Black Holes, Worm Holes and Other Universes

Gravity has a strange effect on light. It will couple with light, and bend it
around large masses. The idea arose from Einstein, and on the 9th of November in
1919, light was seen to bend around the sun during an eclipse. The times reported
on the discovery, 'space would no longer be looked at as extending indefinitely in
all directions. Straight lines would not exist in Einstien’s space. They would all
be curved and if they traveled far enough they would return to their starting
point.'

Finding that our universe was not a Euclidean flat spacetime was indeed a marvel
of physics. It showed that space was highly twisted and curved into time, and that
gravity itself was a product of these bends in time and space through the presence
of matter. It was these types of distortions that led the way for a new prediction
in Einstien’s 'theory of relativity.' It predicted a black hole - a whopping
gravitational body, unto which nothing can escape its grasp. The center of a black
hole has perfect infinite curvature; and it is here that the distortions of space
and time become so highly stressed it can actually rip a hole in the fabric of
spacetime itself. This is the singularity at the center of the black hole - but it
wasn't the same as the singularity of the big bang.

A black hole has this strength because it is a dense concentration of mass.

Actually, this mass is so dense, it actually drags space and time around with it,
and the curvature it produces is fantastic. For a space shuttle to leave earth's
gravitational pull, it needs to have a speed that is strong enough to make the
'escape velocity.' You can imagine the escape velocity is stronger the closer you
are to the earth's core. To leave earth, you need a constant speed of something
like 25,000 mph.

Now, take the speed of a photon (light) - the fastest particle known. The speed of
light is very hard to grasp - saying that it travels 186,000 miles a second isn't
always easy to reconcile; just remember, the sun is 15 million km away, and it
takes a photon a little over 8.3 minutes to reach us!
Now imagine a massive body in space with such a high concentration of mass, it is
actually able to stop light itself - this is a black hole - and this must mean it
has an escape velocity of light! A photon, traveling quite happily will be
abruptly slowed down until it reached zero-speed. All Luxens (that is particles
with a speed of light v=c) and obviously all Bradyons (particles with a velocity
under the speed of light v<c) would inexorably be trapped by the intense pull of
the black hole... only a hypothetical particle called the 'Tachyon' could escape
its pull, quite easily actually. A Tachyon is a particle that moves faster than
light v>c.

The idea that an object with a large concentration of dense mass goes right back
to the 18th centaury - just after Einstein developed his important relativity
theory. It was a physicist Karl Schwarzschild (that is were the black hole gets
the name, ‘Schwarzschild radius’ from) who discovered a mathematical solution to
the equations of the theory that described such an exotic object. It was only
later in the 1930's that theorists Oppenheimer, Volkoff and Snyder took the theory
seriously.
Certain stars that cannot support itself against its own gravitational field have
a special destiny ahead of them - a star that does this will collapse and form
into a black hole. It was John A. Wheeler that coined the term 'black hole' -
before that, it had been called 'frozen stars.' Our star, as big as it is, will
not collapse until another 5-6 billion years. Altogether, our sun will have lived
a total of 11 billion years, and this is quite a good lifespan. Other stars will
not be so lucky. They would collapse into a spherical black hole in half that
time.
Let's consider a star that is 666,000 times that of the mass of planet earth -
this star will have a lifespan of about 5.5 billion years. And there will be much
heavier stars out there. You can imagine, stars with a lesser life span with 5.5
billion years as a lifespan would not have given earth enough time to develop life
properly; in fact, if science is correct, there wouldn't have been enough time to
allow human life to form, considering science informs us that human life did not
appear until only about 100,000 years ago, and the earth being 6 billion-odd years
old itself. This is another factor that makes human life on earth rather
extraordinary.

