs ma7esty
To strut +e(ore a wanton am+lin. nymph=
8=that am $urtailSd o( this (air proportion;
-heated o( (eature +y dissem+lin. nature;
)e(ormSd; un(inishSd; sent +e(ore my time
8nto this +reathin. world s$ar$e hal( made up;
%nd that so lamely and un(ashiona+le
That do.s +ar at me as 8 halt +y them=
Why; 8; in this wea pipin. time o( pea$e;
Ha"e no deli.ht to pass away the time;
0nless to spy my shadow in the sun
%nd des$ant on mine own de(ormity.
%nd there(ore; sin$e 8 $annot pro"e a lo"er
To entertain these (air well=spoen days;
8 am determined to pro"e a "illain
%nd hate the idle pleasures o( these days.
Plots ha"e 8 laid; indu$tions dan.erous;
Ay drunen prophe$ies; li+els; and dreams;
To set my +rother -laren$e and the 1in.
8n deadly hate the one a.ainst the otherK
%nd i( 1in. Edward +e as true and 7ust
%s 8 am su+tle; (alse; and trea$herous;
This day should -laren$e $losely +e mewSd up=
%+out a prophe$y whi$h says that :
9( EdwardSs heirs the murderer shall +e.
)i"e; thou.hts; down to my soul. Here -laren$e
$omes.
`n$Yle$at pe $ai \mplYtoZaî;
El *+urdY prin iata$uri de domniê
`n (reamYtul molate$ al lYutei.
)ar eu; $e nu=s $roit pentru h_r7oane
[i ni$i sY mY rYs(Y^ \n dul$i o.lin*iK
Eu; $runt; $iuntit; $e nu pot sY mY=n(oi
Pe l_n.=o nim(Y le.YnatY=n ZolduriK
Eu; $el ne$umpYnit deopotri"Y;
PrYdat la trup de (irea ne$institY;
!eisprY"it Zi str_m+; prea timpuriu
Q"_rlit \n lumea asta "ie; Zi=n$Y
%Za po$it; s$Yl_m+; $Y p_n> Zi $_inii
2Y latrY $_nd Zonti$Yies$ pe drumK
)a; eu; \n piuitul sla+ al pY$ii;
!u simt plY$eri sY=mi tre$ rY.a*ul alt(el
)e$_t pri"ind=mi um+ra lun.Y=n soare
[i=amYnunîndu=mi str_m+Y$iunea meaK
)e$i $um nu pot sY (iu un $urte*an;
!i$i sY mY=m+ii la aste dul$i tai(asuri;
2i=am pus \n ._nd sY (iu un ti$Ylos;
0r_nd hu*urul *ilelor de a*i.
0r*eli am \nnodat; prepusuri .rele;
Prin +ete pro(esii; s$orneli Zi "ise;
Pe re.e Zi pe -laren$e; (raîi mei;
4a urY sY=i asmut; mistuitoare.
[i da$Y Edward ri.a=i +un Zi drept
-_t eu su+îre; $utrY; =ntorto$heat;
-hiar astY*i -laren$e intrY=n $oli"ie;
)e rYul pro(eîei $um $Y :
BlYstarii lui Edward \i "a st_rpi.
)e=a=(undu=n su(let; ._nduri: "ine -laren$e.
3. )es$ri+e Petru$hio>s ori.inal method o( su+duin. the shrewish 1atherina;
emphasisin. how lan.ua.e is deli+erately e&ploited (or e((e$t in the lines
+elow ?%$t 88; S$ene 1@. 2ae then more .eneral $omments on Petru$hio>s
strate.y o( Gtamin.> 1atherina and on the di((erent illustrations o( .ender
relations in Shaespeare>s $omedy.
5E!RUHI.& :ood morrow; 1ate= (or thatSs your
name; 8 hear.
DA!HERINA. Well ha"e you heard; +ut somethin.
hard o( hearin.:
They $all me 1atherine that do tal o( me.
