RADAR TECHNOLOGY

Submitted by
Mohit Sharma
A20405112032

B.Tech (ECE) III semester
Under the uid!nce "#
$r. Ashut"sh Tri%!thi
Amity Sch""& "# En'ineerin'( Techn"&"'y
A$IT) U*I+E,SIT) ,A-AST.A*
CERTIFICATE
Certified that the Report entitled RADAR TECHNOLOGY submitted by
MOHT !HARMA "ith Enrollment No #A$%&%'(($%)$* on NO+EM,ER-
$%() is his o"n "or. and has been /arried out under my super0ision1 t is
re/ommended that the /andidate may no" be e0aluated for his2her "or. by the
3ni0ersity1
Mohit !harma Mr1 Ashutosh Tripathi
#!T3DENT* #G3DE*
!i4nature5 !i4nature5

Desi4nation5
Date5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I would like to sincerely thank my supervisor, Mr Ashutosh Tripathi for
his persistent support, guidance, help, and encourage during the whole process of my
study and my Term Paper work
I would also like to thank the students, staff and faculty of the !epartment of
"lectronics and #ommunication "ngineering, Amity $chool of "ngineering and
Technology for their support I would also like to thank my parents for their well
wishes to complete this work Finally thanks to friends for their support and love all
the time
Overview
Introduction
History
Applications
Radar functions
Antennas basics
Radar range equation
System parameters
Antenna Patterns
Sample radar systems
Radar jamming and deception
A bstract
Radar, electromagnetic sensor used for detecting, locating, tracking, and recognizing
objects of various kinds at considerable distances. It operates by transmitting
electromagnetic energy toward objects, commonly referred to as targets, and
observing the echoes returned from them. The targets may be aircraft, ships,
spacecraft, automotive vehicles, and astronomical bodies, or even birds, insects, and
rain. Besides determining the presence, location, and velocity of such objects, radar
can sometimes obtain their size and shape as well. What distinguishes radar from
optical and infrared sensing devices is its ability to detect faraway objects under
adverse weather conditions and to determine their range, or distance, with precision.
adar is an activesensing device in that it has its own source of illumination !a
transmitter" for locating targets. It typically operates in the microwave region of the
electromagnetic spectrum measured in hertz !cycles per second", at fre#uencies
e$tending from about %&& megahertz !'(z" to %& gigahertz !)(z". It has, however,
been used at lower fre#uencies for long*range applications !fre#uencies as low as
several megahertz, which is the (+ ,high*fre#uency-, or shortwave, band" and at
optical and infrared fre#uencies !those of laser radar, or lidar". The circuit
components and other hardware of radar systems vary with the fre#uency used, and
systems range in size from those small enough to fit in the palm of the hand to those
so enormous that they would fill several football fields.
adar underwent rapid development during the ./0&s and &s to meet the needs of
the military. It is still widely employed by the armed forces, where many
technological advances have originated. 1t the same time, radar has found an
increasing number of important civilian applications, notably air traffic control,
weather observation, remote sensing of the environment, aircraft and ship
navigation, speed measurement for industrial applications and for law enforcement,
space surveillance, and planetary observation.
List of Figures page no
Fig 2.1 A Chain Home tower in Great Baddow, United Kingdom 2
Fig 3.1 Commercial marine radar antenna. 5
Fig 4.1 Electromagnetic !ectr"m #
Fig 4.2 $ime dela% &
Fig 4.3 "!er!o'ition o( )a*e' +
Fig 4.4 )a*e !olari,ation +
Fig 5.1 Antenna -attern' 1.
Fig #.1 /adar Bloc0 1iagram 13
Fig &.1 /adar 1i'!la% $%!e' 14
Fig &.2 /ange /e'ol"tion 1#
Fig &.3 /ange Gate' 1#
Fig 2.1 Antenna -attern' 1&
Fig 2.2 1o!!ler Filter' 2.
Fig 2.3 Attac0 A!!roach 2.
Fig 2.4 $rac0ing radar 21
Fig +.1 C/32&. Air earch /adar 22
Fig 1..1 German 4"(twa((e $ornado EC/ 25
1.INTRODUCTION
Radar is an object detection system which uses radio waves to determine the range,
altitude, direction, or speed of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft,
ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain.
The radar dish or antenna transmits pulses of radio waves or microwaveswhich
bounce off any object in their path. The object returns a tiny part of the wave's energy
to a dish or antenna which is usually located at the same site as the transmitter.
Radar was secretly developed by several nations before and during World War II. The
term RADAR itself, not the actual development, was coined in 1!" by the#nited
$tates %avy as an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging.The term radar has
since entered &nglish and other languages as the common nounradar, losing all
capitali'ation.
The modern uses of radar are highly diverse, including air traffic control, radar
astronomy, air(defense systems, antimissile systems) marine radars to locate
landmar*s and other ships) aircraft anticollision systems) ocean surveillancesystems,
outer space surveillance and rende'vous systems) meteorologicalprecipitation