Physicist Stephen Hawking, arguably the best mind in the world, has spent much of
his time working on the theory of Black Holes. His contribution into the
hypothetical black hole is astounding, and if you want more information on his
work, i advise you to read his book, 'A Brief History of Time.'
A black hole has something called 'the event horizon' - the event horizon is the
spherical surface, or boundary of the black hole. This is the point, that if
anything passes it, nothing can escape (apart from a Tachyon mentioned earlier),
or unless an object began its journey from the interior; this is because of a
strange rule: You cannot pass the surface twice.
It was this reason it was called the event horizon, just like a sunset horizon -
you can travel towards it but never quite reach it, or at least, this is what it
would be like for an observer sitting comfortably away, watching me traveling
towards the black hole... It would seem to take an infinitely long amount of time,
and it would look like as if the closer i got to it, the slower i would be in
momentum, until it looked as if i had stopped completely. This is because time
becomes highly dilated between the traveler and the observer who is a bit away -
this is the bizarre effect of relativity. We must take these facts into
consideration, when one moves closer to the weird singularity. If our calculations
are singular, this means that aspects, like a time interval, or space itself take
on infinite values. If this is hard to imagine or a little tedious on the mind -
do not fret - anything you don't understand just move on and tackle it later.

If one passed the event horizon, you will inevitably move closer and closer to the
singularity in its center, moving faster and faster because space is dragging you
closer to the speed of light.
To an observer who is sitting comfortably far away from the event horizon, the
hole itself appears static. However, if we moved a little closer to the boundary,
it would become visible that the hole itself has a remarkable velocity - in fact,
a black hole spins with a velocity of the speed of light. Once inside of the black
hole, spacetime are distorted to such a degree, that space and time switch roles
(more on this in next part). We could not jump into a nonrotating black hole - the
force of the black hole would rip matter apart!

How big can a black hole be?

Most black holes will have formed from supernovae, so it is expected that they
will be as big as a standard candle (usually depicted as bright white dwarfs - the
remnant of stars) and much bigger, and if Stephen Hawking is correct, each
supergalaxy has a supermassive black hole at their centers. And if theory is
correct, the universe itself has a supermassive black hole at its center, where
all matter orbits over billion upon billions of years. And there is even a theory
suggesting our universe is a black hole itself, based on the fact that our
universe has a lot of mass, but isn't too dense. And if black holes do exist,
Stephen Hawking believes we might be able to detect a small black hole, as it will
radiate a glow... a natural lantern in space. I presume that black holes would
also be more visible nearer stars. Light reflects off natural objects and creates
the ability to see them. A black hole would absorb light, and it would become
visible as a hole.
The attention black holes have received over the years is truly mind-blowing...
let us just hope that the work does not go in vain, and that black holes do indeed
exist. They should exist... after all, Cosmology and Relativity Theories predict
them as real 'things out there'. Whether or not they are indeed portals into other
universes is another thing... Though, if theory is right, a lot of physicists will
be proven wrong; it would seem to indicate a universe without the collapse of the
wave function, as we shall see later in part three.

Falling into a Black Hole

If black holes do actually exist, there is some debate as to whether a human could
endure a trip into one – the reason why is because anything that falls into Black
Holes get’s shredded into spaghetti. Why would we even want to jump into a black
hole? Well, theory says that 'wormholes' which are topological openings inside the
black hole might lead to other universes! This is the theory of parallel
universes, and we shall see more on this theory in next part. It was John A.
Wheeler who named these openings as wormholes. The problem is, if one does not
enter a wormhole in the correct way, there is the chance that the object will be
stretched apart.

It was in 1935, Albert Einstein and Nathan Rosen predicted that black holes
themselves where natural bridges into another possible universe. This bridge from
one world into another, came to be known as the 'Einstein-Rosen Bridge,' and most
of the developments of this theory came from several physicists - some being
Arthur Eddington, John Wheeler and Martin Kruskal.
So let's imagine i decided to jump into a spinning black hole inside a space
ship... what would i see? Well, before i entered, i would see nothing spectacular.
I would just see a big ball of darkness. I wouldn't even see it rotate at first -
neither do i feel anything - i am in what is called a state of 'free-fall'.
Free-fall is when all the atoms and molecules i am made of are all being pulled at
the same rate. Even my ship is being pulled at the same pace towards the black
hole. A good way to compare this is with astronauts that orbit our earth - they
too are in a state of free-fall.