5E!RUHI.. Cou lie; in (aith; (or you are $allSd plain
1ate;
%nd +onny 1ate; and sometimes 1ate the $urstK
Aut; 1ate; the prettiest 1ate in -hristendom;
1ate o( 1ate Hall; my super=dainty 1ate;
,or dainties are all 1ates; and there(ore; 1ate;
Tae this o( me; 1ate o( my $onsolation=
Hearin. thy mildness praisSd in e"ery town;
Thy "irtues spoe o(; and thy +eauty sounded;
Cet not so deeply as to thee +elon.s;
2ysel( am mo"Sd to woo thee (or my wi(e.
DA!HERINA. 2o"Sd] in .ood time] 4et him that mo"Sd
you hither
'emo"e you hen$e. 8 new you at the (irst
Cou were a mo"ea+le.
5E!RUHI.. Why; whatSs a mo"ea+leX
DA!HERINA. % 7oinSd=stool.
5E!RUHI.. Thou hast hit it. -ome; sit on me.
DA!HERINA. %sses are made to +ear; and so are
you.
5E!RUHI.. Women are made to +ear; and so are
you.
DA!HERINA. !o su$h 7ade as you; i( me you mean.
5E!RUHI.. %las; .ood 1ate; 8 will not +urden thee]
,or; nowin. thee to +e +ut youn. and li.ht=
5E!RUHI.& 1ate] Gneaâ; 1ate H aud $=aZ \î spune.
DA!HERINA. [i +ine au*i; dar eZti $am surd. -ei $ari
Bor+es$ de mine 1atherina=mi *i$.
5E!RUHI.& 2inî; *YuK $Y$i î se spune 1ate Zi=at_tK
Boioasa 1ate; Zi 1ate a(urisitaK
)ar; 1ate; $ea mai (rumoasY 1ate din lume;
1ate din 1ate=Hall; 1ate (YrY de pere$he;
-Y$i tot $e=i +un e 1ate; de$i; 1ate; m=as$ultY;
1ate; m_n._ierea meaK î=am au*it
Al_ndeêa lYudatY \n tot oraZul;
Birtuîle=amintite; (rumuseêa
-_ntatY; $hiar de nu pe=at_t $_t meriî;
[i=am (ost miZ$at Zi ... "reau sY te peês$.
DA!HERINA. 2iZ$at] Halal] -in> te=a miZ$at \n$oa$e
Te miZte de ai$i. -um te=am "Y*ut;
-um te=am .hi$it. EZti miZ$Ytor.
5E!RUHI.& %di$YX
DA!HERINA. 0n s$aun.
5E!RUHI.& Aun. %Zea*Y=te pe mine.
DA!HERINA. 2Y.arul e pentru $Yrat H $a tine.
5E!RUHI.& ,emeia e pentru purtat H $a tine.
DA!HERINA. Gî \n$hipui $=am sY port un +ou $a tineX
5E!RUHI.& Bai; 1ate; nu "reau sY te \mpo"Yre*]
[tiindu=te eu t_nYrY; uZoarY L
DA!HERINA. 2ult prea uZoarY spre=a mY prinde=un
urs;
[i totuZi; .rea at_t $_t se $u"ine.
5E!RUHI.& -_t se $u"ine H +_**]
DA!HERINA. :ro*a" +ondar]
5E!RUHI.& -e dropie] 9 sY te ia +ondarul]
@)
DA!HERINA. Too li.ht (or su$h a swain as you to
$at$hK
%nd yet as hea"y as my wei.ht should +e.
5E!RUHI.. Should +e] should= +u**]
DA!HERINA. Well taSen; and lie a +u**ard.
5E!RUHI.. 9; slow=win.Sd turtle; shall a +u**ard
tae theeX
DA!HERINA. %y; (or a turtle; as he taes a +u**ard.
5E!RUHI.. -ome; $ome; you waspK iS (aith; you
are too an.ry.
DA!HERINA. 8( 8 +e waspish; +est +eware my stin..
5E!RUHI.. 2y remedy is then to plu$ it out.
