Geotechnical Laboratory Manual

CVEN365 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering
LABORATORY MANUAL
Giovanna Biscontin
Texas A&M University
August 27, 2012
2 CVEN365 Laboratory Manual
G. Biscontin Civil Engineering Department
Contents
1 Laboratory Safety and Policy 1
2 Determining Water Content of Soil Specimens 3
2.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Water Content by Microwave Oven Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2.1 Standard Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2.2 Required Materials and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2.3 Test Specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2.5 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3 Water Content by Oven Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3.1 Standard Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3.4 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3 Particle Size Analysis of Soils 9
3.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 Standard Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3 Particle size analysis of coarse grained fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3.2 Test Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3.4 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.4 Particle size analysis of ne grained fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.4.2 Hydrometer Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.4.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.4.4 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.5 Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4 Atterberg Limits: Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils 19
4.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.3 Determination of Liquid Limit (Multi-Point Method) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.3.2 Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.3.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
ii CVEN365 Laboratory Manual
4.3.4 Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.4 Determination of Plastic Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.4.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.5 Plasticity Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5 Liquid Limit of Soils using the Drop Cone Penetrometer 25
5.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.3 Determination of Liquid Limit Using Drop Cone Penetrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.3.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.3.3 Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6 Classication According to USCS 29
6.1 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.2 Initial Classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.2.1 Highly Organic Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.2.2 Non Highly Organic Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.3 Procedure for Classication of Fine Grained Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.4 Procedure for Classication of Coarse Grained Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7 Visual Classication of Soils 33
7.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.3 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.4 Descriptive Information for Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.5 Procedure for Identifying Fine-Grained Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.6 Identication of Inorganic Fine-Grained Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7.7 Procedure for identifying Coarse-Grained Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7.8 Check List For Description Of Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8 Compaction Using Standard Effort 41
8.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
8.3 Required Materials and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
8.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
8.4.1 Specimen preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
8.4.2 Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
8.5 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9 Measuring Suction with the Filter Paper Method 47
9.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
9.2 Soil Suction Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
9.3 Required Materials and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
9.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
9.5 Soil Matric Suction Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
9.6 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
9.7 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
CONTENTS iii
10 Hydraulic Conductivity 53
10.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
10.3 Fundamental Test Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
10.4 Constant head test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
10.4.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
10.4.3 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
10.5 Falling head test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
10.5.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
10.5.3 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
11 Instrumentation and Calibration 61
11.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
11.2 Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
11.3 Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
11.3.1 Calibration Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
11.4 Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
12 Flow Nets 67
12.1 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
12.2 Flow Net Facts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
12.3 Drawing Flow Nets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
12.4 Rules for Sketching Flow Nets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
12.5 Common Mistakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
12.6 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
12.7 Example Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
13 State of Stress: Mohrs Circle 71
13.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
13.2 Two-Dimensional States of Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
13.3 Derivation of stress transformation equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
13.4 Mohrs Circle of Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
13.4.1 The Pole Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
13.5 Principal Stresses and Principal Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
13.6 Mohrs Circles of Total and Effective Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
14 Direct Shear Test of Soils Under Consolidated Drained Conditions 81
14.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
14.2 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
14.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
14.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
14.5 Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
14.6 Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Texas A&M University G. Biscontin
iv CVEN365 Laboratory Manual
15 One-Dimensional Consolidation 87
15.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
15.3 Preliminary Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
15.3.1 The consolidometer and the dial gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
15.3.2 The data acquisition software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
15.3.3 The remaining preliminary details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
15.4 Specimen Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
15.5 Procedure for pneumatic load frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
15.6 Procedure for mechanical load frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
15.7 Second and following days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
15.8 Last day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
15.9 Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
15.10Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
16 Triaxial Unconned Compression Test 101
16.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
16.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
16.2.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
16.2.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
16.3 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
16.4 Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
17 Unconsolidated Undrained Triaxial Test 105
17.1 Specimen preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
17.1.1 Preparation of the specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
17.1.2 Fitting end caps and membrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
17.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
17.3 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
17.4 Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
18 Triaxial Consolidated Drained Compression Test 109
18.1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
18.2 Summary of Test Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
18.2.1 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
18.2.2 Specimen Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
18.2.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
18.3 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
18.4 Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Chapter 1
Laboratory Safety and Policy
Safety is a priority at Texas A&M University!
While it may seem unlikely that an accident could happen to you, you should know the accident rate in
universities is 10 to 100 times greater than in the chemical industry. To help prevent accidents, safety notes
are included in the laboratory manual. In addition, relevant Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) are in a
laboratory binder and guidelines are posted. Pay close attention to this information - our goals are to avoid
accidents in the laboratory, and to respond promptly and appropriately should an accident occur.
Safety depends on you!
It is your responsibility to followthe instructions in the lab manual and any additional guidelines provided
by your instructor. It is also your responsibility to be familiar with the location and operation of safety
equipment such as eyewash units, showers, re extinguishers, chemical spill cleanup kits etc. Questions
about chemicals can be answered by referring to the appropriate Material Safety Data Sheet. If you need
help deciphering an MSDS, please see your instructor.
Safety is a primary concern in all of the Zachry Department of Civil Engineering Geotechnical Engineer-
ing laboratories. Both the Undergraduate laboratory (CVLB 117) and Graduate laboratory (CVLB 116D) are
outtted with equipment that could cause injury if one is not alert while performing experiments. Following
is an outline of general policy and Dos and Donts in these laboratories. Safety is everyones concern.
1. No food or drink is allowed in the laboratories.
2. Wear appropriate protective clothing. You will not be allowed in the lab if you are wearing open-
toe shoes and/or shorts. Avoid shirts with dangling sleeves. Tie back long hair and avoid dangling
jewelry.
3. No phone calls and no text messaging in the laboratory. Set your cell phones to silent mode.
4. Ovens:
The large ovens in both rooms are set at 105 degrees C. Use properly insulated gloves to handle
objects you are retrieving out of the oven. The gloves are placed near the oven for this purpose.
Please return the gloves to the table by the oven.
The microwave ovens are used for moisture determination in SOILS ONLY. Never place more
than ONE soil sample at a time (in its aluminum dish) in a microwave oven during this process.
Check that a heat sink (in the form of a ceramic bowl) is in the microwave to avoid explosions.
5. There are two re extinguishers in the Undergraduate laboratory and one extinguisher in the Graduate
laboratory. Please observe the mounting locations on the walls and make a mental note of their access.
6. Safety glasses are in a large white cabinet on the north wall of the Undergraduate Laboratory. Should
you need to use a hammer or blunt instrument to break up dried soil samples, then all members of the
laboratory group will be required to wear safety glasses during this process, including the teaching
assistant.
7. Each laboratory island has a sink with two faucets. One faucet provides hot and cold tap water and is
used for cleanup only. The other faucet has a white button on it and is labeled DW (distilled water).
8. During some sessions noise from machinery (such as sieve shakers) may get loud. If this becomes
a problem, please notify the teaching assistant and ear protection will be provided on an as-needed
individual basis.
9. Barrels are provided for used soil when the experiment is completed. Never throw trash (foil cups,
paper, plastic, etc.) in these barrels. There are trash bins provided for garbage.
10. At the end of each laboratory session always clean all the instruments and other materials used. A
paper towel dispenser hangs on the wall for cleanup.
11. Counterbalanced Load Frames:
There are four double load frames in the Undergraduate laboratory and two double load frames
in the Graduate laboratory. These frames are safe to operate when using the correct procedure.
Never touch these frames when not in use.
When using the loading frames:
Never have your head under the top counterweight. The weight may fall while making
adjustments to the set up. This typically occurs at least once a semester. You want to make
sure the weight does not fall on you, and especially your head.
You are required to complete and sign (accept) a Student Safety Contract Agreement (LSA) on Howdy
before the rst laboratory class in order to be allowed to participate in the laboratory activities. In
addition, you will have to pass a quiz on safety procedures in the geotechnical laboratories based on
the information in this chapter. Questions about safety will also be included in quizzes administered
at teh beginning of other laboratory sessions during the semester.
Chapter 2
Determining Water Content of Soil
Specimens
2.1 Purpose
The water (or moisture) content of a soil is recorded in every test in geotechnical engineering. This basic
type of information provides insight on the conditions of the soil. The water content of undisturbed samples
from the site is also measured and reported on boring logs and in the engineering reports. Sometimes, we
need to mix a soil to a certain water content to meet specications for construction.
Traditionally, we used a standard oven set at a temperature of 110
o
C. These days we can also use a
microwave oven, which gives immediate results. The two methods are only slightly different and they are
both explained in this chapter. You will mostly use the microwave oven method, but in a few cases the
standard method is more reliable. The instructions for the specic test will tell you which method to use for
each laboratory experiment.
2.2 Water Content by Microwave Oven Method
This method is commonly used as a quicker alternative to the standard oven drying method, therefore it is
mostly used when immediate results are needed. You cannot use the microwave oven method for soils with
signicant levels of organics.
The main problem with using the microwave oven for water content determination is the possibility
of heating the soil to temperatures higher than 110
o
C. The higher temperature may actually change the
chemical structure of the clay minerals (think about pottery) and give wrong results. By drying the soil in
several steps you minimize the chance of overheating.
2.2.1 Standard Reference
ASTM D 4643 - Standard test method for determination of water (moisture) content of soil by the microwave
oven heating.
2.2.2 Required Materials and Equipment
The following items will be required for this testing method:
A microwave oven. Variable power controls are important and reduce the potential for overheating the
test specimen.
A scale having a 2000 g or greater and readability of 0.1 g is required.
Specimen container suitable for use in a microwave. These containers must be dry.
Gloves or holders to handle hot containers.
Heat sink, something that will absorb the microwave energy once all the water has been extracted from
the specimen and will prevent overheating.
Tools such as knives or spatulas for cutting the specimen before and during testing.
2.2.3 Test Specimen
Select the minimum mass of soil to use for moisture content determination based on the following table:
No more than 10% of sample 90% or more of sample Recommended mass of
made of particles larger than: passes sieve moist specimen
(mm) No. (g)
2.0 10 100 to 200
4.75 4 300 to 500
19 mm 3/4 in 500 to 1000
Table 2.1: Minimum mass of specimen
2.2.4 Procedure
It is important to prepare the specimen as quickly as possible to minimize moisture loss that will result in
the wrong water content measurement. Break up the soil into small size pieces. If the specimens cannot be
tested immediately, store them in a sealed container to prevent loss of moisture.
1. Make sure you have a copy of the appropriate moisture content determination form ready for use. You
can nd it at the end of this chapter.
2. Determine the mass of a clean, dry container or dish, and record it.
3. Place the soil specimen in the container, and immediately determine and record the total mass.
4. Place the soil specimen in the container in a microwave oven with the heat sink and turn the oven on
for 3 min.
5. After the set time has elapsed, remove the container and soil from the oven taking care not to burn
yourself, and immediately record the mass.
6. Mix the soil carefully with a small spatula, make sure you do not lose any soil.
7. Return the container and soil to the oven and reheat for 1 min.
8. Repeat step 5 through 7 until the change in the measured mass becomes insignicant on the calculated
moisture content. A change of 0.1% or less of the initial wet mass of the soil should be acceptable for
most specimens.
9. Use the nal mass determination in calculating the water content.
2. Determining Water Content of Soil Specimens 5
2.2.5 Calculations
Calculate the Water content of the sample as follows:
w =
M
cws
M
cs
M
cs
M
c
100 =
M
w
M
s
100 (2.1)
where:
w = water content, %
M
cws
= mass of container and wet specimen, g
M
cs
= mass of container and oven dry specimen, g
M
c
= mass of container, g
M
w
= mass of water, g and
M
s
= mass of solid particles.