monitoring) altimetry and flight control systems) guided missile target locating
systems) and ground(penetrating radar for geological observations. +igh tech radar
systems are associated with digital signal processing and are capable of e,tracting
useful information from very high noiselevels.
-ther systems similar to radar ma*e use of other parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum. -ne e,ample is .lidar., which uses visible light from lasers rather than
radio waves.
1
2. HISTORY
/s early as 1001, 2erman physicist +einrich +ert' showed that radio waves could be
reflected from solid objects. In 103, /le,ander 4opov, a physics instructor at
the Imperial Russian %avy school in 5ronstadt, developed an apparatus using
a coherer tube for detecting distant lightning stri*es. The ne,t year, he added a spar*(
gap transmitter. In 106, while testing this e7uipment for communicating between
two ships in the 8altic $ea, he too* note of aninterference beat caused by the passage
of a third vessel. In his report, 4opov wrote that this phenomenon might be used for
detecting objects, but he did nothing more with this observation.
The 2erman inventor 9hristian +:lsmeyer was the first to use radio waves to detect
.the presence of distant metallic objects.. In 1"! he demonstrated the feasibility of
detecting a ship in dense fog, but not its distance from the transmitter.;!< +e obtained
a patent;3< for his detection device in /pril 1"! and later a patent;1< for a related
amendment for estimating the distance to the ship. +e also got a 8ritish patent on
$eptember =>, 1"! for a full system, that he called a telemobiloscope.
Fig 2.1 A Chain Home tower in Great Baddow, United ingdom
In 1== /. +oyt Taylor and ?eo 9. @oung, researchers wor*ing with the #.$. %avy,
had a transmitter and a receiver on opposite sides of the 4otomac River and
discovered that a ship passing through the beam path caused the received signal to
fade in and out. Taylor submitted a report, suggesting that this might be used to detect
the presence of ships in low visibility, but the %avy did not immediately continue the
wor*. &ight years later, ?awrence /. +yland at the %aval Research
?aboratory observed similar fading effects from a passing aircraft) this led to a patent
application as well as a proposal for serious wor* at the %R? ATaylor and @oung were
then at this laboratoryB on radio(echo signals from moving targets.
8efore the $econd World War, researchers in Crance, 2ermany, Italy, Dapan,
=
the %etherlands, the $oviet #nion, the#nited 5ingdom, and the #nited $tates,
independently and in great secrecy, developed technologies that led to the modern
version of radar. /ustralia, 9anada, %ew Eealand, and $outh /frica followed prewar
2reat 8ritain, and +ungaryhad similar developments during the war.
In Crance in 1>!, following systematic studies on the magnetron, the research
branch of the 9ompagnie 2FnFrale de TFlFgraphie $ans Cil A9$CB, headed by
Gaurice 4onte, with +enri 2utton, $ylvain 8erline, and G. +ugon began developing
an obstacle(locating radio apparatus, a part of which was installed on
the %ormandie liner in 1>3.
Huring the same time, the $oviet military engineer 4. 5. -shchep*ov, in
collaboration with ?eningrad &lectrophysical Institute, produced an e,perimental
apparatus, R/4IH, capable of detecting an aircraft within > *m of a receiver. The
Crench and $oviet systems, however, had continuous(wave operation and could not
give the full performance that was ultimately at the center of modern radar.
Cull radar evolved as a pulsed system, and the first such elementary apparatus was
demonstrated in Hecember 1>! by the /merican Robert G. 4age, wor*ing at
the %aval Research ?aboratory. The following year, the #nited $tates
/rmy successfully tested a primitive surface(to(surface radar to aim coastal battery
search lights at night. This was followed by a pulsed system demonstrated in Gay
1>3 by Rudolf 5:hnhold and the firm 2&G/ in 2ermany and then one in Dune
1>3 by an /ir Ginistry team led by Robert /. Watson Watt in 2reat 8ritain.
Hevelopment of radar greatly e,panded on 1 $eptember 1>1 when Watson(Watt
became $uperintendent of a new establishment under the 8ritish /ir Ginistry,
8awdsey Research $tation located in 8awdsey Ganor, near Celi,stowe, $uffol*.
Wor* there resulted in the design and installation of aircraft detection and trac*ing
stations called 9hain +ome along the &ast and $outh coasts of &ngland in time for
the outbrea* of World War II in 1>. This system provided the vital advance
information that helped the Royal /ir Corce win the 8attle of 8ritain.
The 8ritish were the first to fully e,ploit radar as a defence against aircraft attac*.
This was spurred on by fears that the 2ermans were developing death rays. The /ir
Ginistry as*ed 8ritish scientists in 1>! to investigate the possibility of propagating
electromagnetic energy and the li*ely effect. Collowing a study, they concluded that a
death ray was impractical but that detection of aircraft appeared feasible. Robert
Watson Watt's team demonstrated to his superiors the capabilities of a wor*ing
