Water ges. Vol. 16. pp. 655 to 662. 1982 0043-1354/82/050655-08503.

00/0
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved Copyright 1982 Pergamon Press Ltd
EFFECT OF MAGNESI UM AND CALCIUM PRECIPITATION
ON COAGULATI ON- FLOCCULATI ON WITH LIME
J. LEENTVAAR t and M. REBHUN 2
t Ministry of Transport and Public Works, Delta Department, Environmental Research Section,
P.O. Box 439, Middelburg, The Netherlands and
-'Division of Environmental and Water Resources Engineering, Technion-lsrael Institute of Technology,
Haifa, Israel
(Receit'ed Jul y 1981)
Abstraet--Coagulation-flocculation studies were carried out to identify and quantify the organic matter
(TOC) fraction removed by Mg (OH)2 precipitation and the fraction removed due to CaCO~ precipi-
tation in lime treatment of wastewater. Most experiments were carried out with domestic sewage and
some with a tannic acid solution simulating coagulable organics in wastewater. The experiments showed
a clear relation between the amount of TOC removed and the amount of Mg (OH)2 formed. This
relation between TOC removal and Mg(OH)2 precipitation can be expressed in terms of an adsorption
isotherm. The coagulation-flocculation tests of sewage with lime as a coagulant indicated that about
26Jh of the removable TOC in sewage is eliminated by Mg(OH)2.
I NTRODUCTI ON
Chemical treatment is applied in advanced treatment
and renovation systems and lime is often used as a
coagulant. Several authors have indicated the role of
magnesium hydroxide as a coagulant aid in lime
treatment. Flentje (1927)reported an increase in clari-
fication efficiency when excess lime was used to pre-
cipitate the magnesium in the water. Lecompte (1966)
patented a process for using magnesium carbonate as
a coagulant. Black & Christman (1961)showed that
Mg 2+ ions are adsorbed on the surface of the CaCO3
particles at pH 9.8, thereby lowering or reversing the
potentials and corresponding mobility values. Van
Vuuren et al. (1967) described the role of magnesium
hydroxide in lime softening and found that the struc-
ture of the Mg(OH)2 floc was most suitable to adsorb
CaCOa, which normally tends to remain in suspen-
sion. They concluded that (1) the characteristically
high magnesium content of their sewage effluent
(approx. 100 mg 1-t Ms) due to the dolomitic origin
of their water supply appeared to be an important
factor in lime flocculation/flotation and that (2) it
seems that the use of dolomitic lime as a coagulant
might have inherent advantages for this purpose.
Folkman & Wachs (1973) reported on experiments on
algae removal from oxidation pond effluents by lime
treatment and showed that magnesium hydroxide
precipitation was responsible for flocculation of the
algae.
Significant magnesium hydroxide precipitation can
be expected at pH values greater than 10.5, due to its
solubility constant. Such pH values are achieved at
high lime treatment. However, low lime treatment is
sometimes used, resulting in final pH values below
10.5 with little or no magnesium precipitation, cal-
cium carbonate and phosphate being the main pre-
cipitation products. Significant reduction in sus-
pended solids, extinction (light absorbing matter) and
TOC can be obtained by low lime treatment, how-
ever, much better clarity and lower TOC' s are
obtained at high lime treatment. Apparently, both cal-
cium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide play a role
in coagulation-flocculation with lime. Both calcium
carbonate and magnesium hydroxide precipitated in
lime treatment effect removal of suspended solids and
TOC, magnesium hydroxide being able to flocculate
and remove TOC fractions not affected by calcium
carbonate alone.
The aim of this study was: (a) to elucidate the role
of magnesium precipitation in TOC removal and
reduction of extinction; (b) to quantify the TOC frac-
tion that can be removed by calcium carbonate pre-
cipitation (low lime treatment) and the TOC fraction
that can be removed only by coagulation-flocculation
with magnesium hydroxide; and (c) to find a quanti-
tative relationship between the amount of magnesium
hydroxide and TOC removed.
PROGRAM OF STUDI ES
TO meet the research objectives, the experimental
program included:
1. Treatment at lime doses and final pH's where
only calcium carbonate precipitates.