Moisture Content Determination by Microwave Oven
Sample No. B-24 Project
Boring No. 12-L Location
Depth 2.4 m
Description of sample Brown silty clay
Date 09/05/03 Tested by Jane Doe
Mass of container, M
c
(g) 20.0
After 3
min.
After 1
more
min.
After 1
more
min.
After 1
more
min.
After 1
more
min.
Initial mass of container + wet specimen, M
cws
(g) 155.0 155.0 155.0 155.0 155.0
Mass of container + dry specimen, M
cs
(g) 131.8 122.3 121.5 121.3 121.2
Mass of water, M
w
= M
cws
M
cs
(g) 23.2 32.7 33.5 33.7 33.8
Mass of solid particles, M
s
= M
cs
M
c
(g) 111.8 102.3 101.5 101.3 101.2
Moisture content w =
Mw
Ms
100% (%) 20.75 31.96 33.00 33.27 33.39
Percent difference in water content (%) 11.21 1.04 0.27 0.12
Figure 2.1: Example of water content by microwave oven calculation
2.3 Water Content by Oven Method
Drying takes at least 12 hours in a standard oven, but the temperature is constant avoiding problems with
overheating. If you have a large sample, overheating is likely in a microwave oven, therefore the standard
oven is recommended.
2.3.1 Standard Reference
ASTM D 2216 - Standard test method for laboratory determination of water (moisture) content of soil and
rock by mass.
The following items will be required for this testing method:
A drying oven at a temperature of 110
o
C 5
o
C.
A scale with readability of 0.01 g is required for specimens with mass of less than 200 g.
Specimen container suitable for use in an oven. For small samples (less than 200 g) use the aluminum
containers with a lid to prevent moisture loss before drying and moisture gain from the air after drying.
The containers must be dry.
Gloves or holders to handle the container.
Tools such as knives, or spatulas.
A marker, if the container does not have an identifying feature.
2.3.3 Procedure
1. Make sure you have a copy of the appropriate moisture content determination form ready for use.
2. Determine the mass of a clean, dry container or dish, and record it. Remember to record the container
ID or mark the container. Many similar containers are placed in the oven at the same time and may be
moved. You want to make sure you will be able to nd your specimen.
3. Place the soil specimen in the container, and immediately determine and record the total mass.
4. Place contained and soil specimen in the oven for at least 12 hours. Longer drying times will not
compromise the results.
5. After the set time has elapsed, remove the container and soil from the oven taking care not to burn
yourself, and immediately record the mass.
6. Calculate the water content.
2.3.4 Calculations
Follow the same procedure as above in section 2.2.5.
2. Determining Water Content of Soil Specimens 7
Moisture Content Determination by Microwave Oven
Sample No. Project
Boring No. Location
Depth
Description of sample
Date Tested by
c
(g)
After 3
min.
After 1
more
min.
After 1
more
min.
After 1
more
min.
After 1
more
min.
cws
(g)
cs
(g)
Mass of water, M
w
= M
cws
M
cs
(g)
s
= M
cs
M
c
(g)
Mw
Ms
100% (%)
Percent difference in water content (%)
Moisture Content Determination by Oven
Sample No. Project
Boring No. Location
Depth
Date Tested by
c
(g)
cws
(g)
cs
(g)
Mass of water, M
w
= M
cws
M
cs
(g)
s
= M
cs
M
c
(g)
Mw
Ms
100% (%)
Chapter 3
Particle Size Analysis of Soils
3.1 Purpose
The particle size distribution of a soil (also called a gradation curve) is primarily used for classication
purposes. The distribution of particle sizes larger then 0.075 mm (retained on the No. 200 sieve) is deter-
mined by sieving, while distribution of particles sizes smaller then 0.075 mm is determined by sedimentation
process using a hydrometer.
3.2 Standard Reference
ASTM D 422 - Standard test method for particle-size analysis of soils.
3.3 Particle size analysis of coarse grained fraction
A scale sensitive to 0.01 g
Sieves, bottom pan, and a lid (The table below provides a list of common sieve sizes)
Mechanical sieve shaker
Sieve No. Opening (mm)
4 4.75
10 2.00
40 0.425
80 0.180
100 0.150
200 0.075
3.3.2 Test Sample
The size of the sample (i.e., the amount of soil) will depend on the maximum size of the particles present in
the sample itself, according to the following table:
Nominal diameter of Approximate Minimum
largest particles Mass of Portion
in. (mm) g
3/8 (9.5) 500
3/4 (19.0) 1000
1 (25.4) 2000
1.5 (38.1) 3000
2 (50.8) 4000
3 (76.2) 5000
3.3.3 Procedure
1. Clean each sieve to remove any soil left over from previous tests. Use the soft brush on the ner mesh
sieve and the wire brush on the coarser mesh sieve. Take care not to damage the mesh.
2. Measure and record the mass of each sieve, including the bottom pan.
3. Obtain the appropriate amount of sample.
4. Weigh and record the mass of the sample selected.
5. Assemble the sieves in order from largest to smallest so that the coarsest is at the top and the nest is
on the bottom followed by the pan.
6. Place the sample on to the top sieve taking care not to lose any of the mass and place the lid securely
on top.
7. Place the set of sieves in the sieve shaker and adjust the clamps to secure the sieves.
8. Set the shaker on high and set the timer to ve minutes.
9. Remove the sieves from the sieve shaker
10. To insure that all the particles passed though the appropriate sieve, tap each sieve over a sheet of paper,
starting with the top sieve. Put any material that falls on to the paper into the next sieve and repeat the
process with the next sieve.
11. Measure and record the mass retained in each sieve.
12. Sum the mass of the material retained on each sieve to verify that there has been no change in the total
mass of the sample. (Note: A mass loss of less than 2% is acceptable.)
3.3.4 Calculations
Determine the weight of soil that is retained on each sieve, W
i
.
Calculate the percent of soil that is retained on each sieve (%R
i
):
%R
i
=
W
i
W
100 (3.1)
3. Particle Size Analysis of Soils 11
Calculate the percent passing each sieve (%P
i
):
%P
i
= 100
i
k=1
%R
i
(3.2)
Plot the percent passing values on the grain size analysis chart provided.
3.4 Particle size analysis of ne grained fraction
Stirring apparatus.
Hydrometer, type 151H or 152H.
Sedimentation cylinder, glass cylinder marked for a volume of 1000 ml.
A solution of 40 g/l solution of sodium hexametaphosphate (or Calgon) in distilled water is used as a
dispersing agent and will be provided
Thermometer, accurate to 1
o
F (0.5
o
C).
Graduated beaker to 250 ml capacity.
Timer.
3.4.2 Hydrometer Calibration
The specic gravity of the solution of water and dispersing agent is higher than the specic gravity of distilled
water. This difference must be accounted for when using the equations for percentage of soil remaining in
suspension in section 3.4.4, which were developed for distilled water. In addition, the hydrometers were
calibrated at a constant temperature of 68
o
F (20
o
C), which cannot be ensured in our laboratory. Finally,
hydrometers are graduated by the manufacturer to be read at the bottom of the meniscus formed by the
liquid on the stem. However, given the difculty of conducting a reading at the bottom of the meniscus
through the soil-water suspension, the readings should be taken at the top of the meniscus and then corrected.
The combined amount of the corrections for these three items is called composite correction and should be
determined before or while conducting the actual test.
For convenience, measurement of the composite correction can be made at a few different temperatures
spanning the range expected during the test, and the result graphed. The correction for intermediate temper-
atures can be estimated using a linear approximation.
Calibration procedure
1. In a graduate cylinder, mix 125 ml of the 40 g/l solution of sodium hexametaphosphate (or Calgon)
and then distilled water up to 1000 ml.
2. Allow the temperature of the solution to become in equilibrium with the temperature in the room.
3. Place the hydrometer in the solution, allow to adjust to the temperature and stop moving.
4. Read the hydrometer at the top of the meniscus formed on the stem.
5. The composite correction for hydrometer 151H is the difference between this reading and one; for
hydrometer 152GH it is the difference between the reading and zero.
6. Repeat the measurement in parallel with your hydrometer measurements in the soil-water-dispersing
agent mix, when the room temperature changes.
3.4.3 Procedure
1. Obtain the equivalent of 50 g of air dried soil from the material passing the #200 sieve (do not oven
dry the soil).
2. Determine the hygroscopic water content (due to humidity in the air) using an additional 10-15 g of
soil.
3. Mix the soil to a thick slurry using 125 ml of the distilled water-dispersing agent solution.
4. Mix the slurry in a stirring apparatus for 60 seconds.
5. Transfer to the sedimentation cylinder and ll with distilled water up to the 1000 ml mark.
6. Mix thoroughly: cover the sedimentation cylinder mouth using a rubber glove and your hand and turn
the cylinder upside down and back for 1 minute.
7. Set the cylinder down and quickly start the timer. Take readings using the hydrometer at 4, 15, 30, 60,
90, 120 seconds. Be careful in inserting the hydrometer, so that it will be stabilized as soon as possible
and leave in the suspension for the rst 2 minutes. Take readings at the top of the meniscus.
8. Repeat the mixing process and take a second set of readings for the rst 2 minutes.
9. Remove the hydrometer from the suspension and place with a spinning motion in a cylinder lled with
distilled water. To take the following readings, carefully place the hydrometer in the suspension about
20-25 s before the reading is due.
10. Take readings at 5, 15, 30, 60, and 1140 minutes. Place the hydrometer into the distilled water imme-
diately after each reading. After each reading, take the temperature of the suspension by inserting the
thermometer into the suspension.
11. At the end of the experiment, obtain the nal dry weight of soil.
3.4.4 Calculations
Hygroscopic correction factor
Determine the hygroscopic correction factor based on the determination of the hygroscopic water content
results:
HygroscopicCF =
W
s
W
t
(3.3)
where: W
s
is the weight of the soil after oven drying and W
t
is the initial weight of the air dry sample.
Diameter of soil particles
The diameter of the soil particles is calculating according to Stokes law, assuming that the particles are
spherical, and measuring the density of the suspension:
D =
18L
(G
s
G
1
)
w
T
(3.4)
where:
= viscosity of water (10.09 millipoise at 20
o
C)
L = depth at which the density of the suspension is being measured (that is, where the center of gravity
of the hydrometer is). See appendix for values of L given hydrometer reading.
w
= unit weight of water
G
s
= specic gravity of the solid particles
G
1
= specic gravity of the solution (usually assumed to be 1)
T = elapsed time
For convenience, the above calculations can be simplied as follows:
D(mm) = K
L
T
(3.5)
where: K is a constant that depends on temperature and specic gravity of the solid particles, given in
the appendix.
Percentage of soil in suspension
Calculate the (oven) dry weight (W) of the soil by multiplying the air-dry weight of the soil to be used in the
hydrometer analysis by the hygroscopic correction factor.
The percentage of soil remaining in suspension at the level at which the hydrometer is measuring the
density is calculated differently for the two hydrometers.
For Hydrometer 151H:
P =
100, 000
W
G
s
G
s
G
1
(R
h
G
1
) (3.6)
For Hydrometer 152H:
P =
R
h
W
100 (3.7)
where:
P = percentage of soil remaining in suspension at the level at which the hydrometer is measuring
R
h
= corrected hydrometer reading
W = weight of the oven dry soil, after hygroscopic correction
G
s
= specic gravity of the solid particles
G
1
= specic gravity of the dispersing solution (usually 1)
= correction factor, see appendix
3.5 Forms
Sieve Analysis of Coarse Fraction
Sample No. Project
Boring No. Location
Depth
Date Tested by
Total weight of sample
Sieve No. Weight of
Sieve
Weight of
Sieve + Soil
Weight of Soil
Retained
Percentage
Retained
Percentage
Passed
(g) (g) (g) (%) (%)
Total weight of soil (g)
H
y
d
r
o
m
e
t
e
r
A
n
a
l
y
s
i
s
D
a
t
e
T
e
s
t
e
d
b
y
S
a
m
p
l
e
N
o
.