DA!HERINA. %y; i( the (ool $ould (ind it where it lies.
5E!RUHI.. Who nows not where a wasp does
wear his stin.X
8n his tail.
DA!HERINA. 8n his ton.ue.
5E!RUHI.. Whose ton.ueX
DA!HERINA. Cours; i( you tal o( talesK and so
(arewell.
5E!RUHI.. What; with my ton.ue in your tailX !ay;
$ome a.ain;
:ood 1ateK 8 am a .entleman.
DA!HERINA. That 8Sll try. MShe stries himN
5E!RUHI.. 8 swear 8Sll $u(( you; i( you strie a.ain.
DA!HERINA. So may you lose your arms.
8( you strie me; you are no .entlemanK
%nd i( no .entleman; why then no arms. MLN
5E!RUHI.. !ay; hear you; 1ate= in sooth; you
s$ape not so.
DA!HERINA. 8 $ha(e you; i( 8 tarryK let me .o.
5E!RUHI.. !o; not a whitK 8 (ind you passin.
.entle.
STwas told me you were rou.h; and $oy; and sullen;
%nd now 8 (ind report a "ery liarK
,or thou art pleasant; .amesome; passin. $ourteous;
Aut slow in spee$h; yet sweet as sprin.time (lowers.
Thou $anst not (rown; thou $anst not loo asan$e;
!or +ite the lip; as an.ry wen$hes will;
!or hast thou pleasure to +e $ross in talK
Aut thou with mildness entertainSst thy wooersK
With .entle $on(eren$e; so(t and a((a+le.
Why does the world report that 1ate doth limpX
9 slandSrous world] 1ate lie the ha*el=twi.
8s strai.ht and slender; and as +rown in hue
%s ha*el=nuts; and sweeter than the ernels.
9; let me see thee wal. Thou dost not halt.
DA!HERINA. :o; (ool; and whom thou eepSst
$ommand.
5E!RUHI.. )id e"er )ian so +e$ome a .ro"e
%s 1ate this $ham+er with her prin$ely .aitX
9; +e thou )ian; and let her +e 1ateK
%nd then let 1ate +e $haste; and )ian sport(ul]
DA!HERINA. Where did you study all this .oodly
spee$hX
5E!RUHI.. 8t is e&tempore; (rom my mother wit.
DA!HERINA. % witty mother] witless else her son.
5E!RUHI.. %m 8 not wiseX
DA!HERINA. Ces; eep you warm.
5E!RUHI.. 2arry; so 8 mean; sweet 1atherine; in
thy +ed.
%nd there(ore; settin. all this $hat aside;
Thus in plain terms: your (ather hath $onsented
That you shall +e my wi(e your dowry .reed onK
%nd will you; nill you; 8 will marry you.
!ow; 1ate; 8 am a hus+and (or your turnK
,or; +y this li.ht; where+y 8 see thy +eauty;
Thy +eauty that doth mae me lie thee well;
DA!HERINA. )rept dropieL [i ea "a lua +ondarul]
5E!RUHI.& Ei; haide; haide; "iespe; prea eZti rea.
DA!HERINA. ,ereZte=te de a$; da$Y sun "iespe.
5E!RUHI.& %tun$i sY=l s$oatem H Ysta=i lea$ul
meu.
DA!HERINA. )a; da$Y prostul a(lY unde este.
5E!RUHI.& !u Ztie $ine unde=l poartY "iespeaX
`n $oadY.
DA!HERINA. `n lim+Y.
5E!RUHI.& 4im+a $uiX
DA!HERINA. % ta; da$Y pYlY"rY.eZti; $u +ine.
5E!RUHI.& -u lim+a mea \n $oada taX !u; 1ate.
Te=ntoar$eK sunt un .entilom.
DA!HERINA. SY "Yd. M`l pYlmuieZte.N
5E!RUHI.& )a$Y mai dai; mY 7ur; $Y=î tra. un
pumn.
