Power Electronics Lecturer 3rd class

2nd Lecture College of Human Studies

Power Electronics Defined
Definition: Power electronics involves the study of electronic circuits
intended to control the flow of electrical energy. These circuits handle power
flow at levels much higher than the individual device ratings. Rectifiers are
probably the most familiar example of circuits that meet this definition.
Inverters (a general term for dc-ac converters) and dc-dc converters for power
supplies are also common applications.

Table (1): The types of restricted switches

Thyristor
Thyristors are usually three-terminal devices with four layers of
alternating p- and n-type material (i.e. three p-n junctions) in their main power
handling section. In contrast to the linear relation that exists between load and
control currents in a transistor, the thyristor is bistable. The control terminal of
the thyristor, called the gate (G) electrode, may be connected to an integrated
and complex structure as part of the device. The other two terminals, anode (A)
Power Electronics Lecturer 3rd class

2nd Lecture College of Human Studies

and cathode (K), handle the large applied potentials (often of both polarities)
and conduct the major current through the thyristor. The anode and cathode
terminals are connected in series with the load to which power is to be
controlled. All thyristor types are controllable in switching from a forward
blocking state (positive potential applied to the anode with respect to the
cathode with correspondingly little anode current flow) into a forward-
conduction state (large forward anode current flowing with a small anode-
cathode potential drop). Thyristors are typically used at the highest energy
levels in power conditioning circuits because they are designed to handle the
largest currents and voltages of any device technology (systems with voltages
approximately greater than 1 kV or currents higher than 100 A). Many medium-
power circuits (systems operating at <1 kV or 100 A) and particularly low
power circuits (systems operating <100 V or several amperes).
Basic Structure and Operation
Figure 1 shows a conceptual view of a typical thyristor with the three p-n
junctions and the external electrodes labeled. Also shown in the figure is the
thyristor circuit symbol used in electrical schematics.

Figure (1) Simple cross section of a typical thyristor and theassociated electrical schematic
symbols.
The operation of thyristors is as follows. When a positive voltage is applied to
the anode (with respect to a cathode), the thyristor is in its forward-blocking
state. The center junction J2 (see Fig. 3.1) is reverse-biased. In this operating
Power Electronics Lecturer 3rd class

2nd Lecture College of Human Studies

mode the gate current is held to zero (open-circuit). In practice, the gate
electrode is biased to a small negative voltage (with respect to the cathode) to
reverse-bias the GK-junction J3 and prevent charge-carriers from being injected
into the p-base. In this condition only thermally generated leakage current flows
through the device and can often be approximated as zero in value (the actual
value of the leakage current is typically many orders of magnitude lower than
the conducted current in the on-state). As long as the forward applied voltage
does not exceed the value necessary to cause excessive carrier multiplication in
the depletion region around J2 (avalanche breakdown), the thyristor remains in
an off-state (forward blocking). If the applied voltage exceeds the maximum
forward blocking voltage of the thyristor, it will switch to its on-state. However,
this mode of turn-on causes nonuniformity in the current flow, is generally
destructive, and should be avoided. When a positive gate current is injected into
the device J3 becomes forward-biased and electrons are injected from the
nemitter into the p-base. Some of these electrons diffuse across the p-base and
are collected in the n-base. This collected charge causes a change in the bias
condition of J1. The change in bias of J1 causes holes to be injected from the
pemitter into the n-base. These holes diffuse across the n-base and are collected
in the p-base. The addition of these collected holes in the p-base acts the same
as gate current. The entire process is regenerative and will cause the increase in
charge carriers until J2 also becomes forward biased and the thyristor is latched
in its on-state (forward-conduction). The regenerative action will take place as
long as the gate current is applied in sufficient amount and for a sufficient
length of time. This mode of turn-on is considered to be the desired one as it is
controlled by the gate signal. This switching behavior can also be explained in
terms of the two-transistor analog shown in Fig. 2 bellow.
Power Electronics Lecturer 3rd class

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Fig. (2)

Static Characteristics
Current-Voltage Curves for Thyristors A plot of the anode current (iA) as a
function of anode cathode voltage (nAK) is shown in Fig. (3) bellow. The
forward blocking mode is shown as the low-current portion of the graph (solid
curve around operating point ‘‘1’’). With zero gate current and positive nAK the
forward characteristic in the off- or blocking-state is determined by the center
junction J2, which is reverse-biased. At operating point ‘‘1,’’ very little current
flows (Ico only) through the device. However, if the applied voltage exceeds the
forward-blocking voltage, the thyristor switches to its on- or conducting-state
(shown as operating point ‘‘2") because of carrier multiplication (M in Eq. 1).
The effect of gate current is to lower the blocking voltage at which switching
takes place. The thyristor moves rapidly along the negatively sloped portion of
the curve until it reaches a stable operating point determined by the external
circuit (point ‘‘2"). The portion of the graph indicating forward conduction
shows the large values of iA that may be conducted at relatively low values of
nAK , similar to a power diode.
M I co + Mαn iG
iA = 1 − M (α +α ) …………………………………………………………..
n p

(1)
Power Electronics Lecturer 3rd class

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Fig. (3) the I-V characteristics of thyristor.