Now i begin to pass the event horizon (remember that is the first boundary, or
surface). Now something quite remarkable happens. The space coordinates switches
roles with the time coordinate. What does this mean? Well, we move through space
freely, back and forth without any problems, and when we consider time, that
imaginary dimension, we tend to think we sweep along with it without recourse.
Once i pass the event horizon space begins to drag me and my ship, and i begin to
move in one direction only - that being forward - however, i begin to move through
time backwards and forwards, just as easily as i had moved through the space
dimension. In this case, we say that space has become 'timelike', and time has a
'spacelike' character - they are thus interchangeable given the correct
conditions.
As i move closer and closer to the black hole, the force of gravity becomes
stronger and stronger. Now, suppose my legs are closer to the dreaded center of
the black hole, i will begin to feel as if my body was being stretched. A greater
force will be pulling at my feet, than that of the force pulling at my head. This
is called the 'gravitational tidal effect' - thus called because it is similar to
the tidal effect on earth caused by the moon.

If i looked out of a window towards the singularity, i would see something rather
interesting. The center will look like a dark sphere, with a halo of light
surrounding it. This light is coming from another universe. And, if i looked back
out of the event horizon, i might be fortunate enough to see the universe, and all
of its history and future flash past me as if it took no time at all. I would see
all the stars die out... most of them forming black holes, but they would not be
visible to the naked eye. I might even see the universe undergo an 'omega point'
(the end), as a 'Big Crunch' were everything is drawn back, or quite possibly by a
'Big Rip', were everything physical is ripped apart by the universal pressure of
acceleration, (note however, someone outside of the black hole cannot see you).

Now i have crashed into the dreaded singularity, and i will no longer exist. Here,
just like the Big Bang singularity mentioned in part one of chapter one,
everything takes on infinite attributes - the laws of physics become invalid.
However, you might not crash into the center. It is possible you can fall into the
'inner horizon' - this horizon is adjacent to the singular region. Here, space and
time flows the correct way. In theory, you can float around in the inner horizon
without ever crashing into the dreaded center.

Black holes are predicted to form from the collapsed states of certain large
stars, about several times larger
than our star. They do so, because of gravitational acceleration, given by the
formula;

g=(GM)/d2

Remember, a free falling object will have the force of gravity totally cancelled
out as it’s that weak.
We know that from Newton’s Force Equation is derived as f= ma, where this also
shows an inertial
system to derive the acceleration due to gravity. So the gravitational
acceleration is the mass of a
gravitationally warped object M, and the distance d from it. Also, instead of
working out the mass of a black
hole you can work out its mass against the gravitational acceleration formula, by;

M=gd2/G

We use the same method to work out the mass of the earth. The G is Newtons
universal gravitational constant (6.7×10-11 m3/(kg sec2). We find the Earth's mass
= 9.8 × (6.4×106)2 / (6.7 × 10-11) kilograms = 6.0 × 1024 kilograms.

The smallest black hole need to be of Planck Mass at smallest size 2x10-8kg. The
Compton Wavelength given as

h/mc=2pi(h/mc) ~ of a black hole is proportional to its Schwartzchild Radius;

1 / (2M − r) >

– which leads to the solution of -

R_s=2GM/c2;

Very small black holes are very hot. This is because the decrease in size and
magnification of density makes these
little things extremely hot. A typical micro black hole would have a temperature
of 1016 K, which is 200 GeV, or about 25 million times hotter than the sun.