P
r
o
j
e
c
t
B
o
r
i
n
g
D
e
p
t
h
(
A
)
H
y
g
r
o
s
c
o
p
i
c
w
a
t
e
r
c
o
n
t
e
n
t
(
1
)
C
u
p
N
o
.
(
2
)
M
a
s
s
o
f
c
u
p
(
3
)
M
a
s
s
c
u
p
+
s
o
i
l
(
a
i
r
d
r
y
)
(
4
)
M
a
s
s
c
u
p
+
s
o
i
l
(
o
v
e
n
d
r
y
)
(
5
)
M
a
s
s
o
f
w
a
t
e
r
(
6
)
M
a
s
s
o
f
s
o
i
l
(
o
v
e
n
d
r
y
)
(
7
)
M
a
s
s
o
f
s
o
i
l
(
a
i
r
d
r
y
)
(
8
)
H
y
g
r
o
s
c
o
p
i
c
w
a
t
e
r
c
o
n
t
e
n
t
(
9
)
H
y
g
r
o
s
c
o
p
i
c
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
f
a
c
t
o
r
(
B
)
H
y
d
r
o
m
e
t
e
r
A
n
a
l
y
s
i
s
H
y
d
r
o
m
e
t
e
r
T
y
p
e
S
p
e
c
i
c
G
r
a
v
i
t
y
o
f
S
o
i
l
(
G
s
)
M
a
s
s
o
f
a
i
r
d
r
y
s
o
i
l
C
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
e
m
a
s
s
o
f
o
v
e
n
d
r
y
s
o
i
l
D
a
t
e
T
i
m
e
E
l
a
p
s
e
d
T
i
m
e
A
c
t
u
a
l
H
y
-
d
r
o
m
e
t
e
r
R
e
a
d
i
n
g
C
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
e
C
o
r
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
H
y
d
r
o
m
e
t
e
r
R
e
a
d
i
n
g
-
C
o
r
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
E
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e
H
y
d
r
o
m
e
-
t
e
r
D
e
p
t
h
K
f
r
o
m
t
a
b
l
e
D
i
a
m
e
t
e
r
o
f
p
a
r
t
i
c
l
e
,
D
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
n
e
r
i
n
s
u
s
p
e
n
s
i
o
n
(
m
i
n
)
(
r
h
)
(
R
h
)
(
d
e
g
r
e
e
s
C
)
(
m
m
)
(
%
)
Chapter 4
Atterberg Limits: Liquid Limit, Plastic
Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils
4.1 Purpose
The liquid limit, plastic limit, and the plasticity index of soils are used extensively to correlate with engi-
neering behavior such as compressibility, hydraulic conductivity, shrink-swell, and shear strength. Atterberg
dened four possible states of consistency for soils: liquid, plastic, semi-solid and solid. The liquid limit
divides the plastic and liquid states and is dened as the water content at which the soil ows to close a
standard size groove when shaken in a standardized device. At this water content the soil has an approximate
shear strength of 2.5 kPa. The plastic limit separates plastic and semi-solid states. At water contents below
the plastic limit the soil cannot be molded without cracking.
ASTM D 4318 - Standard test method for liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils.
4.3 Determination of Liquid Limit (Multi-Point Method)
Liquid limit device cup
Grooving tool
200-250 g of soil passing the No. 40 sieve, 425m aperture size
Scale with accuracy of 0.001 g
Water content cup
Spatula and mixing tools
Figure 4.1: Procedure for adjusting the liquid limit device.
4.3.2 Preparation
Inspection of Wear
Clean the liquid limit device and make sure it is in good working order. The results of the test will be
incorrect if the device is not working properly. In particular, check for:
signs of wear on the base where the cup makes contact. The worn spot should be no greater than
10mm (
3
8
in.) in diameter.
wear on the rim of the cup (reduced to no less than half its original thickness). and in the center where
the groove is dug into the soil (indentation should be less than 1mm or 0.004 in.).
side to side movement of the cup should be less than 3mm (
1
8
in.).
the cup should not drop before the cup hanger loses contact with the cam
excessive wear of the grooving tool
If your liquid limit device is not in good order please alert your laboratory instructor to obtain a new
liquid limit device.
Calibration
It is very important to calibrate your device so that the drop height is correct. The wrong drop height will
cause the test results to be incorrect.
Adjust the height of drop of the cup so that the point on the cup that comes in contact with the base rises
to a height of 10 0.2 mm. Place a piece of masking tape across the contact spot on the bottom of the cup
and running parallel to the hinged side. Slide the height gage (usually at the end of the grooving tool) under
the cup. The gage should touch both the cup and the tape (see g. 4.1). If the drop height is correct you
should hear a clicking sound, but produce no motion when cranking the handle. Adjust as needed.
4.3.3 Procedure
Soils should be tested starting from the natural water content to ensure the results are more representative of
the actual eld conditions. In our laboratory we will be using air dried samples because it is easier to store
the soil and ensure a constant supply.
4. Atterberg Limits: Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils 21
The liquid limit is dened as the water content at which a standard groove cut in the remolded soil sample
by a grooving tool closes over a length of 13 mm (0.5 in) at exactly 25 blows of the liquid limit cup falling
from a height of 10 mm on a hard rubber base. It is very difcult to mix the soil at the right water content,
even after a number of trials. However, if different trials are plotted on a semi-logarithmic scale they should
lie on a straight line and the liquid limit could be taken as the value of water content where the line crosses
the 25 blows mark. For this reason, in a liquid limit test we try to mix the soil at least three different water
contents aiming at blow counts above and below 25.
1. Mix the soil thoroughly with enough distilled water to reach a consistency requiring about 25 to 35
blows of the liquid limit device to close the groove. This is about the consistency of creamy peanut
butter. Keep in mind that it is easier to add water than to take it away, so try to aim for the thicker
consistency.
2. Using a spatula, place a portion of the prepared soil in the cup of the liquid limit device at the point
where the cup rests on the base, squeeze it down, and spread it into the cup to a depth of about 10 mm
at its deepest point, tapering to form an approximately horizontal surface. Take care to eliminate air
bubbles from the soil pat, but form the pat with as few strokes as possible. Keep the unused soil in the
mixing/storage dish. Cover the dish to retain the moisture in the soil.
3. Form a groove in the soil pat by drawing the tool, beveled edge forward, through the soil on a line
joining the highest point to the lowest point on the rim of the cup. When cutting the groove, hold the
grooving tool against the surface of the cup and draw in an arc, maintaining the tool perpendicular to
the surface of the cup throughout its movement.
4. Verify that no crumbs of soil are present on the base or the underside of the cup. Lift and drop the cup
by turning the crank at a rate of approximately 2 drops per second until the two halves of the soil pat
come in contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of 13mm (
1
2
in).
5. Record the number of drops, N, required to close the groove.
6. Quickly remove a slice of soil approximately the width of the spatula, along the groove and including
the portion of the groove in which the soil owed together, place in a container of known mass, and
obtain a water content. Try to determine water content as soon as possible. The sample is small and
looses water quickly through evaporation.
7. Return the soil remaining in the cup to the mixing cup. Wash and dry the cup and grooving tool and
reattach the cup to the carriage in preparation for the next trial.
8. Remix the entire soil specimen in the dish adding distilled water to increase the water content of the
soil and decrease the number of blows required to close the groove.
9. Repeat steps 1-8 for at least two additional trials producing successively lower numbers of blows to
close the groove. One of the trials shall be for a closure requiring 25 to 35 blows, one for closure
between 20 and 30 blows, and one trial for a closure requiring 15 to 25 blows.
4.3.4 Calculation
Plot the relationship between the water content, w
n
, and the corresponding number of drops, N, on the
graph provided. Draw the best straight line through the three or more plotted points.
Take the water content corresponding to the intersection of the line with the 25-drop abscissa as the
liquid limit of the soil and round to the nearest whole number. Computational methods may be substi-
tuted for the graphical method for tting a straight line to the data and determining the liquid limit.
4.4 Determination of Plastic Limit
Ground glass plate
Metal rod, 3.2 mm diameter
Balance
Water content cup
4.4.2 Procedure
1. Select about 20 g of soil from the material prepared for the liquid limit test.
2. Reduce the water content of the soil to a consistency at which it can be rolled without sticking to the
hands by spreading or mixing on the glass plate.
3. From this plastic limit specimen, select a 1.5 to 2.0 g portion. Form the selected portion into a ball.
4. Roll the mass between the palm or ngers and the glass plate to form a thread of uniform diameter
throughout its length. Keep rolling until the thread reaches 3.2 mm (
1
8
in) diameter. Compare to the
metal rod to determine if the diameter is 3.2 mm. The process should take no more than 2 minutes for
each thread.
5. When the thread has reached a 3.2 mm diameter, break it into pieced and knead together in a ball.
Repeat the rolling and kneading process until the thread crumbles and the soil can no longer be rolled
into a 3.2 mm thread. Do not cheat, be consistent: apply the same rolling pressure during each stage of
the rolling and do not pretend to roll while you wait for the soil to dry and crumble. If the soil breaks
into threads of shorter length, roll each of these shorter pieces into threads 3.2 mm in diameter and
repeat the kneading and rolling process.
6. Collect the broken pieces in a water content cup and cover to prevent further drying while rolling the
next 1.5-2.0 g of soil.
7. Select another 1.5 to 2.0 g portion of soil from the plastic limit specimen and repeat the operations
steps 3-6 until the container has at least 6g of soil.
8. Use the 6 g of soil to obtain the water content according to the procedures in chapter 2.
9. Go through the procedure in steps 1-8 until you have obtained two 6 g samples and water content
values. The water contents should not have a difference of more than 1.4%. The plastic limit is the
average of the two water content values.
4.5 Plasticity Index
Calculate the plasticity index as follows:
PI = LL PL (4.1)
where:
4. Atterberg Limits: Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils 23
LL = liquid limit
PL = plastic limit
Atterberg Limits Determination
Sample No. Project
Boring No. Location
Depth
Date Tested by
Liquid Limit Determination
Can No.
Mass of can (g)
Mass of wet soil + can (g)
Mass of dry soil + can (g)
Mass of dry soil (g)
Mass of water (g)
Water content, (%)
No. of drops
LIQUID LIMIT =
PLASTIC LIMIT =
PLASTICITY INDEX =
Plastic Limit Determination
Can No.
Mass of can (g)
Mass of wet soil + can (g)
Mass of dry soil + can (g)
Mass of dry soil (g)
Mass of water (g)
Water content, (%)
Chapter 5
Liquid Limit of Soils using the Drop Cone
Penetrometer
by S.E. Tucker and Z. Medina-Cetina
5.1 Purpose
This apparatus is used commonly in Europe as a replacement for Casagrandes method of determining the
liquid limit of soils. It has been argued that this method is better because it is a static test relying only on
the shear strength of the soil. For certain soils, sometimes it is difcult to obtain repeatable results using the
Casagrande method in a reasonable amount of time. In this method the liquid limit is the water content at
which a cone penetrates the soil for a calibrated distance when it is allowed to free fall for 5 seconds.