2. Treatment at initial magnesium concentrations,
lime doses and final pH's where various amounts of
magnesium hydroxide would precipitate in addition
to calcium carbonate. Addition of magnesium chlor-
ide to wastewater containing little magnesium was
planned accordingly. To find quantitative corre-
lations, various amounts of magnesium hydroxide
were precipitated. This was accomplished in two dif-
655
(156 J l . l Eh[ \ ~,AR l i nd ~'|. Rt Hlll.:x
Table 1. Typical characteristics of the ray, sewage
BOI)~
TOC
COD
Suspended solids
Extinction
pH
Alkalinity
Calcium
Magnesium
Spec. conductivity
ortho-P
Total-P
Kjeldahl-N
(mg 1Oct
~mg ~CI
(mg ~O21
(rag ~)
(meq " IHCO3)
( mgl - l Caa' )
( mgl l M g 2 , l
(uS cm- ~)
( mg l - I P)
( mg I - ~ P )
( mgl ~ N)
2(X)
I 70
5(X)
370
(1.4
7.3
7.O0
34.5
7.O
I 1 ( X )
23
90
ferent ways, ei t her by (a) opt i onal addi t i on of Mg to
reach a const ant high initial magnesi um concen-
t rat i on and varyi ng t he lime dose and final pH, or by
(b) worki ng at a const ant final high pH and varying
the initial magnesi um concent rat i on.
Both met hods wcrc used and a ~i de range ol pre-
cipitated magnesi um hydroxi de was obt ai ned and
correl at ed with the reduct i on m TOC and extinction.
The possible effect of final pH as a separate ~ariable
(not onl~ t hrough its effect on the amount of magne-
sium hydroxide} cot, ld be t aken into account. Tanni c
acid solution was selected to represent organics that
are removed by coagul at i on-fl occul at i on and to inves-
tigate the mechani sm and st oi chi omet ry of the pro-
cess in a cont rol l ed system.
E X P E R I MENTS
The experiments were carried out with raw unsettled
sewage from the village of Bennekom, Netherlands, mainly
of domestic origin. This wastewater is of medium strength,
as COD was about 500mgl -~ 02, BOD5 was about
200mgl ~ 0 2 and TOC was about 170mg1-1 C. The
initial average magnesium concentration of the sewage
amounted to 7 mg I- ~ Mg (Table 1). In experiments wh e r e
pH was varied. 80mgl ~ Mg was added to the sewage.
Lime was used as a coagulant to obtain different pH
o
14e
9o
8 s
80
TS
zo
"X.
. . . . , ~ F L U t N X
= 8 7 mQ I MQ
0 ~ 7 mQ I - I M 0
I 1 1 I v
tO 10 S I~ I 1S 12
L
g
38
10
0 8
O6
O4
02
o ~.
8 7 mQ I -~ MQ
o
2..Z
r i ! r l
i o i o 5 11 1 1 s 1 2
D H
Fi g. I. Wa s t e wa t e r f l o c c ul a t e d at di f f erent p H v a l u e s wi t h l i me as c o a g u l a n t a n d wi t h 8 7 a nd 7 mg I -
Mg a s i ni t i al ma g n e s i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n .
Effect of Mg and Ca precipitation on coagulation-flocculation with lime 657
r_
l o
20
- - - t h e o r e h c a l
~ 7 mg I - t M g
\
\
\
\
~ / I I I l
p H
. - - . t h o o r e t l C O i
- ~ M g
\
\
i
1o l OS 11 11s I~
~--- p H
Fig. 2. Wastewater flocculated at different pH values. The inhibition of the Mg(OH)2 precipitation is
illustrated by the theoretical line and the measured magnesium concentration with a high and a low
initial concentration of Mg 2 *.
values. In experiments at constant final pH various
amounts of magnesium chloride were added to obtain in-
itial concentrations ranging from 5 to 44 mg I- 1 Mg. Lime
was dosed to a final pH of 11.5.
The experiments with simulated organics were carried
out with a solution of tannic acid in distilled water at
concentrations of 40, 80 and 100 mg 1- t and with four dif-
ferent initial magnesium chloride concentrations: 12.1.
22.1, 32. I, 42.1 mg l - 1 Mg. Two litre samples were coagula-
ted-flocculated at different pH' s (8.8, 9.5, 10.5 and 11.5).
NaOH was used to raise the pH to the desired value. The
batch coagulation-flocculation tests were done in rectangu-
lar 21. plexiglass tanks with a cross-sectional area of
10 x 10cm 2. The following experimental procedures were
used:
1. Mixing with turbine type stirrer at 660 rev rai n-t ,
which gave a mean G value of 680 s- 1.