prototype and then patented the device. It served as the basis for the 9hain
+ome networ* of radars to defend 2reat 8ritain, which detected approaching
2erman aircraft in the 8attle of 8ritain in 1!".
In /pril 1!", !op"lar #cience showed an e,ample of a radar unit using the Watson(
Watt patent in an article on air defence, but not *nowing that the #.$. /rmy and #.$.
%avy were wor*ing on radars with the same principle, stated under the illustration,
.This is not #.$. /rmy e7uipment.. /lso, in late 1!1!op"lar $echanics had an
>
article in which a #.$. scientist speculated about the 8ritish early warning system on
the &nglish east coast and came close to what it was and how it wor*ed. /lfred ?ee
?oomis organi'ed the Radiation ?aboratory at 9ambridge, Gassachusetts which
developed the technology in the years 1!1(!3. ?ater, in 1!>, 4age greatly improved
radar with the monopulse techni7ue that was used for many years in most radar
applications.
The war precipitated research to find better resolution, more portability, and more
features for radar, including complementary navigation systems li*e -boeused by
the R/C's 4athfinder.
!
3.APPLICATIONS
Fig %.1 Commercial marine radar antenna. &he rotating antenna radiates a 'ertical
(an)shaped beam.
The information provided by radar includes the bearing and range Aand therefore
positionB of the object from the radar scanner. It is thus used in many different fields
where the need for such positioning is crucial. The first use of radar was for military
purposesI to locate air, ground and sea targets. This evolved in the civilian field into
applications for aircraft, ships, and roads.
In aviation, aircraft are e7uipped with radar devices that warn of aircraft or other
obstacles in or approaching their path, display weather information, and give accurate
altitude readings. The first commercial device fitted to aircraft was a 1>0 8ell ?ab
unit on some #nited /ir ?ines aircraft. $uch aircraft can land in fog at airports
e7uipped with radar(assisted ground(controlled approach systems in which the plane's
flight is observed on radar screens while operators radio landing directions to the
pilot.
Garine radars are used to measure the bearing and distance of ships to prevent
collision with other ships, to navigate, and to fi, their position at sea when within
range of shore or other fi,ed references such as islands, buoys, and lightships. In port
or in harbour, vessel traffic service radar systems are used to monitor and regulate
ship movements in busy waters.
Geteorologists use radar to monitor precipitation and wind. It has become the
primary tool for short(termweather forecasting and watching for severe weather such
as thunderstorms, tornadoes, winter storms, precipitation types, etc. 2eologists use
specialised ground(penetrating radars to map the composition of&arth's crust.
4olice forces use radar guns to monitor vehicle speeds on the roads.
3
4.RADAR FUNCTIONS
J Normal radar func!on"#
1. range Afrom pulse delayB
=. velocity Afrom Hoppler fre7uency shiftB
>. angular direction Afrom antenna pointingB
J S!$naur% anal&"!" and !n'%r"% "ca%r!n$#
!. target si'e Afrom magnitude of returnB
3. target shape and components Areturn as a function of directionB
1. moving parts Amodulation of the returnB
6. material composition
J The comple,ity Acost K si'eB of the radar increases with the e,tent of the functions
that the radar performs.
F!$ 4.1 (l%croma$n%!c S)%crum
Radar *and" and U"a$%
1
T!m% D%la& Ran$!n$
J Target range is the fundamental 7uantity measured by most radars.
It is obtained by recording the round trip travel time of a pulse, &R ,
and computing range fromI
where c L >,1"0 mMs is the velocity of light in free space.
Fig *.2 &ime dela+ ranging
Cla""!f!ca!on +& Func!on
Cla""!f!ca!on +& ,a'%form
Plane Waves
J Wave propagates in the , direction
J Wavelength, N
6
J Radian fre7uency O L =P ( AradMsecB
J Cre7uency, ( A+'B
J 4hase velocity in free space is c AmMsB
J -(polari'ed Adirection of the electric field vectorB
J .o, ma,imum amplitude of the wave
,a'%fron" and Ra&"
J In the antenna far(field the waves are spherical AR Q =D= MN B
J Wavefronts at large distances are locally plane
J Wave propagation can be accurately modeled with a locally plane wave
appro,imation
Su)%r)o"!!on of ,a'%"
J If multiple signal sources of the same fre7uency are present, or multiple paths e,ist
between a radar and target, then the total signal at a location is the sum Asuperposition
principleB.
J The result is interferenceI constructive interference occurs if the waves add)
destructive interference occurs if the waves cancel.
J &,ampleI ground bounce multi(path can be misinterpreted as multiple targets.
0
Fig 4.3 Superposition of Waves
,a'% Polar!-a!on
J 4olari'ation refers to the shape of the curve traced by the tip of the electric field
vector as a function of time at a point in space.
J Gicrowave systems are generally designed for linear or circular polari'ation.
J Two orthogonal linearly polari'ed antennas can be used to generate
circular polari'ation.
Fig *.* /a'e polari,ation