British Standard 1377: 1990 Part 2
5.3 Determination of Liquid Limit Using Drop Cone Penetrometer
Drop cone penetrometer apparatus
200 g of dry soil passing the No 200 sieve
Glass plate
Water content cup
Spatula and mixing tools
5.3.2 Procedure
1. Place the air dried soil in a plastic bag.
Figure 5.1: Drop cone penetrometer in contact with soil surface.
2. Add a small amount of distilled water to the soil in the bag, mix the sample thoroughly with the bag
sealed. Continue to add water and mix the sample until the soil reaches a consistency near the plastic
limit.
3. Seal the plastic bag and allow the soil to equilibrate for 24 hours.
4. Remove the soil from the bag and place it on the glass plate.
5. If necessary, add a small amount of water to the soil and mix it so that the rst cone reading will be
approximately 15mm. This consistency will be below the liquid limit.
6. Push the soil into the sample cup (try not to allow any voids for air pockets while also not over working
the soil).
7. Use the spatula to create a smooth surface that is level with the edge of the cup.
8. Adjust the drop cone penetrometer using the knob on the right side so that the cone is close to the top
of the sample.
9. Using the smaller knob on the face of the dial, lower the cone so that it barely comes into contact with
the surface of the soil. The cone must be able to travel freely for a minimum of 30 mm.
10. Using the outer knob on the face of the dial, adjust the pointer to zero.
11. Press and hold the release button for 5 seconds.
12. Using the smaller know on the dial which moves the cone, lower the dial gauge to meet with the new
position of the cone shaft.
13. Read the gauge to the nearest 0.1 mm, this is the distance that the cone penetrated.
5. Liquid Limit of Soils using the Drop Cone Penetrometer 27
Figure 5.2: Drop cone penetrometer release button.
Figure 5.3: Drop cone penetrometer dial gauge reading.
14. The rst reading should be approximately 15 mm, if it is higher than 17 the soil must be dried and the
test rerun.
15. Retract the cone from the cup and remove approximately 10-15 grams of soil using a spatula so that
the water content may be obtained.
16. Remove the rest of the soil from the cup and remix with the soil on the plate, add very little water to
this (1-2 ml) and mix the soil thoroughly.
17. Clean the cup and repeat steps 6-15 until a minimum of 4 points have been collected, moving from
drier to wetter conditions.
5.3.3 Calculation
Plot the penetration depth versus the water content for each test and t the data with a best t line
On the same graph, plot the following points and t them with a best t line. This is the calibration
line
Penetration (mm) Water Content (%)
20.5 25
21 40
22 72
23 100
Where the calibration line and best t line for your data intersect is the water content where the samples
liquid limit occurs
Chapter 6
Classication of Soils According to the
Unied Soil Classication SyStem (USCS)
The Unied Soil Classication System (USCS) is based on the classication scheme developed by Arthur
Casagrande for the United States Army in the 1940s. In its simplest form, it consists in assigning a two- or
four-letter group symbol to the soil sample.
6.1 Denitions
nes: soil particles passing the #200 sieve (nominal diameter smaller than 0.075mm).
Coefcient of uniformity: C
u
=
D
60
D
10
.
Coefcient of curvature: C
c
= C
z
=
D
2
30
D
10
D60
.
Plasticity Index: PI = LL-PL.
6.2 Initial Classication
6.2.1 Highly Organic Soils
Organic soils are recognized by:
large presence of organic materials;
dark brown, dark gray or black color;
organic odor, especially when wet
very soft consistency
In this case, the material is classied as a peat, with symbol PT, and no further analysis is necessary.
6.2.2 Non Highly Organic Soils
1. Determine gradation curve by sieve analysis. Use only the material with size smaller than 3in (75mm).
But report the percentage (by weight) of these large particles.
2. If the soil contains less than 5% nes a detailed sieve analysis is required to estimate the values of the
coefcient of uniformity, C
u
, and the coefcient of curvature, C
c
or C
z
.
3. If the soil contains between 5% and 12% nes, the liquid limit and the plastic limit of the nes should
be determined, in addition to the detailed gradation curve and C
u
, C
c
.
4. If the soil contains more than 12% nes the liquid limit and the plastic limit of the nes should be
determined, but it is sufcient to estimate the percentage of soil in the sand and gravel range. The
gradation characteristics, C
u
and C
c
, are not required.
6.3 Procedure for Classication of Fine Grained Soils
Follow this procedure if 50% or more by weight passes the #200 sieve. This is equivalent to saying that 50%
or more by weight has a nominal diameter smaller than 0.075mm.
Figure 6.1: Plasticity chart (from ASTM Standard D2487).
1. Calculate the plasticity index (PI).
2. Compare with the plasticity chart:
LL>50 and PI>A line High plasticity clay (CH)
LL>50 and PI<A line High plasticity silt (MH)
LL<50 and PI>A line Low plasticity clay (CL)
LL<50 and PI<A line Low plasticity silt (ML)
In the shaded area with 16<LL<25-30 and 4<PI<7 above the A line Silty clay (CL-ML)
6. Classication According to USCS 31
If the soil has organic content: refer to ASTM standard D2487 on the proper procedure. In short,
you need to oven dry the specimen to eliminate the organic material and calculate the LL on the
oven dried specimen. The classication is based on the difference between the LL before and
after oven drying.
3. You can add more information on the soil specimen classication after the main group symbol.
If 15% to 30% of the soil had nominal diameter larger than 0.075mm, use with sand or with
gravel, depending on which is predominant.
If 30% to 50% of the soil had nominal diameter larger than 0.075mm, use sandy or with
gravelly, depending on which is predominant.
6.4 Procedure for Classication of Coarse Grained Soils
Follow this procedure if 50% or more by weight is retained by the #200 sieve. This is equivalent to saying
that 50% or more by weight has a nominal diameter larger than 0.075mm.
1. >50% of the specimen is retained on the #4 sieve (nominal diameter larger than 4.75mm) Gravel
(G)
If <5% nes and C
u
4 and 1 C
c
3 Well-graded gravel (GW)
If <5% nes and C
u
4 and/or not 1 C
c
3 Poorly-graded gravel (GP)
If 5% < fines < 12% and the nes are clay Well-graded gravel with clay (GW-GC) or
Poorly-graded gravel with clay (GP-GC) based on C
u
and C
c
tests above.
If 5% < fines < 12% and the nes are silt Well-graded gravel with silt (GW-GM) or
Poorly-graded gravel with silt (GP-GM) based on C
u
and C
c
tests above.
If >12% nes and nes are clay based on plasticity chart Clayey gravel (GC)
If >12% nes and nes are silt based on plasticity chart Silty gravel (GM)
If >12% nes and nes are CL-ML based on plasticity chart Silty clayey gravel (GM-GC)
2. >50% of the specimen is retained between the #4 and the #200 sieves (nominal diameter between
0.075 and 4.75mm) Sand (S)
If <5% nes and C
u
6 and 1 C
c
3 Well-graded sand (SW)
If <5% nes and C
u
6 and/or not 1 C
c
3 Poorly-graded sand (SP)
If 5% < fines < 12% and the nes are clay Well-graded sand with clay (SW-SC) or Poorly-
graded sand with clay (SP-SC) based on C
u
and C
c
tests above.
If 5% < fines < 12% and the nes are silt Well-graded sand with silt (SW-SM) or Poorly-
graded sand with silt (SP-SM) based on C
u
and C
c
tests above.
If >12% nes and nes are clay based on plasticity chart Clayey sand (SC)
If >12% nes and nes are silt based on plasticity chart Silty sand (SM)
If >12% nes and nes are CL-ML based on plasticity chart Silty clayey sand (SM-SC)
Chapter 7
Visual Classication of Soils
7.1 Purpose
During drilling and sampling operations in the eld classication has to be carried out quickly and without
gradation analyses or Atterberg limits. An approximate procedure is then used and the description is noted
on the boring log. The initial boring log is often checked later in the laboratory with the help of the retrieved
soil samples. Even in the laboratory a small portion of the samples will be actually tested for classication
purposes. The specimens for classication testing are chosen from the different layers that were identied
during eld operations and from previous information, where available. The remaining samples are classied
based on their similarities in the tested samples and visual-manual procedures illustrated below.
ASTM D2488 - Standard practice for description and identication of soils (visual-manual procedure).
7.3 Terminology
Gravel Particles of rock that will pass a 3 in (75 mm) sieve and be retained on a No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve with
the following subdivisions:
coarse - passes 3 in (75 mm) sieve and retained on
3
4
in (19 mm) sieve.
ne - passes a 3.4 in (19 mm) sieve and retained on a No.4 (4.75 mm) sieve.
Sand Particles of rock that will pass a No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve and be retained on a No. 200 (75 m) sieve
with the following subdivisions:
coarse - passes a No. 4 (4.75 mm) and retained on No. 10 (2.00 mm) sieve
medium - Passes a No. 10 (2.00 mm) sieve and is retained on a No. 40 (425 m) sieve.
Silt Soil passing a No. 200 (75 m) sieve that is non-plastic or very slightly plastic and that exhibits little of
no strength when dry. For classications, a silt is ne grained soil or the ne grained portion of a soil,
with a plasticity index less than 4, or the plot of plasticity index versus liquid limit falls below the A
line.
Clay Soil passing a No. 200 (75 m) sieve that can be made to exhibit plasticity within a range of water
contents, and that exhibits considerable strength when air-dry. For classications a clay is a ne
grained soil or a ne grained portion of a soil, with a plasticity index equal to or greater than 4, and
the plot of plasticity index versus liquid limit falls on or above the A line.
Organic Silt A silt with sufcient organic content to inuence the soil properties. For classications, an
organic silt is a soil that would be classied as a silt, except that its liquid limit value after oven drying
is less than 75% of its liquid limit value before oven drying.
Organic Clay A clay with sufcient organic content to inuence the soil properties. For classication, an
organic clay is a soil that would be classied as a clay, except that its liquid limit value after oven
drying is less than 75% of its liquid limit value before oven drying.
7.4 Descriptive Information for Soils
Angularity Describe the angularity of the sand (coarse sizes only), gravel, cobbles, and boulders, as angular,
subangular, subrounded, or rounded in accordance with the criteria in table 7.1. A range of angularity
may be stated, such as subrounded to rounded.
Shape Describe the shape of gravel, cobbles, and boulders as at, elongated, or at and elongated if they
meet the criteria if they meet in table 7.2. Otherwise do not mention the shape. Indicate the fraction
of particles that have that shape; for example: one-third of the gravel is at.
Color Described the color of the sample when moist.
Odor Describe the odor of the sample if organic or unusual
Moisture Condition Describe the moisture condition as dry, moist, or wet in accordance with the criteria
in table 7.3
Consistency For intact ne-grained soil, describe the consistency as very soft, soft, rm, hard, or very hard
in accordance with the criteria in table 7.4. This observation is inappropriate for soils with signicant
amounts of gravel.
Cementation Describe the cementation of intact coarse grained soil as weak, moderate, or strong, in accor-
dance with Table 7.5.
Range of particle sizes For gravel and sand components, described the range of particle sizes within each
components. For example, about 20% ne to coarse gravel, about 40% ne to coarse sand.
Maximum particle size Describe the maximum particle size found in the sample for each size classica-
tion. For example, the largest particle size for sand size particles and the largest particle for gravel size
particles.
Description Criteria
Angular Particles have sharp edges and relatively plane sides with unpolished surfaces
Subangular Particles are similar to angular description but have corners and edges
Subrounded Particles have nearly plane sides but have rounded corners and edges
Rounded Particles have smoothly curved sides and no edges
Table 7.1: Criteria for describing angularity of coarse-grained particles.