2. Addition of coagulant and adjustment of pH over a
60 s period at 660 rev rain - 1 (rapid mix).
3. Flocculation for 30 min with a propeller type stirrer at
90rev rain -1 (G = 41 s-t).
4. Sedimentation for 30 min.
The G value was measured with a pilot scale dynamometer
as described by Leentvaar and Ywema (1980). After sedi-
mentation, a sample of about 100 ml was withdrawn at half
height of the tank and the following parameters were deter-
mined: Extinction at 620 nm wavelength in a cuvette (dia-
meter = 2cm), TOC, Mg 2 and Ca 2 concentrations. In
case of tannic acid solution, TOC and Mg 2 concentration
were determined.
RESULTS
In the experi ment s carried out with Bennekom sew-
age with lime as a coagul ant and an initial magne-
sium concent r at i on in the wast ewat er of 7 or 80 mg
I-1 Mg, the reduct i on of ext i nct i on (E) and TOC
were measured at different pH values obt ai ned by dif-
ferent lime doses as illustrated in Fig. 1. These experi-
ment s showed t hat for the same effect a hi gher pH
was requi red in case of a low initial Mg concent rat i on
in the sewage as compar ed to a high Mg concen-
tration.
Thi s is due to the different amount s of preci pi t at ed
magnesi um hydr oxi de- - t he compound responsi bl e
for reduci ng the colloidal TOC fraction and extinc-
tion. The preci pi t at i on of Mg(OH)2 was found to be
i nhi bi t ed in wastewater, as can be seen in Fig. 2 where
residual Mg cal cul at ed from the solubility const ant is
compar ed with Mg residuals actually obt ai ned in the
experiments.
It shoul d be not ed t hat a large fraction of TOC is
removed and a high reduct i on in ext i nct i on is
obt ai ned below the i nsol ubi l i zat i on pH of Mg(OH)2.
This is due to plain settling of the settleable fractions
as well as to settling of dispersed mat t er ai ded by the
preci pi t at i on of CaCO 3. The reduct i on of TOC from
148 to 85 mg 1- z shown in Fig. 1 is due to this mech-
anism. Any furt her reduct i on in TOC below
85 mg 1-t coul d be achieved only t hr ough Mg( OH) ,
precipitation.
Anot her series of coagul at i on-fl occul at i on experi-
ment s with lime as a coagul ant were carried out at a
const ant pH, hi gher t han 10.5 and a vari abl e addi t i on
of magnesi um chl ori de to the sewage in order to
65S I I . I I ! n . I V A A R n n d M R I I I I I ( ",.
To
o/
f
I
i o ~1o j l o *1o
~ - / ~ M g m g l - '
Fig. 3. Sewage flocculated at pH 11.5 with lime with differ-
ent initial Mg concentrations.
i
I
i
!:-
i s
I i .
t o
i , ". ' ,
, i . \
i o , s ; , ,
- - - - - a - - A M g m g i -
Fig. 5. Tannic acid solution flocculated at pH 10.5 and pH
11.5 wi t h different initial Mg and tannic acid
concentrations.
obtain various amounts of magnesium precipitates
(AMg), so as to be able to correlate TOC and extinc-
tion reduction to the precipitated amount of
Mg(OH):. By these experiments the stoichiometric,
4 J 8 I N F L U E N T
>
nt
O~
nl
w
O2
O
,'o /o ~'o ,'o
~ ~ M g m g l -
Fig. 4. Sewage flocculated at pit 11.5 with lime with differ-
ent initial Mg concentrations.
quantitative relationships between the amount of
TOC (z~TOC) or extinction [A extinction) removed
and the amount of magnesium hydroxide formed
could be evaluated. An illustration of results of the
coagulation-flocculation experiments with lime as a
coagulant at variable initial Mg concentrations and
fixed pH of 11.5 is given in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 where
TOC and E are plotted vs AMg.
It can also be seen in these figures that a large
reduction in TOC (from 146 to 90 mg 1- t) and extinc-
tion (from 0.438 to 0.07) was obtained without any
significant Mg precipitation. But reductions below
these values could be accomplished only by precipi-
tation of Mg(OH)2 and residual concentrations of
TOC decreased with increase of AMg.