..An%nna" +a"!c"
J 2ain is the radiation intensity relative to a lossless isotropic reference.
J Cundamental e7uation for gainI
J In general, an increase in gain is accompanied by a decrease in beamwidth, and is
achieved by increasing the antenna si'e relative to the wavelength.
J With regard to radar, high gain and narrow beams are desirable for long detection
and trac*ing ranges and accurate direction measurement.
Fig 0.1 Antenna !atterns
Antenna Parameters
J +alf power beamwidth, +48W ARBB
J 4olari'ation
J $idelobe level
J /ntenna noise temperature A&AB
J -perating bandwidth
J Radar cross section and other signatures
Radar Antenna Tradeoffs
J A!r+orn% a))l!ca!on"#
Q $i'e, weight, power consumption
Q 4ower handling
Q ?ocation on platform and re7uired field of view
Q Gany systems operating over a wide fre7uency spectrum
1"
Q Isolation and interference
Q Reliability and maintainability
Q Radomes Aantenna enclosures or coversB
J /ccommodate as many systems as possible to avoid operational restrictions Amulti(
mission, multi(band, etc.B
J $ignatures must be controlledI radar cross section AR9$B, infrared AIRB, acoustic,
and visible AcamouflageB
/ N%0 an%nna arc1!%cur%" and %c1nolo$!%"
Q 9onformal, integrated
Q Higital SsmartT antennas with multiple beams
Q 8roadband
11
2.Radar Ran$% (3ua!on
4!n!mum D%%c!on Ran$%
J The minimum received power that the radar receiver can .sense. is referred to as
the minimum detectable signal AGH$B and is denoted .#min
J 2iven the GH$, the ma,imum detection range can be obtainedI
1=
Fig 1.1 Radar Bloc2 Diagram
J This receiver is a superheterodyne receiver because of the intermediate fre7uency
AICB amplifier. A$imilar to Cigure 1.! in $*olni*.B
J 9oherent radar uses the same local oscillator reference for transmit and receive.
1>
5. S&"%m Param%%r"
Coord!na% S&"%m"
J Radar coordinate system spherical polarIAr,R,UB a'imuthMelevationI A/',&lB or AV ,W B
J The radar is located at the origin of the coordinate system) the &arth's surface lies in
the -)+ plane.
J /'imuth AVB is generally measured cloc*wise from a reference Ali*e a compassB but
the spherical system a'imuth angle AU B is measured countercloc*wise from the -
a,is.
Therefore
Fig 3.1 Radar Displa+ &+pes
1!
Pul"%d ,a'%form
J In practice multiple pulses are transmitted toI
1. cover search patterns
=. trac* moving targets
>. integrate AsumB several target returns to improve detection
J The pulse trainis a common waveform
Ran$% Am+!$u!!%"
J Cor convenience we omit the sinusoidal carrier when drawing the pulse
train
J When multiple pulses are transmitted there is the possibility of a range ambiguity.
J To determine the range unambiguously re7uires that . The unambiguous range is
Ran$% R%"olu!on
J Two targets are resolved if their returns do not overlap. The range
resolution corresponding to a pulse width X is Y R L R = Z R 1 L c X M = .
13
Fig 3.2 Range Resol"tion
Ran$% 6a%"
J Typical pulse train and range gates
J /nalog implementation of range gates
Fig 3.% Range Gates
11
7. An%nna Pa%rn"
Clu%r and In%rf%r%nc%
Fig 4.1 Antenna !atterns
T1%rmal No!"%
J In practice the received signal is .corrupted. Adistorted from the ideal shape and
amplitudeB by thermal noise, interference and clutter.
J Typical return trace appears as followsI
J Threshold detection is commonly used. If the return is greater than the detection
16
threshold a target is declared. A is a false alarmI the noise is greater than the threshold
level but there is no target. * is a missI a target is present but the return is not
detected.
T1%rmal No!"% Po0%r
J 9onsider a receiver at the standard temperature, To degrees 5elvin A5B. -ver a
range of fre7uencies of bandwidth Bn A+'B the available noise power is 5o L 2ToBn
6 -ther radar components will also contribute noise Aantenna, mi,er, cables, etc.B. We
define a system noise temperature Ts, in which case the available noise power is
$ignal(to(%oise Ratio A$%RB
J 9onsidering the presence of noise, the important parameter for detection is the
signal(to(noise ratio A$%RB
J Cactors have been added for processing gain 2p and loss ?
J Gost radars are designed so that
J /t this point we will consider only two noise sourcesI
1. bac*ground noise collected by the antenna AT/B
=. total effect of all other system components ATo, system effective
noise temperatureB
&s 7 &A 8 &e
In%$ra!on of Pul"%"
J %oncoherent integration Apostdetection integrationBI performed after the envelope
detector. The magnitudes of the returns from all pulses are added. $%R increases
appro,imately as .
J 9oherent integration Apredetection integrationBI performed before the envelope
detector Aphase information must be availableB. 9oherent pulses must be transmitted.
The $%R increases as 5.
J The last trace shows a noncoherent integrated signal.
J Integration improvement an e,ample of processing gain.
Dwell Time
10
J $imple antenna modelI constant gain inside the half power beamwidth A+48WB,
'ero outside. If the aperture has a diameter D with uniform illumination .
J The time that the target is in the beam Adwell time, loo* time, or time on targetB is
tot
tot LR B 9RKs
6 The beam scan rate is Os in revolutions per minute or in degrees per second.
J The number of pulses that will hit the target in this time is
nB 7 tot ( p