DA!HERINA. Be*i sY nu=î pier*i +la*onul.
)a$Y mY lo"eZti; nu mai eZti .entilomK
)e nu eZti .entilom; n=ai ni$i +la*on. M...N
5E!RUHI.& %s$ultY=n (elul astY n=ai sY s$api.
DA!HERINA. 2ai +ine ple$K $Y$i da$Y stau te supYr.
5E!RUHI.& %Zi; 1ate] -e dul$e=mi pari] [tii; mi s=a
spus
-=ai (i mo7i$Y; uri$ioasY; rea...
-um minte .ura lumii] EZti plY$utY;
BoioasY; sprintenY; la "or+Y=n$eatY;
)ar .in.aZY $a o (loare=a primY"eriiK
Tu nu te=n$runî; nu $aî pon$iZ; nu (a$i
-a +osum(latele $e=Zi muZ$Y +u*a
[i ni$i nu=î pla$e "or+a s=o \ntor$i.
PrimeZti (rumos pe $ei $e te peês$;
-u "or+e +l_nde; dul$i; prieteneZti.
)e unde=au s$os $Y Z$hiopYte*iX 9; lume;
)e +_r(itori ] Tu eZti smi$ea de=alun;
`naltY; *"eltY; oa$heZY la $hip
Pre$um aluna; dul$e mie*ul ei.
8a sY te "Yd $um mer.i H nu Z$hipYte*i.
DA!HERINA. Porun$Y; tontule; sY dai la slu.i]
5E!RUHI.& %=mpodo+it $_nd"a )iana $r_n.ul
-a tu Yst lo$; $u mersu=î de prinêsYX
9; (ie 1ate )iana Zi ea 1ate;
1ate $astY Zi )iana 7u$YuZY]
DA!HERINA. 2Yiastre "or+e] 0nde le=ai deprinsX
5E!RUHI.& PYi; mi=au "enit H de la mYi$uâ
minteL
DA!HERINA. )eZteaptY mamY] -e noro$ pe (iu]
5E!RUHI.& !u=s \nêleptX
DA!HERINA. Aa] )u=te Zi te $ul$Y.
5E!RUHI.& )a; 1ate; \n patul tYu H $hiar asta
"reau.
)ar; $e mai tura "ura H spun des$his:
8u+ito; tatYl tYu s=a \n"oit
SY=mi (ii ne"astYK *estrea=i hotYr_tYK
%Za $Y; "rei nu "rei; eu tot te iau.
@7
Thou must +e married to no man +ut meK
,or 8 am he am +orn to tame you; 1ate;
%nd +rin. you (rom a wild 1ate to a 1ate
-on(orma+le as other household 1ates.
4. -omment upon the mal$ontent>s dilemma and inner $on(li$t; e&plorin. the
(ollowin. lines (rom Hamlet>s soliloDuy ?%$t 888; S$ena 1@:
HACLE!0
To +e; or not to +e: that is the Duestion:
Whether Gtis no+ler in the mind to su((er
The slin.s and arrows o( outra.eous (ortune;
9r to tae arms a.ainst a sea o( trou+les;
%nd +y opposin. end themX To die: to sleepK
!o moreK and +y a sleep to say we end
The heart=a$he and the thousand natural sho$s
That (lesh is heir to; Gtis a $onsummation
)e"outly to +e wish>d. To die; to sleepK
To sleep: per$han$e to dreamK ay; there>s the ru+K
,or in that sleep o( death what dreams may
$ome;
When we ha"e shu((led o(( this mortal $oil;
2ust .i"e us pause: there>s the respe$t
That maes $alamity o( so lon. li(eK
,or who would +ear the whips and s$orns o( time;
The oppressor>s wron.; the proud man>s $ontumely;
The pan.s o( despised lo"e; that law>s delay;
The insolen$e o( o((i$e and the spurns
That patient merit o( the unworthy taes;
When he himsel( mi.ht his Duietus mae
With a +are +odinX who would (ardels +ear;
To .runt and sweat under a weary li(e;
Aut that the dread o( somethin. a(ter death;
The undis$o"er>d $ountry (rom whose +ourn
!o tra"eler returns; pu**les the will
%nd maes us rather +ear those ills we ha"e
Than (ly to others that we now not o(X
Thus $ons$ien$e does mae $owards o( us allK
%nd thus the nati"e hue o( resolution
8s si$lied o>er with the pale $ast o( thou.ht;
%nd enterprises o( .reat pit$h and moment
With this re.ard their $urrents turn awry;
%nd lose the name o( a$tion.