Gate Turn-OFF Thyristor:

A gate turn-off thyristor (known as a GTO) is a three-terminal power
semiconductor device that belongs to a thyristor family with a four-layer
structure. They also belong to a group of power semiconductor devices that
have the ability to fully control on and off states via the control terminal (gate).
The design, development, and operation of the GTO is easier to
understand if we compare it to the conventional thyristor. Like a conventional
thyristor, applying a positive gate signal to its gate terminal can turn on a GTO.
Unlike a standard thyristor, a GTO is designed to turn off by applying a
negative gate signal. There are two types of GTOs: asymmetrical and
symmetrical. The asymmetrical GTOs are the most common type on the market.
This type is normally used with an antiparallel diode and hence high
reverse-blocking capability is not available. Reverse conducting is
accomplished with an antiparallel diode integrated onto the same silicon wafer.
The symmetrical GTOs have equal forward- and reverse-blocking capability.
Basic Structure and Operation
The symbol for a GTO is shown in Fig. 4.1a. A high degree of
interdigitation is required in GTOs in order to achieve efficient turn-off. The
most common design employs the cathode area separated into multiple
segments (cathode fingers) and arranged in concentric rings around the device
center. The internal structure is shown in Fig. 4.1b. A common contact disk
pressed against the cathode fingers connects the fingers together. It is important
that all the fingers turn off simultaneously, otherwise the current may be
concentrated into fewer fingers, with damage due to overheating more likely.
Power Electronics Lecturer 3rd class

2nd Lecture College of Human Studies

The high level of gate interdigitation also results in a fast turn-on speed
and high di=dt performance of GTOs. The most remote part of a cathode region
is no more than 0.16mm from a gate edge and hence the entire GTO can
conduct within 5 µs with sufficient gate drive and the turn-on losses can be
reduced. However, interdigitation reduces the available emitter area and
therefore the low-frequency average current rating is less than for a standard
thyristor with an equivalent diameter. The basic structure of a GTO, a four-layer
p-n-p-n semiconductor device, is very similar in construction to a thyristor. It
has several design features that allow it to be turned on and off by reversing the
polarity of the gate signal. The most important differences are that the GTO has
long narrow emitter fingers surrounded by gate electrodes and no cathode
shorts.

Fig. (4) GTO structure: (a) GTO symbol; (b) GTO structure.
The turn-on mode is similar to that of a standard thyristor. The injection of the
hole current from the gate forward biases the cathode p-base junction, causing
electron emission from the cathode. These electrons flow to the anode and
induce hole injection by the anode emitter. The injection of holes and electrons
into the base regions continues until charge multiplication effects bring the
GTO into conduction. This is shown in Fig. 4.2a. As with a conventional
Power Electronics Lecturer 3rd class

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thyristor, only the area of cathode adjacent to the gate electrode is turned on
initially and the remaining area is brought into conduction by plasma spreading.
However, unlike the thyristor, the GTO consists of many narrow cathode
elements, heavily interdigitated with the gate electrode, and therefore the initial
turned-on area is very large and the time required for plasma spreading is small.
Therefore, the GTO is brought into conduction very rapidly and can withstand a
high turn-on di=dt.

Fig.(5): (a) Turn-on; and (b) turn-off of GTOs.

GTO Thyristor Models

A one-dimensional two-transistor GTO model is shown in Fig. (6). The device
is expected to yield the turn-off gain (g) given by:
IA αnpn
Ag = = ……………………………………………………. (2)
I G αpnp +αnpn −1

where IA is the anode current and IG the gate current at turnoff, and a npn and
pnp are the common-base current gains in the n-p-n and p-n-p transistor sections
of the device. For a non-shorted device, the charge is drawn from the anode and
regenerative action commences, but the device does not latch on (remain on
when the gate current is removed) until…
αpnp +αnpn ≥1 …………………………………………..…………………. (3)
Power Electronics Lecturer 3rd class

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This process takes only a short time for the current and the current gains to
increase enough to satisfy Eq. (3). The composite p-n-p gain of the emitter-
shorted structure is given as follows:
 1 −Vbe 
α pnp (composite ) =α pnp 

 ……………………………………………
 (4)
 RS anode 

where Vbe .emitter base voltage (generally 0.6 V for injection of carriers) and
RS is the anode-short resistance. The anode emitter injects when the voltage
around it exceeds 0.06 V, and therefore the collector current of the n-p-n
transistor flowing through the anode shorts influences turn-on. The GTO
remains in a transistor state if the load circuit limits the current through the
shorts.

Fig (6): Two-transistor model representing the GTO thyristor.

Power Electronics Lecturer 3rd class

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Fig (7): Two-transistor models of GTO structures.