Do))l%r S1!f
J Targets in motion relative to the radar cause the return signal fre7uency to be
shifted.
J / Hoppler shift only occurs when the relative velocity vector has a radial
component. In general there will be both radial and tangential components to the
velocity
Do))l%r F!l%r *an8"
J The radar[s operating band is divided into narrow sub(bands. Ideally there should be
no overlap in sub(band fre7uency characteristics.
J The noise bandwidth of the Hoppler filters is small compared to that of the radar[s
total bandwidth, which improves the $%R.
J \elocity estimates can be made by monitoring the power out of each filter.
J If a signal is present in a filter, the target's velocity range is *nown.
1
Fig 4.2 Doppler Filters
Lo09 H!$19 4%d!um PRF
J If (d is increased the true target Hoppler shifted return moves out of the passband
and a lower sideband lobe enters. Thus the Hoppler measurementis ambiguous.
Trac8 :%r"u" S%arc1
J Search radars
Q ?ong, medium, short ranges A=" *m to =""" *mB
Q +igh power density on the targetI high pea* power, long pulses, long pulse trains,
high antenna gain
Q ?ow 4RCs, large range bins
Q $earch optionsI rapid search rate with narrow beams or slower search rate with
wide beams
J Tracing radar
Q /ccurate angle and range measurement re7uired
Q Ginimi'e time on target for rapid processing
Q $pecial trac*ing techni7uesI monopulse, conical scan, beam switching
Fig 4.% Attac2 Approach
="
F!$ 7.4 Tracing radar
Q /ccurate angle and range measurement re7uired
Q Ginimi'e time on target for rapid processing
; S)%c!al rac8!n$ %c1n!3u%"# mono)ul"%9 con!cal "can9 +%am "0!c1!n$
Aac8 A))roac1
J / networ* of radars are arranged to provide continuous coverage of a ground target.
J 9onventional aircraft cannot penetrate the radar networ* without being detected.
=1
<. Sam)l% radar "&"%m"
AN=TP>?35 F!r%f!nd%r
J ?ocates mortars, artillery, roc*et launchers and missiles
J ?ocates 1" weapons simultaneously
J ?ocates targets on first round
J /djusts friendly fire
J Interfaces with tactical fire
J 4redicts impact of hostile projectiles
J Ga,imum rangeI 3" *m
J &ffective rangeI
/rtilleryI >" *m, Roc*etsI 3" *m
J /'imuth sectorI "]
J Cre7uencyI $(band, 13 fre7uencies
J Transmitted powerI 1=" *W
J 4ermanent storage for targets) field e,ercise mode) digital data interface
SCR?25@ A!r S%arc1 Radar
Fig :.1 #CR)23; Air #earch Radar
SCR?25@?D?RADAR
J Hetected Dapanese aircraft approaching 4earl +arbor
J 4erformance characteristicsI
#CR)23;)D Radio #et !er(ormance Characteristics A$ourceI #CR)23;)D Radio #et
&echnical $an"al, 1:*2 B
Ga,imum Hetection Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =3" miles
==
Ga,imum Hetection altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3",""" ft
Range /ccuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ! miles^
/'imuth /ccuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = degrees
-perating Cre7uency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1"!(11= G+'
/ntenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hirective array ^^
4ea* 4ower -utput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1"" *w
4ulse Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13(!" microsecond
4ulse Repetition Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1=1 cps
/ntenna Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . up to 1 rpm, ma,
Transmitter Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = tridoes^^^
Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . superheterodyne
TransmitMReceiveMHevice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . spar* gap
^ Range accuracy without calibration of range dial.
^^ 9onsisting of dipoles, 0 high and ! wide.
^^^ 9onsisting of a push(pull, self e,cited oscillator, using a tuned cathode circuit.
AN=SPS?4@ Surfac% S%arc1
J #+C long range two(dimensional surface search radar. -perates in short and long
range modes
J Range
Ga,imumI ="" nm
GinimumI = nm
J Target R9$I 1 s7. m.
J Transmitter Cre7uencyI
!"=.3 to !!6.3 G+'
J 4ulse widthI 1" s
J 4ea* powerI ="" to =33 *W
J $taggered 4RCI =36 +' AaveB
J %on(staggered 4RCI >"" +'
J An%nna
4arabolic reflector
2ainI =1 d8
+ori'ontal $??I =6 d8
\ertical $??I 1 d8
+48WI 11 by 1 degrees
J Receiver
1" channels spaced 3 G+'
%oise figureI !.=
IC fre7uencyI >" G+'
=>
49RI 1"I1
9orrelation gainI 10 d8
GH$I Z113 d8m
GTI improvement factorI 3! d8
=!
1@. Radar Aamm!n$ and d%c%)!on
Radar Aamm!n$ and d%c%)!on is the intentional emission of radio fre7uency signals
to interfere with the operation of a radar by saturating its receiver with noise or false
information. There are two types of radar jammingI $echanical and .lectronic
<amming.
4%c1an!cal Aamm!n$
Gechanical jamming is caused by devices which reflect or re(reflect radar energy
bac* to the radar to produce false target returns on the operator's scope. Gechanical
jamming devices include chaff, corner reflectors, and decoys.
C1aff is made of different length metallic strips, which reflect different fre7uencies,
so as to create a large area of false returns in which a real contact would be difficult
to detect. Godern chaff is usually aluminum coated glass fibers of various lengths.
Their e,tremely low weight and small si'e allows them to form a dense, long lasting
cloud of interference.