7. Visual Classication of Soils 35
The particle shape shall be described as follows where length, width, and thickness refer to
the greatness, intermediate, and least dimensions of a particle respectively.
Flat Particles with width/thickness > 3
Elongated Particles with length/width > 3
Flat and Elongated Particles meet criteria for both at and elongated
Table 7.2: Criteria for describing particle shape.
Dry Absence of moisture, dusty, dry to the touch
Moist Damp but no visible water
Wet Visible free water, usually soil is below water table
Table 7.3: Criteria for describing moisture conditions.
Very soft Thumb will penetrate soil more that 1in. (25mm)
Soft Thumb will penetrate soil about 1in. (25mm)
Firm Thumb will indent soil about 1/4in. (6mm)
Hard Thumb will not indent soil but will readily intent with thumbnail
Very Hard Thumbnail will not indent soil
Table 7.4: Criteria for describing consistency
Weak Crumbles or breaks with handling of little nger pressure
Moderate Crumbles or breaks with considerable nger pressure
Strong Will not crumble with nger pressure
Table 7.5: Criteria for Describing Cementation
Hardness Describe the hardness of coarse sand and larger particles.
7.5 Procedure for Identifying Fine-Grained Soils
Select a representative sample of the material for examination. Remove particles larger than the No. 40 sieve
until a specimen equivalent to about a handful of material is available. Use this specimen for performing the
dry strength, dilatancy, and toughness test.
Dry Strength Select a few dry lumps of about 1/2in. in diameter. Test the strength of the dry pieces by
crushing between the ngers. Note the strength as none, low, medium, high, or very high in accordance
with the criteria in Table 7.6. If natural dry lumps are used do not use the results of any of the lumps
that are found to contain particles of coarse sand.
Dilatancy From the specimen select enough material to mold into a ball about 1/2in. in diameter. Mole the
material, adding water if necessary, until it has a soft, but not sticky consistency. Smooth the soil in
the palm of one hand with a small spatula. Shake horizontally, striking the side of the hand vigorously
against the other hand several times. Note the reaction of water appearing on the surface of the soil.
None The dry specimen crumbles into powder under mere pressure of handling
Low The dry specimen crumbles into powder with some nger pressure
Medium The dry specimen breaks into pieces or crumbles with considerable nger pressure
High The dry specimen cannot be broken with nger pressure
Very High The dry specimen cannot be broken with thumb and a hard surface
Table 7.6: Criteria for Describing Dry Strength
Squeeze the sample by closing the hand or pinching the soil between the ngers, and note the reaction
as none, slow, or rapid in accordance with the criteria in Table 7.7. The reaction is the speed at which
the water appears while shaking, and disappears while squeezing.
None No visible change in specimen
Slow Water appears slowly on the surface during shaking and does not disappear or
disappears slowly upon squeezing
Rapid Water appears quickly during shaking and disappears quickly during squeezing
Table 7.7: Criteria for Describing Dilatancy
Toughness Following the completion of the dilatancy test, the test specimen is shaped into an elongated pat
and rolled by hand on a smooth surface or between the palms into a thread about 1/8in. in diameter.
Fold the threads and reroll repeatedly until the thread crumbles at a diameter of about 1/8in. The thread
will crumble at a diameter of 1/8 in. when the soil is near the plastic limit. Note the pressure required
to roll the thread near the plastic limit. Also, note the strength of the thread. After the thread crumbles,
the pieces should be lumped together and kneaded until the lump crumbles. Note the toughness of the
material during kneading.Describe the toughness of the thread and lump as low, medium or high in
accordance with the criteria in table 7.8.
Low Only slight pressure is required to roll the thread near the plastic limit. The
thread and lump are soft and weak
Medium Medium pressure is required to roll the thread to near the plastic limit. The
thread and lump have medium stiffness.
High Considerable pressure is needed to roll thread near the plastic limit. The thread
and lump have very high stiffness
Table 7.8: Criteria for Describing Toughness
Plasticity On the basis of observations made during the toughness test, describe the plasticity of the material
in accordance with the criteria given in Table 7.9.
7.6 Identication of Inorganic Fine-Grained Soils
Identify the soil as follows:
Nonplastic A 1/8in. thread cannot be rolled at any water content
Low The thread can barely be rolled and the lump cannot be formed when drier than
the plastic limit
Medium The thread is easy to roll and not much time is required to reach the plastic
limit. The thread cannot be rolled after reaching the plastic limit. The lump
crumbles drier than the plastic limit
High It takes considerable time rolling and kneading to reach the plastic limit. The
thread can be rolled several times after reaching the plastic limit. The lump
can be formed without crumbling when drier than the plastic limit.
Table 7.9: Criteria for Describing Plasticity
Soil Symbol Dry Strength Dilatancy Toughness
ML None to Low Slow to rapid Low or thread cannot be formed
CL Medium to High None to Slow Medium
MH Low to Medium None to Slow Medium
CH High toVery High None High
Table 7.10: Identication of Inorganic Fine-Grained Soils from Manual Test
7.7 Procedure for identifying Coarse-Grained Soils
1. The soil is a gravel if the percentage of gravel is estimated to be more than the percentage of sand.
2. The soil is a sand if the percentage of gravel is estimated to be equal to or less than the percentage of
sand.
3. The soil is a clean gravel or clean sand if the percentage of nes is estimated to be 5% of less.
4. Identify the soil as well-graded gravel, GW, or as well-graded sand, SW, if it has a wide range of
particle sizes and substantial amounts of the intermediate particle sizes.
5. Identify the soil as a poorly graded gravel, GP, or as a poorly graded sand, SP, if it consists predom-
inantly of one size (uniformly graded), or it has a wide range of sizes with some intermediate sizes
obviously missing.
6. The soil is either a gravel with nes or a sand with nes if the percentage of nes is estimated to be
15% or more.
7. Identify the soil as a clayey gravel, GC, or a clayey sand, SC, if the nes have the properties of clays.
8. Identify soil as a silty gravel, GM, or a silty sand, SM, if the nes have the properties of a silt.
9. If the soil is estimated to contain 10% nes, give the soil a dual identication using two group symbols.
The rst group symbol shall correspond to a clean gravel or sand (GW,GP, SW, SP) and the second
symbol shall correspond to a gravel or sand with nes (GC, GM, SC, SM).
10. The group name shall correspond to the rst group symbol plus the words with clay or with silt
to indicate the plasticity characteristics of the nes. For example: well-graded gravel with clay,
GW-GC or poorly graded sand with silt, SP-SM.
11. If the specimen is predominantly sand or gravel but contains an estimated 15% or more of the other
coarse-grained constituent, the words with gravel or with sand shall be added to the group name.
For example: poorly graded gravel with sand, GP or clayey sand with gravel, SC.
12. If the specimen is predominantly sand or gravel but contains an estimated 15% or more of the other
coarse-grained constituent, the words with gravel or with sand shall be added to the group name.
For example: poorly graded gravel with sand, GP or clayey sand with gravel, SC.
13. If the eld sample contains any cobbles or boulders, or both the words with cobbles or with cobbles
and boulders shall be added to the group name. For example: silty gravel with cobbles, GM.
7.8 Check List For Description Of Soil
1. Group Name
2. Group Symbol
3. Percent of cobbles or boulders, or both
4. Percent of gravel, sand or nes, or all three (by dry weight)
5. Particle size range gravel - ne or coarse, sand - ne, medium or coarse
6. Particle angularity: angular, subangular, subrounded, rounded.
7. Particle shape: (if appropriate) at, elongated, at and elongated
8. Maximum particle size dimension
9. Hardness of coarse sand and larger particles
10. Plasticity of nes: nonplastic, low, medium, high, very high
11. Dry strength: none, low, medium, high, very, high
12. Dilatancy: none,slow, rapid
13. Toughness: lox, medium, high
14. Color (in moist conditions)
15. Odor (if unusual or organic)
16. Moisture: dry, moist, wet
17. Consistency (ne-grained soils only): very soft, soft, rm, hard, very hard
18. Cementation: weak, moderate, strong
19. Local name (if any)
20. Geologic interpretation
21. Any additional comments
Classication Data Sheet
Sample Classication Comments
Chapter 8
Compaction Using Standard Effort
8.1 Purpose
Soil placed as engineering ll (embankments, foundation pads, road bases) must be compacted to the se-
lected density and water content to ensure the desired performance and engineering properties such as shear
strength, compressibility, or permeability. Also, foundation soils are often compacted to improve their en-
gineering properties. Laboratory compaction tests provide the basis for determining the percent compaction
and water content needed in the eld, and for controlling construction to assure that the target values are
achieved.
In a geotechnical laboratory you would prepare at least four (preferably ve) specimens with water
contents bracketing the estimated optimum water content. A specimen having a water content close to
optimum would be prepared rst by trial additions of water and mixing and then water contents for the rest
of the specimens would be selected to provide at least two specimens wet and two specimens dry of optimum,
and water contents varying by about 2%, but no more than 4%. In this laboratory exercise each group in your
section will compact one of the specimens at a specic water content, as directed by the laboratory instructor,
and the results from all the groups will be combined later.
The data, when plotted, represents a curvilinear relationship known as the compaction curve. The values
of optimum water content and standard maximum dry unit weight are determined from the compaction curve.
These test methods apply only to soils (materials) that have 20% or less by mass of particles retained on
the No.4 (4.75 mm) sieve.
ASTM D 698 - Standard test methods for laboratory compaction characteristics of soil using standard effort
(12,400 ft-lbf/ft
3
(600 kN-m/m
3
)).
8.3 Required Materials and Equipment
Mold - A cylindrical metal mold having a 4.000 0.016 in (101.6 0.4 mm) average inside diameter,
a height of 4.584 0.018 in (116.4 0.5 mm) and a volume of 0.0333 0.0005 ft
3
(944 14 cm
3
).
Rammer - with free fall of 12 0.05 in (304.8 1.3 mm) from the surface of the specimen. The mass
of the rammer is 5.5 0.02 lbm (2.5 0.01 kg).
Sample extruder - A jack for extruding compacted specimens from the mold.
Balance - with 1 g readability.
straight edge - for leveling off compacted sample
mixing tools - for mixing the sample of soil with increments of water.
8.4 Procedure
8.4.1 Specimen preparation
1. Obtain from your laboratory instructor a sample of the soil to be tested. You will need approximately
2 kg.
2. Without previously drying the sample, pass it through a No. 4 (4.7 mm) sieve. Determine the water
content of the processed soil. See chapter 2 for the procedure.
3. Double check the target water content for your specimen with the laboratory instructor.
4. Calculate how much water should be added or subtracted from your sample to obtain the desired water
content. Remember to account for the moisture already present in the sample and use the exact value
for the mass of the soil, not the approximate number.
5. To add water, spray it into the soil during mixing; to remove water, allowthe soil to dry in air at ambient
temperature Mix the soil frequently during drying to maintain an even water content distribution.
Thoroughly mix each specimen to ensure even distribution of water throughout and then place in a
separate covered container.
8.4.2 Compaction
1. Determine and record the mass of the mold or mold and base plate.
2. Assemble and secure the mold and collar to the base plate. Place on the concrete oor of the laboratory,
NOT on the counters.
3. The specimen is compacted in 3 layers. Remember that after compaction the layers should be approx-
imately equal in thickness and the last layer should extend above the top of the mold, but no more than
1
4
in (6 mm). Place approximately 1/3 of the loose soil into the mold for each layer and spread into a
layer of uniform thickness.