Results of flocculation experiments with tannic acid
at various Mg concentrations at pH 10.5 and 11.5 are
shown in Fig. 5. In this case removal is due only to
precipitated Mg(OH)2 since no other components
except Mg and tannic acid were present. Experiments
at pH 8.8 and 9.5, which are below Mg insolubiliza-
tion, showed no tannic acid removals, except at very
high Mg concentrations, where some removal was
perceptible, possibly by Mg-tannate formation.
DISCUSSION
Many research workers reported that the residual
concentration of TOC and extinction decreased as the
amount of magnesium removed during lime coagula-
tion-floceulation increased (Minton & Carlson, 1973;
Mennel e t al . , 1974; van Vuuren e t a l . , 1967).
Effect of Mg and Ca precipitation on coagulation-flocculation with lime 659
Co
Cca
U
T CN R
~
Cc j
ACwq
4~ Mg
Fig. 6. Illustration of the method used to determine the amount of TOC removed by calcium carbonate
(ACc,), the amount removed by Mg(OH)z precipitation (AC~s) and the non-removable fraction of TOC
(CNR).
It has been observed (Berg e t a l . , 1970), with both
raw wastewater and secondary effluent, that clarifica-
tion occurred at an insolubilization pH of only 9.5 in
high hardness/high alkalinity wastewater. In contrast
the treatment of low hardness/low alkalinity waste-
waters has required a pH of 11-11.5 for satisfactory
clarification and in many instances a coagulant aid
such as ferric chloride or an organic polymer has been
required (Wuhrman, 1968).
The results of the work described in the present
paper are in agreement with and explain the various
findings cited above. In lime treatment of wastewater
both CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2 are effective in the floccu-
lation-clarification and removal processes:
1. The precipitated CaCO3 acts by the "sweep
coagulation" mechanism affecting the removal of sus-
pended solids and easily coagulable large colloidal
material. It also aids in settling as a "weighting agent"
by increasing the density of the settling aggregates.
However, stable and organic colloids cannot be
affected by calcium carbonate. Significant amounts of
CaCO3 precipitation can be obtained in high
alkalinity (bicarbonate) waters.
2. The precipitating Mg(OH)2 acts by an adsorptive
coagulative mechanism. Its structure which provides a
large adsorptive surface area and its positive electro-
static surface charge enables it to act as a powerful
and efficient coagulant also on stable organic colloids
and give high degrees of clarification.
Significant amounts of Mg(OH)2 can be expected at
high lime doses giving high pH' s and in waters con-
taining sufficient Mg. In order to separate quantitat-
w. a 16,5 K
ively the effect of Mg(OH)2 formation from the effect
of CaCO3 precipitation the fraction of TOC and
extinction removed by calcium carbonate alone
(ACe,) has to be estimated. This can be done by two
methods:
1. Based on the plot of TOC or extinction vs pH,
extrapolation to a lower pH (see Fig. 1), where there
is no Mg(OH)2 precipitation (below pH 10.0 accord-
ing to Fig. 2).
2. Based on a plot of TOC or extinction vs AMg,
extrapolation to AMg = 0 (which means no Mg(OH)z
precipitation).
This second method was selected to determine the
amount of TOC or extinction removed by calcium
carbonate alone. This method is illustrated in Fig. 6.
The experiments with sewage showed that on average
45% of TOC and 85~ of extinction was removed with
the aid of CaCO3.
The determination of the amount of non-removable
(soluble) TOC or extinction (CNR) by both calcium
carbonate and magnesium hydroxide was done by de-
termination of the asymptotic value of the TOC or
extinction to the curve of TOC or extinction versus
AMg at high AMg, which is equivalent to a large
amount of Mg(OH)2 precipitated. This also is illus-
trated in Fig. 6. On average the non-removable por-
tion of TOC or extinction by lime coagulation-floccu-
lation of sewage amounted to 39 and 8~ respectively.