Corn%r r%fl%cor" have the same effect as chaff but are physically very different.
9orner reflectors are multiple(sided objects that re(radiate radar energy mostly bac*
toward its source. /n aircraft cannot carry as many corner reflectors as it can chaff.

D%co&" are maneuverable flying objects that are intended to deceive a radar operator
into believing that they are actually aircraft. They are especially dangerous because
they can clutter up a radar with false targets ma*ing it easier for an attac*er to get
within weapons range and neutrali'e the radar. 9orner reflectors can be fitted on
decoys to ma*e them appear larger than they are, thus furthering the illusion that a
decoy is an actual aircraft. $ome decoys have the capability to perform electronic
jamming or drop chaff. Hecoys also have a deliberately sacrificial purpose i.e.
defenders may fireguided missiles at the decoys, thereby depleting limited stoc*s of
e,pensive weaponry which might otherwise have been used against genuine targets.
(l%cron!c Aamm!n$
Cig 1".1 German ="(twa((e &ornado .CR .
&lectronic jamming is a form of &lectronic Warfare where jammers radiate interfering
signals toward an enemy's radar, bloc*ing the receiver with highly concentrated
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energy signals. The two main techni7ue styles are noise techni7ues and repeater
techni7ues. The three types of noise jamming are spot, sweep, and barrage.
S)o Aamm!n$ occurs when a jammer focuses all of its power on a single fre7uency.
While this would severely degrade the ability to trac* on the jammed fre7uency, a
fre7uency agile radar would hardly be affected because the jammer can only jam one
fre7uency. While multiple jammers could possibly jam a range of fre7uencies, this
would consume a great deal of resources to have any effect on a fre7uency(agile
radar, and would probably still be ineffective.