4. Compact each layer with 25 blows. In operating the manual rammer, do not lift the guide sleeve
during the rammer upstroke. Hold the guide sleeve steady and within 5
o
of vertical. Apply the blows
at a uniform rate of approximately 25 blows per minute and in such a manner as to provide complete,
uniform coverage of the specimen surface. Usually this is achieved by moving the rammer along the
perimeter of the mold and using 5 blows to cover the whole area. Then the pattern is repeated for 5
times.
5. After compaction of the rst two layers, trim any soil remaining on the mold walls or extending above
the compacted surface and include it with the soil for the next layer. Before placing the next layer of
soil scarify the surface of the compacted soil with a knife or other suitable tool to avoid separation of
the layers at the joints later in the test.
8. Compaction Using Standard Effort 43
6. If the third layer extends above the top of the mold by more than
1
4
in (6 mm) or below the top of the
compaction mold, the specimen should be discarded.
7. Following compaction of the last layer, remove the collar and base plate from the mold. A knife may
be used to trim the soil adjacent to the collar to loosen the soil from the collar before removal to avoid
disrupting the soil below the top of the mold.
8. Carefully trim the compacted specimen even with the top of the mold by means of the straightedge
scraped across the top of the mold to form a plane surface even with the top of the mold. Initial
trimming of the specimen above the top of the mold with a knife may prevent the soil from tearing
below the top of the mold. Fill any holes in the top surface with unused or trimmed soil from the
specimen, press in with the ngers, and again scrape the straightedge across the top of the mold.
9. Determine and record the mass of the specimen and mold to the nearest gram.
10. Remove the material from the mold using the sample extruder.
11. Obtain a specimen for water content by using the whole specimen or a representative sample. Select a
suitable container and record its weight.
12. Weigh the container and the specimen.
13. Place in the oven for 24 hours. If the entire specimen is used, break it up to facilitate drying.
14. Record the weight of the oven dried specimen in the container.
8.5 Calculations
Post the following information as directed by the laboratory instructor: laboratory section (week day),
group (color), date, mass of moist specimen in the mold, mass of mold, water content determination:
mass of moist soil after compaction and can, mass of can, mass of oven dried specimen an can. See
section 8.5 for a form to ll.
Calculate the total unit weight of each specimen:
t
=
M
t
g
V
m
=
(M
sm
M
m
)g
V
m
(8.1)
where:
M
t
= mass of moist soil
M
sm
= mass of the moist specimen and mold
M
m
= mass of the mold
V
m
= volume of the mold (944 cm
3
)
g = acceleration of gravity (9.807 m/s
2
)
Calculate water content of each compacted specimen:
w =
M
w
g
M
s
g
=
(M
wsc
M
sc
)
(M
sc
Mc
(8.2)
where:
M
w
= mass of water
M
s
= mass of dry soil
M
wsc
= mass of wet soil and can
M
sc
= mass of dry soils and can
M
c
= mass of can
w = water content
Calculate dry unit weight:
d
=

t
1 +w
(8.3)
Plot the values and draw the compaction curve as a smooth curve through the points (see example,
Fig. 3). Plot dry unit weight to the nearest 0.1
lbf
ft
3
, (0.2
kN
m
3
) and water content to the nearest 0.1 %.
From the compaction curve, determine the optimum water content and maximum dry unit weight.
Plot the 100% saturation curve.
8. Compaction Using Standard Effort 45
C
o
m
p
a
c
t
i
o
n
T
e
s
t
D
a
t
e
T
e
s
t
e
d
b
y
S
a
m
p
l
e
N
o
.
B
o
r
i
n
g
P
r
o
j
e
c
t
D
e
p
t
h
D
e
s
c
r
i
p
t
i
o
n
o
f
s
a
m
p
l
e
V
o
l
u
m
e
o
f
m
o
l
d
(
V
m
)
W
a
t
e
r
c
o
n
t
e
n
t
d
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
a
t
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G
r
o
u
p
M
a
s
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f
m
o
i
s
t
s
p
e
c
i
m
e
n
+
m
o
l
d
M
a
s
s
o
f
m
o
l
d
M
a
s
s
o
f
m
o
i
s
t
s
p
e
c
i
m
e
n
M
o
i
s
t
u
n
i
t
w
e
i
g
h
t
o
f
c
o
m
p
a
c
t
e
d
s
p
e
c
i
m
e
n
C
a
n
n
o
.
M
a
s
s
o
f
c
a
n
M
a
s
s
o
f
w
e
t
s
o
i
l
+
c
a
n
M
a
s
s
o
f
d
r
i
e
d
s
o
i
l
+
c
a
n
M
a
s
s
o
f
w
a
t
e
r
M
a
s
s
o
f
d
r
y
s
o
i
l
W
a
t
e
r
c
o
n
t
e
n
t
D
r
y
u
n
i
t
w
e
i
g
h
t
o
f
c
o
m
p
a
c
t
e
d
s
p
e
c
i
m
e
n
M
s
m
M
m
M
t
t
M
c
M
w
s
c
M
s
c
M
w
M
s
w
d
(
k
g
)
(
k
g
)
(
k
g
)
(
k
N
/
m
3
)
(
g
)
(
g
)
(
g
)
(
g
)
(
g
)
(
%
)
(
k
N
/
m
3
)
Moisture content Determination
Sample No. Project
Boring No. Location
Depth
Date Tested by
c
(g)
After 3
min.
After 1
more
min.
After 1
more
min.
After 1
more
min.
After 1
more
min.
cws
(g)
cs
(g)
Mass of water, M
w
= M
cws
M
cs
(g)
s
= M
cs
M
c
(g)
Mw
Ms
100% (%)
Percent difference in water content (%)
Group Data Sheet
Group Target Water
Content
Moist Unit
Weight
Water Content Dry Unit
Weight
Dry Unit
Weight for
100% Sat.
(%) (kN/m
3
) (%) (kN/m
3
) (kN/m
3
)
Chapter 9
Measuring Suction with the Filter Paper
Method
9.1 Purpose
The lter paper method has long been used in soil science and engineering practice and it has recently been
accepted as an adaptable test method for soil suction measurements because of its advantages over other
suction measurement devices. Basically, the lter paper comes to equilibrium with the soil either through
vapor (total suction measurement) or liquid (matric suction measurement) ow. At equilibrium, the suction
value of the lter paper and the soil will be equal. After equilibrium is established between the lter paper
and the soil, the water content of the lter paper disc is measured. Then, by using lter paper water content
versus suction calibration curve, the corresponding suction value is found from the curve. This is the basic
approach suggested by ASTM Standard Test Method for Measurement of Soil Potential (Suction) Using
Filter Paper (ASTM D 5298). ASTM D 5298 employs a single calibration curve that has been used to infer
both total and matric suction measurements. The ASTM D 5298 calibration curve is a combination of both
wetting and drying curves. Bulut (2001) demonstrates that the wetting and drying suction calibration
curves do not match, an observation that was also made by Houston et al. (1994). In this test, the wetting
curve as shown in Figure 9.2 is used because the lter paper becomes wet during the test.
9.2 Soil Suction Concept
In general, porous materials have a fundamental ability to attract and retain water. The existence of this
fundamental property in soils is described in engineering terms as suction, negative stress in the pore water.
In engineering practice, soil suction is composed of two components: matric and osmotic suction (Fredlund
and Rahardjo 1993). The sum of matric and osmotic suction is called total suction. Matric suction comes
from the capillarity, texture, and surface adsorptive forces of the soil. Osmotic suction arises from the
dissolved salts contained in the soil water. This relationship can be formed in an equation as follows:
h
t
= h
m
+h
(9.1)
where:
h
t
= total suction (kPa)
h
m
= matric suction (kPa)
h
p
= osmotic suction (kPa)
Total suction can be calculated using Kelvins equation, which is derived from the ideal gas law using
the principles of thermodynamics and is given as:
h
t
=
RT
V
ln
P
P
o
(9.2)
where:
h
t
= total suction
R = universal gas constant
T = absolute temperature
V = molecular volume of water
P/P
o
= relative humidity
P = partial pressure of pore water vapor
P
o
= saturation pressure of water vapor over a at surface of pure water at the same temperature.
If equation 9.2 is evaluated at a reference temperature of 25
o
, the following total suction and relative
humidity relationship can be obtained:
h
t
= 137, 182 ln(P/P
o
) (9.3)
It can be said, in general, that in a closed system under isothermal conditions the relative humidity may
be associated with the water content of the system such as 100% relative humidity refers to a fully saturated
condition. Therefore, the suction value of a soil sample can be inferred from the relative humidity and
suction relationship if the relative humidity is known. In a closed system, if the water is pure enough, the
partial pressure of the water vapor at equilibrium is equal to the saturated vapor pressure at temperature, T.
However, the partial pressure of the water vapor over a partly saturated soil will be less than the saturation
vapor pressure of pure water due to the soil matrix structure and the free ions and salts contained in the soil
water (Fredlund and Rahardjo 1993).
In engineering practice, soil suction has usually been calculated in pF units (Schoeld, 1935) (i.e., suc-
tion in pF = log
10
|suction in cm of water|). However, soil suction is also currently being represented in
log(kPa) unit system (Fredlund and Rahardjo 1993) (i.e., suction in log(kPa) = log
10
|suction in kPa|).
The relationship between these two systems of units is approximately suction in log(kPa) = suction in pF
- 1. Matric suction can be calculated from pressure plate and pressure membrane devices as the difference
between the applied air pressure and water pressure across a porous plate. Matric suction can be formed in a
relationship as follows:
h
m
= (u
a
u
w
) (9.4)
where:
h
m
= matric suction
u
a
= applied air pressure
u
w
= free water pressure at atmospheric condition
9. Measuring Suction with the Filter Paper Method 49
The osmotic suction of electrolyte solutions, that are usually employed in the calibration of lter papers
and psychrometers, can be calculated using the relationship between osmotic coefcients and osmotic suc-
tion. Osmotic coefcients are readily available in the literature for many different salt solutions. Table 1
gives the osmotic coefcients for several salt solutions. Osmotic coefcients can also be obtained from the
following relationship (Lang 1967):
=

w
vmw
ln
P
P
o
(9.5)
where:
f = osmotic coefcient
v = number of ions from one molecule of salt (i.e., v = 2 for NaCl, KCl, NH
4
Cl and v = 3 for Na
2
SO
4
,
CaCl
2
, Na
2
S
2
O
3
,etc.)
m = molality
w = molecular mass of water
w
= density of water
The relative humidity term (P/Po) in eq. 9.5 is also known as the activity of water (a
w
) in physical
chemistry of electrolyte solutions. The combination of eq. 9.2 and eq. 9.5 gives a useful relationship that
can be adopted to calculate osmotic suctions for different salt solutions:
h
= vRTm (9.6)
9.3 Required Materials and Equipment
Schleicher & Schuell No. 589-WH lter paper
Sensitive balance with accuracy of 0.0001 g
Constant temperature container (or cooler)
moisture tins and glass jars
PVC rings, electrical tape
tweezers and gloves
Oven and aluminum block
9.4 Procedure
A testing procedure for total suction measurements using lter papers can be outlined as follows:
1. At least 75% by volume of a glass jar should be lled with the soil; the smaller the empty space
remaining in the glass jar, the smaller the time period that the lter paper and the soil system require
to come to equilibrium.
2. A ring type support, which has a diameter smaller than lter paper diameter and about 1 to 2cm in
height, is put on top of the soil to provide a non-contact system between the lter paper and the soil.
Care must be taken when selecting the support material; materials that can corrode should be avoided,
plastic or glass type materials are much better for this job.