The evaluation of the adsorption capacity of
Mg(OH)2 was based on the assumption that magne-
sium hydroxide removes only magnesium removable
TOC. In order to evaluate the adsorption capacity of
6611 .I [.I.I:NI\,~AI~ and I M R l 4 ~ l l t x
Tabl e 2. [ : xampl c of the cal cul at i ~m of the ads or pt i on capacl t ' , ot 1( ) ( on MgI ( ) H) : lloc m hnlc
l r cat mcnt of sel vage I ) at a fi'tlnl ] : l g , 3 . ( ' , , 146mgl ' ( " C, , :: 95mgl z(.. ( - 6X mgl ' ( '
(' a .3d. ~k \ t g, , \ l g a \ Mg :V- xl~ ~-ML2 ('xt~
I nl gl i (' ) [rngl ~ ( b Irngl ' \.lg~ ( mgl : Mgl I mgl J Mgl ( z ng( nl g t Mgl ( mgl ~ ( ,
g9 6 "; 4 3 ,x 16 37~ .2"1
87 ,~ q4 3- I ? 4~1 19
92 3 72 4.~ 24 1.25 24
36 9 7~ 4.7 23 .;?~1 I ,S
~ 7 u.o 5.6 3.4 2.t~, 2o
x2 13 ~;I 4.8 4.3 k02 14
,',2 13 13.1 5 2 7.9 1.65 14
82 13 12.9 5.6 73 I.Tg 14
7h 17 166 5 2 I 1.4 1.49 10
7"7 IS 16.6 5.2 11.4 1.58 9
75 2U 242 5.8 18.4 1.09 7
74 21 24.2 6.1 18.1 I. 16 6
73 22 34.2 6.1 28.1 0.7,~ 5
72 23 34 4 5.6 2K~ 0.~0 4
"7,1 24 44.0 5.9 38.1 11.63 3
70 25 44.li 5 4 38.6 1165 2
Ct )
CR:
C(-. :
CNR~
CMg :
ACe., :
MgIOH)2 the following parameters were delined (see
Fig. 6):
TOC of raw sewage
Total residual TOC after coagulation-floccu-
lation and settling
Residual TOC after lime treatment at high
pH at A Mg is equal to 0
Non-removabl e residual TOC = asymptotic
value of CR at high A Mg
Residual Mg removable TOC = CR C,,R
Amount of TOC removed by Ca( ' O 3 precipi-
tation alone = Co Cc.,
AC~4g: Amount of TOC removed by
Mg( OHh- f l oc = C~.,.-C,
AMg: Amount of magnesium precipitated = initial-
residual magnesium concentration.
From the data of the experiments carried out at pH
values higher than 10.5 the amount adsorbed (ACs~g)
per unit adsorbent Mg(OH)2 (expressed as AMgl was
calculated at constant pH. This value AC~g..AMg is
related to the concentration of adsorbate remaining in
solution ( C~. An example of this calculation is given
in Table 2.
Adsorption isotherms, as illustrated by Figs 7 9.
show that in case of sewage the maximal adsorption
capacity ranges from 1.5 to 3. 0mg TOC mg-~ Mg,
independent of wastewater composition, TOC rang-
ing from 140 to 220 mg 1. ~ C and independent of pH.
The wastewater samples were taken in a span of 2
months. The removal of organic substances by ad-
sorption by Mg(OH)2 shows a behaviour similar to
an adsorption isotherm and fits in a Freundlich equa-
tion with a correlation coefficient (r) ranging from
(I.81 to 0.91. This value r is significant with a signiti-
cance level of 0.01.
The removal of tannic acid by adsorption coagu-
lation on Mg(OH)2 also shows a behaviour similar to
a Freundlich adsorption isotherm at pH 10.5 and pH
11.5 at which Mg( OHh precipitated (r---0.85 and
0.92 respectively). The removal of tannic acid at pH
8.8 and 9.5 where no MgIOH)2 precipitates shows no
similarity with a Freundlich adsorption isotherm
(r = 0.51 and 0.28 respectively).
The adsorption isotherms of the tannic acid on
Mg( OHh at pH greater than 10.5 show a maximal
adsorption capacity of about 13 mg TOC mg 1 Mg
as illustrated in Fig. 10. The adsorption capacity for
tannic acid is about four times higher than that for
organics in sewage. This is possibly due to the differ-
ent nature of the specific compounds involved, as well
as to the fact that in sewage treatment part of the
Mg(OH)2 is used for flocculation of ACct.
CONCI. USION
The study has shown that two major mechanisms
are effective in lime coagulation-flocculation of sew-
age:
1. Sweep coagulation by CaCO3.
2. Adsorption-coagulation of stable organic colloids
b2, Mg(OHI2. The last mechanism provides high clar-
ity effluents.
The experiments with sewage showed that on an
average:
4571, of TOC and 85'~.0 of extinction could be re-
moved by CaCO3 formation;
an additional 16% of TOC and 70 of extinction of
the raw sewage could be removed by Mg(OH}2 pre-
cipitation;
the non-removable fraction amount ed to about
39% of TOC and 8%,; of extinction.