We can measure the density, and radius of a black hole in a series of

proportionalities. The radius R of a black hole, even a micro black hole is
directly proportional to its mass (R- M). And the density of a black
hole is found to be given by its mass divided by its volume (D=M/V).
If our universe is indeed a black hole, you might imagine we exist in the inner
horizon. In fact, our universe may as well be a black hole. Now, if one passes by
the singularity, we might be able to move out of the inner horizon and pass
through a second inner horizon, and then by finally passing another outer horizon,
we will have entered another universe - but i had better be careful. There is a
very good chance that this universe is made up mostly of antimatter. If i come
into contact with antimatter, me and my ship will explode in a flash of light.

I would like it known to my readers that Hawkings has changed his mind on the
theory of Black Holes, as he no longer believes that it is possible for a
spacetime traveler to jump into one and move into other universes… This was
proposed because of a fundamental problem involving information. If information
moved into a Black Hole, it would suggest that the information would be lost, but
here lies the paradox, because information can never totally be lost. Thus
instead, he now believes that information is ‘’mangled’’ and returned back into
this universe through quantum tunneling. In fact, a more recent research into
mathematics shows us that there actually needs not be any Black Holes at all! If
any do exist, then they would have formed at the very beginning of time. But to
keep things not too complicated, I will continue with the idea that it is all
still possible, and this is based on one well-known fact: That is, that our
mathematics could be formulating a lie, instead of the truth. Thus, as much as I
like the idea that no one can travel into other universes, because I protest
against the multiverse theory, I must admit still that we may have it all very
wrong, because mathematics may be pointing to the wrong conclusions… Who knows but
God? We will certainly never achieve any unification, as I believe. Such knowledge
must be left to God alone > Thus, for the sake of it, let us imagine we have got
it wrong, and that universal spacetime traveling is possible…

Parallel Universes

Subatomic matter behaves very differently to larger masses. One example of this
estranged behavior is called the 'double slit experiment' introduced by physicist
Thomas Young in 1805. This experiment consists of a machine that shoots a beam of
photons, electrons or even atoms towards film screen - but before the particles
reach the screen and leaves tiny marks, it needs to pass through either an upper
slit, or a lower slit that are closely separated (see diagram). Each slit can be
closed, or both can be left opened by the choice of the observer.

Now, when the beam of particles hit the screen, you would suppose the particles
had to pass through either the upper slit or the lower slit, yes? However, the
strange thing is, is that if you close down one of slits, more particles reach the
screen than if you left both slits open! How can this be? You would imagine more
particles reaching the screen if both slits were opened - but this is not the
case.

One strange answer came about. The particle wasn't a pointlike particle at all. It
acted as though it were a wave!
If one uses the wave description, the problem seemed to go away. We know how waves
act in the sea, and this also means that the particle will take these attributes
on board.

A wave could reach both slits at the same time - and just like a wave coming into
contact with two openings, the wave can split into two smaller waves, one, as i am
sure you can guess, in each slit. If the two waves travel different paths, they
can be made to interfere with themselves after passing the slits; in doing so,
less waves reach the screen. If one slit is only open, the wave will travel
through the slit, and, just like a wave hitting the shore, it will hit many places
simultaneously on the screen - thus hitting more places with one slit open, than
having both slits open.

However, the particle wasn't only just a wave - after all, when it hit the screen,
it left a tiny 'pointlike' mark. Somehow when the wave hit the screen, it hit many
places on the screen as dots. Thus, a new description had to made for a particle
that traveled through space as a wave, and finishes its journey as a single object
- this description has been come to be called the 'wave-particle duality.' The
particle therego was in fact a wave and a particle simultaneously.

Why did the particle act as a wave?

Well, at first, physicists thought that the wave was a product of the human mind -
it wasn't real, and it was just a means for us to keep track of experiments. The
wave became to be called the 'quantum wave function.' This was a wave of
possibilities. The wave probability enables us to calculate the possibility for a
particle and its path, location, spin, orbital reference, ect. The wave spreads
out over space, and resembles likelihoods, not actualities... or does it?

In 1957 physicist Hugh Everett the third, came up with a rather bizarre conclusion
concerning the wave function. His idea was that if the experiment says that the
particle passed through both slits at the same time, then both particles, the one
traveling past the upper slit, and the particle traveling through the lower slit,
must both exist.