3. Two lter papers one on top of the other are inserted on the ring using tweezers. The lter papers
should not touch the soil, the inside wall of the jar, and underneath the lid in any way.
4. Then, the glass jar lid is sealed very tightly with plastic tape.
5. Steps 1, 2, 3, and 4 are repeated for every soil sample.
6. After that, the glass jars are put into the ice-chests in a controlled temperature room for equilibrium.
Researchers suggest a minimum equilibrating period of one week (ASTM D 5298; Houston et al., 1994;
Lee 1991). After the equilibration time, the procedure for the lter paper water content measurements can
be as follows:
1. Before removing the glass jar containers from the temperature room, all aluminum cans that are used
for moisture content measurements are weighed to the nearest 0.0001 g. accuracy and recorded.
2. After that, all measurements are carried out by two persons. For example, while one person is opening
the sealed glass jar, the other is putting the lter paper into the aluminum can very quickly (i.e., in a
few seconds) using tweezers.
3. Then, the weights of each can with wet lter paper inside are taken very quickly.
4. Steps 2 and 3 are followed for every glass jar. Then, all cans are put into the oven with the lids half-
open to allow evaporation. All lter papers are kept at 105 5
o
C temperature inside the oven for at
least 10 hours.
5. Before taking measurements on the dried lter papers, the cans are closed with their lids and allowed
to equilibrate for about 5 minutes. Then, a can is removed from the oven and put on an aluminum
block (i.e., heat sinker) for about 20 seconds to cool down; the aluminum block functions as a heat
sink and expedites the cooling of the can. After that, the can with the dry lter paper inside is weighed
very quickly. The dry lter paper is taken from the can and the cooled can is weighed again in a few
seconds.
6. Step 5 is repeated for every can.
9.5 Soil Matric Suction Measurements
Soil matric suction measurements are similar to the total suction measurements except instead of inserting
lter papers in a non-contact manner with the soil for total suction testing, a good intimate contact should
be provided between the lter paper and the soil for matric suction measurements. Both matric and total
suction measurements can be performed on the same soil sample in a glass jar as shown in Fig. 1. A testing
procedure for matric suction measurements using lter papers can be outlined as follows:
9. Measuring Suction with the Filter Paper Method 51
Figure 9.1: Assembly for total and matric suction measurements.
9.6 Procedure
1. A lter paper is sandwiched between two larger size protective lter papers. The lter papers used in
suction measurements are 5.5cm in diameter, so either a lter paper is cut to a smaller diameter and
sandwiched between two 5.5cm papers or bigger diameter (bigger than 5.5cm) lter papers are used
as protection.
2. Then, these sandwiched lter papers are inserted into the soil sample in a very good contact manner
(i.e., as in Fig. 1). An intimate contact between the lter paper and the soil is very important.
3. After that, the soil sample with embedded lter papers is put into the glass jar container. The glass
container is sealed up very tightly with plastic tape.
4. Steps 1, 2, and 3 are repeated for every soil sample.
5. The prepared containers are put into ice-chests in a controlled temperature room for equilibrium.
9.7 Calculations
After obtaining all of the lter paper water contents, gure 9.2 is employed to get total suction and matric
values of the soil samples.
Figure 9.2: Filter paper wetting calibration curve.
Paper Suction Determination
Sample No. Project
Boring No. Location
Depth
Date Tested by
Total Suction
Paper
Matric Suction
Paper
Container Number
Mass of container (g)
Mass of wet paper + container (g)
Mass of wet lter paper (g)
Mass of hot container (g)
Mass of dry lter paper (g)
Mass of water in lter paper (g)
Water content of lter paper (%)
Chapter 10
Hydraulic Conductivity
10.1 Purpose
Hydraulic conductivity is the parameter that tells us how fast water can ow through soil. This quantity is
measured to determine if a particular soil is a suitable material for a levee, dam or landll liner, or lter.
During this laboratory both the constant head and the falling head methods will be used.
ASTM D 2434 - Standard test method for permeability of granular soils (constant head).
10.3 Fundamental Test Conditions
The following test conditions are prerequisites for laminar ow of water through granular soils, under
constant-head conditions:
Continuity of ow with no soil volume change during a test.
Flow with the soil voids saturated with water and no air bubbles in the soil voids.
Flow is steady state with no change in hydraulic gradients.
Direct proportionality of velocity of ow with hydraulic gradients below certain values, at which
turbulent ow starts.
All other types of ow involving partial saturation of soil voids, turbulent ow, and unsteady state of
ow are transient in character and yield variable and time-dependent coefcients of permeability; therefore,
they require special test conditions and procedures.
10.4 Constant head test
Permeameter - Specimen cylinders with minimum diameter of 8 or 12 times the maximum particle
size. The permeameter should be tted with a porous disk at the bottom with a permeability greater
Figure 10.1: Schematic of constant head test set-up.
than that of the soil specimen, but with openings small enough to prevent movement of the soil par-
ticles. The permeameter should be tted with manometer outlets for measuring head loss, h, over a
length, L, equivalent to at least the diameter of the cylinder.
Sample - A representative sample of air-dried granular soil containing less than 10% of the material
passing the No. 200 sieve.
Constant head board - Board including manometer tubes with scales for measuring head of water and
a water reservoir.
Plastic tubing
Stopwatch
Thermometer
10.4.2 Procedure
1. Unscrew the three nuts on the top of the permeameter cell and remove the top. Make sure the #200
mesh screen is covering the two ports on the inside middle of the cell.
10. Hydraulic Conductivity 55
2. Place one of the porous stones in the bottom of the cell. Fill the cell with the soil sample. Place the
other porous stone on top. The top of this stone should be about 1/4 inch below the top of the cell.
3. Make sure the surface where the O-ring seals off the cell is clean and replace the top. Evenly tighten
each of the nuts on the top of the cell.
4. Connect a tube coming out of the reservoir on the board to the water faucet.
5. Place the other tube coming out of the reservoir over the sink so that water will be allowed to drain
out.
6. Connect tubes from points A and B on the permeameter cell to the two manometers. The distance
between these two points on our sample is 10 cm.
7. Connect a tube from the needle valve on the board to the lower ball valve on the cell.
8. Fill the reservoir with water. Adjust the water tap so that the level in the cup remains the same and
water is draining into the sink. This gives us constant head.
9. Let the water ow slowly from the reservoir, into the cell, through the bottom porous stone, soil
sample, top stone, out of the top of the cell. The water will replace the voids within our sample.
10. Get all of the bubbles out of the tubes by tapping them. De-air the lines going to the manometer tubes.
Close the top ball valve and open the lower ball valve. Crack the petcock valve to purge out any air
bubbles and then close it off.
11. Open the top ball valve on the cell and watch water come out of the top of the cell. The needle valve
on the board controls the ow out of the top of the cell.
12. Record the differential reading between the two manometers.
13. Using a beaker, collect 100 mL of water from the water coming out of the top of the cell. Time how
long it takes to get 100 mL using the stopwatch.
14. Repeat this process collecting 200 and then 300 mL of water.
15. Take the temperature of the water in the constant head cup. Our data will only be good for water at
this specic temperature.
10.4.3 Calculations
Determine the average time it took to collect 100 mL of water.
Calculate the cross-sectional area of our soil sample. The diameter of the sample is 2.5 in or 6.35 cm.
Calculate the coefcient of permeability, k.
k =
QL
Aht
(10.1)
Where
Q=volume of water collected
L=sample height
A=cross-sectional area of soil specimen
h=differential reading between h
0
and h
1
t=duration of water collection
Calculate the corrected k value for the temperature you recorded.
k
corrected
= k

TC
20C
(10.2)
10.5 Falling head test
Permeameter
Sample - use the same sample prepared for the constant head test
Calibrated stand pipe
Plastic tubing
Calipers
Stopwatch
10.5.2 Procedure
1. Connect a tube between points A and B on the permeameter cell. We bypass the manometers this time.
2. We have a new sample height for this test. Measure the height using the calipers from the top of the
bottom porous stone to the bottom of the top stone.
3. Attach a tube from the top ball valve on the cell to the calibrated stand pipe valve.
4. Open both of these valves.
5. Attach a tube from the water faucet to the lower ball valve on the cell.
6. Let the water ow through the cell, out of the top, and into the stand pipe.
7. Purge any bubbles from the tubes by opening the petcock valve on the permeameter cell.
8. Allow water to ow slowly through the stand pipe and out of the funnel at the top.
9. When there are no more bubbles, disconnect the hose from the faucet and close the ball valve at the
same time.
10. Time how long it takes the water to drop a known distance in the stand pipe.
Figure 10.2: Schematic of falling head test set-up.
10.5.3 Calculations
Calculate the cross-sectional area of the tube. The inner diameter of the tube is 3/16 in.
Calculate the coefcient of permeability, k.
k =
aL
At
ln
h
0
h
1
(10.3)
Where
a=cross-sectional area of tube
L=sample height
A=cross-sectional area of soil specimen
t=elapsed time
h
0
=initial head
h
1
=nal head
Calculate the corrected k value for the temperature you recorded using 10.2.
Constant Head Data
H =
L =
Temp =
mL Collected Time
(s)
Falling Head Data
L =
h
0
=
h
1
=
Temp =
Trial Number Time
(s)
Chapter 11
Instrumentation and Calibration
11.1 Purpose
The purpose of this laboratory exercise is to familiarize students with some of the basic instrumentation
commonly used in geotechnical engineering laboratories to measure the mechanical properties of soils. For
the purposes of this class we will assume that electronic instrumentation is the preferred method for all
measurements in our experiments. We will familiarize ourselves with transducers and calibrate them for
future usa in our later laboratories.
Typically, the physical quantities that we need to measure when conducting experiments on soils are
temperature, force, displacement, and pressure. The choice of which sensor to use for a particular task,
in a particular situation depends on two main considerations: a) technical characteristics of the sensor; b)
a cost-benet analysis, which includes considerations on ease of use as well. Temperature is the easiest
to measure accurately and for all experiments in this laboratory will be measured with a simple mercury
thermometer or a hand held digital thermometer. In many research laboratories the instrumentation is kept at
a carefully controlled, constant temperature, because many sensors are sensitive to temperature, even if they
are not meant to measure it. Commercial geotechnical laboratories are not usually equipped with constant
temperature rooms because the expense would not be justied in normal circumstances.
We must consider cost, simplicity, technical characteristics and time to decide whether to use relatively
inexpensive instrumentation, such as mechanical dial indicators(for displacement and force measurements)
and simple pressure gages, or the more expensive, more accurate and automated electronic instrumentation.
These days, the cost of electronics is usually not an impediment to the use of electronic instrumentation for
all the measuring needs in a soil mechanics laboratory.
11.2 Transducers
A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. An electronic transducer has either
an input or an output that is electrical in nature, such as a voltage or a current. In our case, we are interested
in a transducer that senses a physical change (force, displacement, pressure) and converts it to an electrical
signal, directly related to that physical change. We call this type of transducer a sensor. The principle of
electronic instrumentation is to use an electrical sensor to detect change in a physical quantity and output
an electrical signal to a measuring device. This electrical signal becomes convenient to use as the input
signal to a measurement system, such as an elaborate voltmeter, a chart recorder, an oscilloscope, or even
better, a computer that will record all the information over time, so it can be retrieved a later date. The
relationship between measured output voltage and physical quantity being sensed is the response function,
usually expressed in terms of a linear relationship obtained through a calibration process.