S0%%) Aamm!n$ is when a jammer's full power is shifted from one fre7uency to
another. While this has the advantage of being able to jam multiple fre7uencies in
7uic* succession, it does not affect them all at the same time, and thus limits the
effectiveness of this type of jamming. /lthough, depending on the error chec*ing in
the deviceAsB this can render a wide range of devices effectively useless.
*arra$% Aamm!n$ is the jamming of multiple fre7uencies at once by a single
jammer. The advantage is that multiple fre7uencies can be jammed simultaneously)
however, the jamming effect can be limited because this re7uires the jammer to
spread its full power between these fre7uencies, as the number of fre7uencies covered
increases the less effectively each is jammed.

*a"% Aamm!n$ is a new type of 8arrage Damming where one radar is jammed
effectively at its source at all fre7uencies. +owever, all other radars continue wor*ing
normally.

Pul"% Aamm!n$ produces noise pulses with period depending on radar mast rotation
speed thus creating bloc*ed sectors from directions other than the jammer ma*ing it
harder to discover the jammer location.

Co'%r )ul"% Aamm!n$ creates a short noise pulse when radar signal is received thus
concealing any aircraft flying behind the &W craft with a bloc* of noise.

D!$!al rad!o fr%3u%nc& m%mor&9 or DRF4 Aamm!n$, or R%)%a%r Aamm!n$ is

a repeater techni7ue that manipulates received radar energy and retransmits it to
change the return the radar sees. This techni7ue can change the range the radar
detects by changing the delay in transmission of pulses, the velocity the radar detects
by changing the doppler shift of the transmitted signal, or the angle to the plane by
using /G techni7ues to transmit into the sidelobes of the radar. &lectronics, radio
e7uipment, and antenna can cause HRCG jamming causing false targets, the signal
must be timed after the received radar signal. 8y analysing received signal strength
from side and bac*lobes and thus getting radar antennae radiation pattern false targets
can be created to directions other than one where the jammer is coming from. If each
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radar pulse is uni7uely coded it is not possible to create targets to directions other
than the direction of the jammer