Question is though, how and where does this extra ghostly particle exist? The
answer was parallel universes. Somehow, an identical particle existed in a
parallel world; the wave represented the amount of particles it was composed of,
thus one particle passed the upper slit and a particle passed the lower slit, and
each 'branch', or universe, it was represented as a wave, having quite a real
effect in each universe.

However, why should the particle be a wave and then suddenly become a particle
again? It turns out that our universe, according to Everett, is constantly
splitting and merging every time some measurement is performed or when something
comes into contact with something else.

Each time the universe splits, it would represent the wave function splitting into
as many possibilities as there where outcomes, and the merging would represent the
universe becoming superimposed all over again. Thus, in the double slit
experiment, when the particle moves through both the slits simultaneously, this
represents the universe splitting, creating as many universes as the possibility
allows - in this case, two universes - and the merging represents the pointlike
dot when it hits the screen. However, it turns out that the experiment represents
only two universes - yet, it turns out that our universe is in fact one in an
infinite amount of parallel universes, all 'superpositioned' upon each other, like
layers on a cake.

t is amazing, i think at least, that something so science-fiction like parallel

universes can be taken rather seriously by top physicists today. The theme is
almost unimaginable... just think about it - an infinity of universes - an
infinity of earths for that matter, with an infinite amount of me's, and an
infinite amount of you's - worlds were i exist, and worlds were you do not -
worlds were you exist and i do not. Worlds that neither of us exist... worlds that
are barren of life, and worlds with life more weird and wonderful than we could
ever imagine. Worlds of paradise, and hell worlds galore!

And each universe is unique, as there maybe several outcomes to a certain event,
but only one individual outcome is allowed in any single universe. Thus, whenever
i flip a coin and observe what side it has landed on, i become apart of the
splitting of the universe, and my body is projected into two me's - one in this
universe looking and observing a heads, let's say, and another me in the 'newly
born' universe observing a tails. However, this easy-creation of universes
disturbs some scientists. The idea is, if you flip a coin in 100 tosses, you
create something equivalent to 1,267,650,600,228,229,401,496,703,205,376 universe-
possibilities real; that is a little over 10^30. If every 6 billion-odd souls on
earth simply stopped to flip a coin a hundred times, you could imagine the amount
of universes that would split off from our own. In fact, the parallel universe
theory has undergone some variations over the years. Some scientists believe that
not only is our universe prone to split, but all the parallel universes might in
fact also split.

Matter in each of these universes permitted to contain matter, are in equal

proportion, which is around 10^80 particles in each universe. However, this is
where we tend to get a little confused - even though a particle, according to
parallel universe theory, exists in two worlds as a wave in the double slit
experiment, there is only one particle ever present whenever the universes merge!
There will always be a single particle present, provided no one comes along and
decided to observe the little particle, or a large electrical force pulls it out
of its superpositioning - or simply, whenever anything comes into contact with
something else; even in a tragedy.

Take me for instance. Imagine i decided to cross the road, and i never looked both
ways. A car hits me and i die... 'Sianara?' Well, yes and no. I do indeed die, but
i die as the unfortunate outcome of this world - in a parallel universe i am
living quite happily. When the car hit me, the universes flew apart, each
providing a certain outcome unique among the rest.

Neither would it do us any good to say that time passes at the same rate in each
of these universes - that wouldn't be accurate at all. It would be like the
differential time zones on planet earth - i will be asleep in one universe, whilst
i am totally awake here and now. Some universes might be so similar to ours, the
only quantum difference is that you might be wearing a red tie, instead of a blue
tie... A universe with these differential time traits are called 'self-contained'
time.