The relation between removal of TOC or extinction
and Mg( OHh precipitation expressed as an adsorp-
tion isotherm showed a behaviour similar to that of
an adsorption process. The maximal adsorption ca-
pacity varied between 1.5--3.0 mg TOC mg ~ Mg for
different sewage samples and amount ed to 13rag
Effect of Mg and Ca precipitation on coagulation-flocculation with lime 661
%.
U
<1
O
J
' ' ' , ' , ' o :, 4 8 I i s
C M 9
Fig. 7
o:
<3
4 O 117 1
CM O
Fig. 8
~o
4C
3o
<~ 2 o _
I 0
o
r ( i F 1 /
. 4 8 I ~ i s ~o 2
~ - C M o
Fig. 9
Figs 7, 8 and 9. The amount of TOC removed by Mg(OH)z precipitation divided by amount of
magnesium removed plotted vs the residual magnesium removable TOC in terms of an adsorption
isotherm in case of sewage.
662 I [.I I N I x, A xr and P',I RIBHI"n
,1
ik4
o I / H
5 " "
/
S ' c
O
Fig. 10. The amount of TOC removed by Mg(OH)2 pre-
cipitation divided by amount of magnesi um removed plot-
ted vs the residual magnesi um removabl e TOC in case of a
t anni c acid solution.
TOC mg t Mg for a tannic acid solution. Although
t he curves are s i mi l ar to a Fr e undl i c h a d s o r p t i o n i s o-
t herm, t hi s d o e s not pr ove t hat a d s o r p t i o n is t he o n l y
proces s i nvol ve d. In pract i ce, c o a g u l a t i o n - f l o c c u l a t i o n
wi t h l i me s h o u l d gi ve bet t er r e mo v a l s wi t h a hi gh
i ni t i al ma g n e s i u m c o nt e nt i n t he wat er. In cas e o f a
l ow ma g n e s i u m c ont e nt o f t he wat er t r e at me nt wi t h
l i me wh i c h c o nt a i ns ma g n e s i u m is t o be preferred.
Aeknowled. qements This research was carried out while J.
l. eentvaar was a staff member at the Depart ment of Wat er
I'otlut+tm (' ontrol. Agricultm' al Uni' ,ersit,,. Wagemugen
and M. Rehhun was it visiting professor at the ,,ame
del'~artmei'kt. Acknowl edgement is due to Mr 1 S. . I
Yv.ema and Mr t : A.. l.angereis fl~r their technical axszst-
; t I ' 1C .
R E F["R I'~N ( ' ES
Berg I!. L.. Brummer C. A. & Williams W. T. 11970) Single
stage lime clarification. 14)a. Wast es Engng 7, 3 42.
Black A. P. & Chr i st man R. F. [1961) Electrophoretic
sit,dies of sludge particles produced in lime-soda soften-
ing. J. Am. War. Wk s ,,l.s.~. 53, 737 747.
Flentje M. E. (1927) Calcium and magnesi um hydrates. J.
.4m. War. 14"k.s .,ls.s. 17, 253 260.
Fol kman Y. & Wachs A. M. (1973) Removal of algae from
slablisation ponds effluent by lime treatment. Wat er Res.
7, 419- 435.
Leentvaar J. & Ywema T. S. J. (1980) Some dimensionless
paramet ers of impeller power in coagulation-flocculation
processes. I, Vater Res. 14, 135. 140.
Lecompt e A. R. (1966) Wat er reclamation by excess lime
t reat ment of effluent. TAPPI 49, 121..124.
Mcnnel M.. Merrill D. T. & Jorden R. M. (1974) Treat ment
of primary effluent by lime precipitation and dissolved
air flotation. J. War. Pollut. Cont rol Fed. 46, 2471 2485.
Mi ni on G. R. & Carlson D. A. (1973) Pri mary sludges
produced by the addition of lime to raw waste water.
Wat er Res. 7, 1821 1847.
Vuuren L. R. J. van, Stander G. J., Henzen M. R., Melting
I:'. G. J. & Blerk S. H. V. van (1967) Advanced purifica-
lion of sewage works effluent usi ng a combi ned system
of lime softening and flotation. Wat er Res. I, 463.474.
Wuhr man K. (1968)Objectives. technology and results of
nitrogen and phosphor us removal processes. In
Advances in Wat er Qual i t y Improl"ement pp. 21 48. Uni-
versity o f Texas Press, Austin.