D%c%)!'% Aamm!n$ uses techni7ues li*e .range gate pull(off. to brea* a radar
loc*.Inadvertent Damming
In some cases, jamming of either type may be caused by friendly sources. Inadvertent
mechanical jamming is fairly common because it is indiscriminate and will affect any
nearby radars, hostile or not. &lectronic jamming can also be inadvertently caused by
friendly sources, usually powerful &W platforms operating within range of the
affected radar. #nintentional electronic jamming is most easily prevented by good
planning and common sense, though sometimes it is unavoidable.
Coun%rm%a"ur%"
9onstantly alternating the fre7uency that the radar operates on over a spread(
spectrumwill limit the effectiveness of most jamming, ma*ing it easier to read
through it. Godern jammers can trac* a predictable fre7uency change, so the more
random the fre7uency change, the more li*ely it is to counter the jammer.

9loa*ing the outgoing signal with random noise ma*es it more difficult for a jammer
to figure out the fre7uency that a radar is operating on.

?imiting unsecure radio communication concerning the jamming and its

effectiveness is also important. The jammer could be listening, and if they *now that
a certain techni7ue is effective, they could direct more jamming assets to employ this
method.

Gost important factor to counter radar jammers is the operator training and attention
to raw video signal. /ny system can be fooled with a jamming signal but a properly
trained operator can detect abnormal patterns on the radar screen.

8est indicator of jamming effectiveness to the jammer is countermeasures ta*en by

operator. Dammer does not *now if their jamming is effective before operator starts
changing radar transmission settings.

#sing &W countermeasures will give away radar capabilities thus on peacetime
operations most military radars are used on fi,ed fre7uencies, at minimal power
levels and with bloc*ed T_sectors toward possible listenersAcountry bordersB

Gobile fire control radars are usually *ept passive when military operations are not
ongoing to *eep radar locations secret

/ctive &lectronically $canned /rray A/&$/B radars are innately harder to jam and
can operate in ?ow 4robability of Intercept A?4IB modes to reduce the chance that the
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radar is detected.
/ 7uantum radar system would automatically detect attempts at deceptive jamming,
which might otherwise go unnoticed.

S%al1
$tealth technologies li*e Radar(absorbent materials can be used to reduce the return
of a target.
In%rf%r%nc%
While not usually caused by the enemy, interference can greatly impede the ability of
an operator to trac*. Interference occurs when two radars in relatively close pro,imity
Ahow close they need to be depends on the power of the radarsB are operating on the
same fre7uency. This will cause .running rabbits., a visual phenomenon that can
severely clutter up a scope with useless data. Interference is not that common
between ground radars, however, because they are not usually placed close enough
together. It is more li*ely that some sort of airborne radar system is inadvertently
causing the interference`especially when two or more countries are involved.
The interference between airborne radars referred to above can sometimes AusuallyB
be eliminated by fre7uency(shifting the magnetron.
The other interference often e,perienced is between the aircraft's own electronic
transmitters, i.e. transponders, being pic*ed up by own radar. This interference is
eliminated by suppressing the radar's reception for the duration of the transponder's
transmission. Instead of .bright(light. rabbits across the display, one would observe
very small blac* dots. 8ecause the e,ternal radar causing the transponder to respond
is generally not synchronised with your own radar Ai.e. different 4RCs ;pulse
repetition fre7uency<B, these blac* dots appear randomly across the display and the
operator sees through and around them. The returning image may be much larger than
the .dot. or .hole., as it has become *nown, anyway. 5eeping the transponder's pulse
widths very narrow and mode of operation Asingle pulse rather than multi(pulseB
becomes a crucial factor.
The e,ternal radar could, in theory, come from an aircraft flying alongside your own,
or from space. /nother factor often overloo*ed is to reduce the sensitivity of one's
own transponder to e,ternal radars) i.e., ensure that the transponder's threshold is
high. In this way it will only respond to nearby radars`which, after all, should be
friendly.
-ne should also reduce the power output of the transponder in li*e manner.
Bamm!n$ Pol!c% Radar
Damming radar for the purpose of defeating police radar guns is more simple than
military(grade radar jamming, although it is federally prohibited in the#nited $tates.
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REFERENCES
1. Radar Wikipedia
2. www.fas.org
3. www.radartutorial.edu
4. Radar Principles by Nadav Levanon
. !ntroduction to Radar "yste#s $%c&raw'(ill !nternational )ditions* )lectrical
)ngineering "eries+ by %errill ! "kolnik