Now, not every physicist agrees with parallel universe theory - take for granted
some of the best minds in the quantum mainstream, like Stephen Hawkings entertain
the 'many world hypothesis,' instead of the 'collapse of the wave function.' The
wave function permeates all of spacetime. Created by Erwin Schrödinger, the
mathematical function would predict the infinite amount of possible locations or
paths an atom can have; for instance, in the double slit experiment, the wave
represents two paths - thus the paths are represented by the wave function. The
collapse of the wave function is the sudden reduction in the value of probability.
The idea, is that the world suddenly reduced to a single calculation - the wave is
said to collapse - the usual way to describe the collapse, is to imagine a balloon
being deflated.

I believe in the collapse - i simply cannot believe that the universe is

constantly splitting and merging. Although, the collapse itself has been attacked
by some physicists over the years. The most famous attack was by Albert Einstein -
as you may know - he was highly critical of the conditions brought about by the
simple act of observation - and it wasn't an isolated case... as he carried his
displeasure for Quantum Physics right to his death. He also brought to our
attentions, that quantum physics failed as a complete theory - it failed to
explain how an observer comes to know something.
I think this question can only be answered by accepting that the human observer is
somehow apart of that knowledge - instead of believing that the observer is
separate of that information. One way to imagine this, is that knowledge or
information (as both are the same thing) starts and ends with the individual who
measures a system. The system itself, or the universe around it cannot make sense
of information - there is simply no intelligence present to make any resolution -
it can only act to this information by a collapse and the system will 'quantum
jump' into a new state - thus the information only becomes meaningful when
intelligence is involved. In this sense, knowledge that is true knowledge begins
and ends with us; the rest is up to God. Once we have this knowledge inside our
neural networks, we turn it into experience, which then processes as memory, and
this is how we come to know something.

What is a quantum leap? Some of us will know it as a jitterbugging particle that

moves from one place to another without going in-between - a discontinuous change
from one state into a new state - others, as that 'corny' 1980's show. If we are
indeed to take Hawkings seriously by viewing the universe as an atom, does that
mean the universe will quantum leap in the future? Coming back to this question,
two main things can happen, depending on what kind of energy state our universe is
in. There are two known states called 'Ground State,' and 'Excited State.'

A ground state atom arranges its inhabitants; the electron, the proton and the
neutron ect., to a certain frequency, so that they can have the smallest energy
possible. If our universe isn't in a ground state, it could have come from a
singularity in space, a bit like the kind found inside of black holes... However,
i would like to add, that Hawkings is not so sure any more if singularities really
exist. Thus, if our universe is in a ground state, it wouldn't have come from a
singular region. Instead, it will have had at its center an opening in the fabric
of space and time; this is a worm hole, threaded with a substance called 'exotic
matter'. This wormhole might loop in on our own universe, and anything that can
travel through it, might turn up in a different region of space, at a totally
different time of history - theoretically, i could jump into the wormhole a few
minutes after big bang, and end up coming out of the wormhole, 40-odd billion
years later when the universe decides to contract. Or, if theory is correct as we
have seen, it might link this universe up with other universes. But passing
through one prooves impossible.

A ground state atom will not spill out energy - this means that it is a very
stable particle. If our universe is in its ground state, it will not be able to
quantum leap in the future. If the atom is in an excited state, then it will
eventually spill out its energy and will inexorably quantum leap. If it was a
universe i am speaking about here, it will spill out its energy, quite possibly
into a branch that is in its ground state, and will quantum leap.

Stephen Hawking believes our universe is in a ground state.

And what if parallel universe theory indicates a new presence - a divine presence?

I've heard some arguments put forth that parallel universes predicts the existence
of a God... for sure. They say, that because there are an infinite amount of
universes, there must be a God, and because God is omnipresent, he/she would exist
in every universe. Well, i can't argue with that statement, and I’m not sure many
can. An infinite amount of universes must indicate an infinite of amount of
'states' a universe can be in; these states are the statistical differences found
in each universe. Some universes will have a small quantum mistake different to
ours, others will be much more weird and maybe even mind boggling. Thus it might
just be a case of searching enough universes until one holds fit for the temple of
an omnipotent being.