HACLE!0
,iin^Y H ne(iin^Y: $e s=ale.iX
2ai "redni$ oare e sY ra+*i \n $u.et
%> "itre.iei praZtii Zi sY.eî;
Sau (ierul sY=l ridi$i asupra mYrii
)e .ri7i H Zi sY le $urmi X SY mori : sY dormi K
%t_t : Zi printr=un somn sY $urmi durerea
)in inimY Zi droaia de i*+eliZti
-e=s date $Yrnii; este=o \n$heiere
-u$erni$ de r_"nit. SY mori; sY dormi;
SY dormi H "is_nd; mai Ztii X %i$i e .reu.
-Y$i se $u"ine=a $u.eta : $e "ise
Pot rYsYri \n somnu= a$easta=al morîi
-_nd hoitu=i lepYdatX )e=a$eea=i lun.Y
!Ypasta. %lt(el $ine=ar mai rY+da
%>lumii +i$e Zi o$Yri; $Yl$_iul
Tiran; dispreûl omului tru(aZ;
-hinul iu+irii=n "an; *Y+a"a le.ii;
!eo+rY*area $_rmuirii; s$_r+a
-e=o s"_rlu $ei ne"redni$i $elor "redni$i;
-_nd \nsuZi ar putea sY=Zi (a$Y seama
)oar $u=n pumnal X -ine=ar rY+da po"erii;
:em_nd Zi asud_nd su+ .ruel "ieîi;
-_t teama \n $e"a de dupY moarte;
TYr_mul nea(lat; de unde nimeni
!u se \ntoar$e ne=n$_l$eZte "rerea
[i mai de.ra+> rY+dYm a$este rele
)e$_t *+urYm spre alte neZtiute.
%st(el miZei pe toî ne (a$e ._ndul:
[i=ast(el al hotYr_rii proaspYt $hip
Se .Yl+e7eZte=n um+ra $u.etYrii;
8ar marile; \naltele a"_nturi
)e=a$eea \Zi \ntoarnY str_m+ Zu"oiul
[i numele de (aptY=l pierd.
#. -omment on the (ollowin. e&$erpt (rom The Tempest ?%$t B; S$ene 1@;
showin. how Prospero (un$tions as an Ginstrument> in e&plorin. the nature o(
dramati$ art; in re"ealin. the +eauty o( the world o( the sta.e; while also
"oi$in. Shaespeare>s (arewell to it:
5R.S5ER.0
Ce el"es o( hills; +roos; standin. laes and .ro"es;
%nd ye that on the sands with printless (oot
)o $hase the e++in. !eptune and do (ly him
When he $omes +a$K you demi=puppets that
Ay moonshine do the .reen sour rin.lets mae;
Whereo( the ewe not +ites; and you whose pastime
8s to mae midni.ht mushrooms; that re7oi$e
To hear the solemn $ur(ewK +y whose aid;
Wea masters thou.h ye +e; 8 ha"e +edimm>d
The noontide sun; $all>d (orth the mutinous winds;
%nd >twi&t the .reen sea and the a*ured "ault
Set roarin. war: to the dread rattlin. thunder
Ha"e 8 .i"en (ire and ri(ted <o"e>s stout oa
With his own +oltK the stron.=+ased promontory
Ha"e 8 made shae and +y the spurs plu$>d up
The pine and $edar: .ra"es at my $ommand
Ha"e waed their sleepers; oped; and let >em (orth
Ay my so potent art. Aut this rou.h ma.i$
5R.S5ER.0
Boi; sil(i din mY.uri; r_uri; +Ylî Zi $r_n.uri;
[i "oi; $ari; (YrY urme de nisip;
:oniî dupY !eptun $_nd e=n re(lu&
[i o *+u.hiî din (aâ=iK "oi; pYpuZi
SYdind; pe lunY; +ra*de "er*i Zi a$re
)in $ari nu pas$ mioareK "oi; $e=n 7oa$Y;
`n $ru$ea nopîi s$oateî hri+i; r_*_nd
-_nd sunY=a nopîi stin.ereK prin "oi;
Puteri plYp_nde; soarele de=amia*Y
4=am stins; am slo+o*it tur+atul "_nt
[i marea "erde=am \n$leZtat $u=a*urul.
%prins=am tunetul temut Zi surd;
-rYp_nd ste7arul m_ndru a lui <oe
-hiar $u sY.eata luiK din temelii
-lintit=am promontoriiK pini Zi $edri
%m smuls din rYdY$iniK la .lasul meu;
2ormintele i=au deZteptat pe morî
[i s=au $Ys$at Zi i=au lYsat sY iasY
@:
8 here a+7ure; and; when 8 ha"e reDuired
Some hea"enly musi$; whi$h e"en now 8 do;
To wor mine end upon their senses that
This airy $harm is (or; 8>ll +rea my sta((;
Aury it $ertain (athoms in the earth;
%nd deeper than did e"er plummet sound
8>ll drown my +oo.
Prin arta=mi Zi "_rtutea ei. -i; iatY;
2Y lepYd de ma.ia asta asprYK
8ar dupa $e=am sY $er un $_nt din slY"i H
[i=l $er a$um H $a sY=mi s(_rZes$ lu$rarea
%supra simûrilor lor; $Y$i "ra7a
E pentru ei; +a.heta am s=o (r_n.;
S=o=n.rop la $_î"a st_n7eni \n pYm_nt;
8ar $artea mai a(und am s=o \ne$
)e$_t s=a=n$umetat "reodatY plum+ul.

@;
-i'lio#ra(24
-i'lio#ra(24
hhh ?19/3@ 6Some %do a+out Who was or Was !ot; ShaespeareE;
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Aar+er; Holly %. Sha3espearean Performance1 GPHQ=GRQJ;
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Aer$o"it$h; Sa$"an ?1969@ T4o"e and Stri(e in 1ydSs Spanish Tra.edy;T
SEL. 9; 21#H229
Aerdan; <ohn 2. ?1925@ Early Tudor Poetry. GQSP=GPQH; !ew Cor: The
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Aethell; Tom ?1991@ 6The -ase (or 9&(ordE; The (tlantic Monthly; Bolume
26/; !o. 4 ?9$to+er@; 4#=61;
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Aloom; Harold. ?199/@ Sha3espeare> The In%ention of the Human; !ew
Cor: 'i"erhead Aoos
Aolt; Sydney. ?1995@. Sha3espeare = Hamlet. 4ondon: Pen.uin Aoos
Aowers; ,redson ?1945@ Eli+a'ethan Re%enge Tragedy. Prin$eton:
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)ai$hes; )a"id. ?193#; 1991@. ( #ritical History of English Literature1 ,ol
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En.lert; 'o+ert ?1999@ 6Why 8 re7e$t the Shaespearean SheresiesSE; The
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:a"riliu; Eu.enia ?2555@ Lectures in English Literature I; :alaî:
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Honan; Par ?255#@ #hristopher Marlowe E Poet and Spy; 9&(ord:
9&(ord 0ni"ersity Press
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Renaissance Drama /; /9H154
Huston; )ennis <. ?19/1@ TEnter the Hero: The Power o( Play in The
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Typolo.i$al 'eadin. o( HamletE;
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2into; William ?1//#@ 6Eli*a+ethan SonneteersE; Sonnet #entral ?1993=
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@+

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