A good example: you are driving a car at the speed indicated on your speedometer. The rotation rate of
the cars wheel is detected by a sensor, which outputs a voltage that increases with increasing speed. You
could then use a digital voltmeter to read the output of the sensor. Obviously, you would get a speeding
ticket, because the voltage alone does not tell you the speed. You also need a relationship between measured
voltage and speed because you would rather see your speed directly in miles/hr. In order to make this
conversion to miles/hr, one has to determine the correlation between the sensors output voltage and the
known speed. Usually, the voltage is measured at several different speeds in order to maximize the accuracy
of the conversion relationship. Lastly, thanks to the relationship between voltage and speed, the voltmeter
can be re-scaled in miles/hr rather than volts.
In conclusion, we used a sensor to detect a certain physical quantity and then converted the electrical
voltage output from the sensor (through calibration against a known standard) to engineering units that are
more meaningful and useful to us.
In general, when examining the technical characteristics of a sensor we consider:
Precision, or the ability to detect small changes in the measured quantity reliably, and the ability to
measure the same value under repeated identical conditions. Example: a typical measuring tape has a
precision of 1/4in., because that is the closest distance between two marks.
Accuracy, the difference between the measured quantity and the true value, as dened by accepted
standards. Example: when you weigh yourself with a cheap scale the precision may be 1 lb, but the
needle indicates a weight that may not be accurate.
Range
Stability
Noise
Temperature coefcient
Linearity error
Physical ruggedness, and size.
11.3 Calibration
You will calibrate two transducers this week: a force transducer and a displacement transducer. Both will
be used in future laboratories during the rest of the semester. Output accuracy of these transducers is only
as good as the quality of the transducer, accuracy of the standard used in comparison, and the care taken in
calibrating the transducer to the known standard. In this weeks laboratory we will calibrate both the force
(in N) and displacement transducer (in mm), each to a known physical standard. We will vary the physical
parameters over a known range of the instrument and record the voltage output at each point over that range.
We can then generate a best-t line through those points by plotting the physical input parameter (mm or N)
against the resulting voltage output reading from the transducer. Plot the input parameter in physical units on
the Y axis and the resultant output reading on the X axis. Using any appropriate software package, determine
the best t to your data. Usually, a linear t is the most appropriate and will have the form:
Physical Quantity = CF * Output Voltage + ZERO
Where: CF is the calibration factor; ZERO, this constant ensures that when the physical quantity is
zero (for example: no force applied) or in the initial position (example: we need to measure the differential
displacement, not the absolute position) the formula will give a zero reading. Notice that in the case of the
11. Instrumentation and Calibration 63
force transducer the ZERO is very important because any error in estimating the ZERO during calibration
results in an error in our estimate of the applied load. When measuring differential displacement we set the
initial measurement as ZERO, without calibrating the sensor again.
This formula is the response function for the transducer and will be used in the future. Given this formula,
we can use the transducer in different experiments, read the output, and know from our calibration constants
what the resulting measurement is in physical units.
11.3.1 Calibration Procedure
Calibration of LSCT (Linear Strain Conversion Transducer)
The LSCT is calibrated using a known standard, the 0-1 micrometer head on a xture that holds the LSCT
face to face with the micrometer anvil. The micrometer can be moved by any desired increment (down
to .001 inches if necessary) and the resulting output voltage is recorded at each point along the range over
which calibration is desired. The range we will calibrate our instrument over is 0-1 and we will take a series
of readings in .1 increments over the entire range. Additionally, we will take a smaller increment series of
readings about the middle of our range, say, from .5 to .6 and take these readings at the .025 increments.
Our complete set of input points will start at 0 and go: .1, .2, .3, .4, .5, .525, .550, .575, .6, .7, .8, .9, and
1.000, for a total of 14 readings. For each physical input change we will read and record the corresponding
output voltage. When completed, a calibration plot and corresponding transducer formula can be generated
in MS Excel, or any similar software package. Using statistical analysis we will also analyze our transducer
for linearity.
1. Obtain LSCT transducer and record: Serial number, range, date of todays calibration, and your group
color.
2. Obtain calibration xture with the micrometer head. Take the time to examine the xture such that
you are familiar with its proper usage. If you are uncertain, ask your TA for assistance.
3. Insert the LSCT in the xture and lock it down using the allen key. Make certain that the micrometer
head reads exactly 1.000 inches. When mounting the LSCT in the xture, slide the plunger up to the
face of the micrometer rod and ensure that it just barely physical touches. IT MUST TOUCH.
4. Plug the transducer into the 10 V excitation receptacle as explained in classroom discussion.
5. Insert the voltmeter probes into the excitation jacks on the lab island panel. Record the excitation
voltage with the transducer plugged it. Then move the voltmeter probes to the transducer output jacks
on the panel.
6. Start your calibration and record each input parameter, its incremental change, the resulting output
voltage reading (in millivolts, 1/1000 of a volt), and the incremental voltage change from the previous
reading.
7. Record all 14 data points in the data sheet and use MS Excel to reduce your data as described in class.
Remember to convert the units from inches to millimeters.
Calibration of Force transducer
The calibration of the force transducer is similar to the procedure outlined above for the LSCT. However,
the physical quantity will be in kilogram force (kgf) and the calibration range of the force transducer will be
from 0 to 200 kgf, in 10 kgf increments. This makes a total of 21 points of input and 21 corresponding output
voltage readings. The process is conceptually the same as before, but you will be using the load frames to
apply the load to the transducer.
The procedure and safe usage of the load frames will explained in detail during class. Be very careful in
approaching the load frames and while hanging the weights from the loading arm. The counterweight is not
permanently attached to the frame mechanism and will fall to the ground (or on your head!) if the loading
arm is lifted to abruptly. Add the weights by extending your arm and reaching towards the hanger rather than
bending and placing your head under the loading arm. Move slowly and be aware of your surroundings.
Remember to transform the units from kgf to Newton (N).
11.4 Report
For the report, be sure to include:
Memo to Mike Linger
Include a table with the data and the plot on the same page. Display the equation of the best t line
and R
2
value taken to 5 decimal places. One page for each transducer.
Attach raw data.
11. Instrumentation and Calibration 65
Calibration Data Sheet (LSCT)
Date Tested by
Transducer type Serial number
Excitation
Voltage
Micrometer
Reading
Incremental
displacement
Transducer
output
Change in
transducer
output
(V) (in) (in) (mV) (mV)
Calibration Data Sheet (Force)
Date Tested by
Transducer type Serial number
Excitation
Voltage
Mass Added Incremental
Applied Force
Transducer
output
Change in
Transducer
Output
(V) (kgf) (N) (mV) (mV)
Chapter 12
Flow Nets
12.1 Denitions
Flow net a graphical representation of the 2 D ow of water through soils
Flow line the ow path of a particle of water
Equipotential line a line representing constant head
12.2 Flow Net Facts
The area between two ow lines is called a ow channel.
The rate of ow in a ow channel is constant.
The velocity of ow is normal to equipotential lines.
The difference in head between two equipotential lines is called the potential drop or head loss.
12.3 Drawing Flow Nets
Identify prexed conditions, noting starting directions of lines.
Draw trial family of ow lines (or equipotentials) consistent with prexed conditions.
Keeping the lines you just drew, sketch rst trial ow net. Make all lines intersect other set of lines at
90 degrees.
Erase and redraw lines until all gures are square. Subdivide as desired for detail and accuracy.
12.4 Rules for Sketching Flow Nets
Flow lines must intersect equipotential lines at right angles.
The area between ow lines and equipotential lines must be curvilinear squares. An inscribed circle
should be able to be drawn that touches each side of the square.
Figure 12.1: Budhu, 2000.
Figure 12.2: Cedergren, 1989.
12. Flow Nets 69
Flow lines cannot intersect other ow lines.
Equipotential lines cannot intersect other equipotential lines.
The more ow lines and equipotential lines drawn, the more accurate your results. However, the more
lines, the more difcult it will be to draw the ow net. Drawing a few will allow you to obtain a
suitable solution.
12.5 Common Mistakes
12.6 Example
12.7 Example Problem
Figure 12.5: Budhu, 2000.
Chapter 13
State of Stress: Mohrs Circle
13.1 Purpose
In order to describe the state of stress at a point, it is necessary to characterize both normal and shear stresses
acting on any arbitrary plane passing through that point. A three-dimensional state of stress is fully charac-
terized by six components (3 normal stresses and 3 shear stresses). In the case of geotechnical engineering,
we often limit the analysis to two-dimensional states of stress and strain. Mohrs circle construction is one
of the simplest methods to examine the state of stress and strain in the soil.
13.2 Two-Dimensional States of Stress
The 2-D state of stress at a point can be represented by the normal and shear stresses acting on the faces of
an innitesimal plane element, such as that in gure 13.1. The normal stress
x
acts on the plane normal
to the x-axis in the direction parallel to the x-axis. The shear stress
xy
act on the same plane, but in the
direction parallel to the y-axis. The directions of
y
and
yx
are dened similarly. By equilibrium it follows
that
xy
=
yx
.
In soils, normal stresses are usually compressive and, by convention, compression is taken as positive
(notice that the opposite convention is used in continuum mechanics). Then, stresses
x
and
y
in gure
13.1 are positive quantities and the shear stresses are also positive as marked.
If the stresses
x
,
y
,
xy
are known, it is possible to calculate the magnitudes of the stresses (
m
,
mn
)
on some arbitrary plane at an angle with the x-axis 13.1.
13.3 Derivation of stress transformation equations
The system of axes (m,n) in gure 13.1 is rotated by an angle in the positive (counterclockwise) direction
from the system of axes (x,y). Assume segment BC has length of L, then:
AB = Lsin() (13.1a)
BC = Lcos() (13.1b)
Use equilibrium of forces in the m-direction and n-direction to derive:
m
L =
x
cos (Lcos ) +
y
sin (Lsin ) +
xy
sin (Lcos ) +
xy
cos (Lsin ) (13.2a)
mn
L =
x
sin()(Lcos ) +
y
cos (Lsin ) +
xy
cos (Lcos ) +
xy
sin (Lsin ) (13.2b)
Figure 13.1: State of stress in a two-dimensional element.
Recall from trigonometry that:
sin 2 =2 sin cos (13.3a)
cos 2 =cos
2
sin
2
(13.3b)
Substituting 13.3 into 13.2 and simplifying, you obtain:
m
=
x
+
y
2
+

x
y
2
cos 2 +
xy
sin 2 (13.4a)
mn
=

x
y
2
sin 2 +
xy
cos 2 (13.4b)
If you rearrange slightly, square and then sum equations 13.4, you obtain the equation for a circle:

x
+
y
2
2
+
2
mn
=
y
2
2
+
2
xy
(13.5)
where:
o
=
x
+
y
2
(13.6)
R =
y
2
)
2
+
2
xy
(13.7)
This is the equation for the Mohr circle.
13. State of Stress: Mohrs Circle 73
Figure 13.2: State of stress in a two-dimensional element.
13.4 Mohrs Circle of Stress
For the purpose of plotting Mohrs circles, and for this purpose alone, we adopt the convention that counter-
clockwise shear stresses are taken as positive quantities. Thus, the counter-clockwise shear stress
xy
in
gure 13.1 is positive and the clockwise shear stress
yx
is negative when constructing the Mohrs circle in
gure ??.
13.4.1 The Pole Method
The pole of a Mohrs circle is a unique point on the Mohrs circle characterized by an important property:
if a line is drawn through the pole with the direction of any plane in the physical space, it
intersects the Mohrs circle at a point that denes the state of stress on that plane.
By reversing the denition we can locate the pole as the intersection of the line representing the physical
plane on which the stresses are acting (line QP or RP) and the Mohrs circle. Line QP is parallel to the plane
on which
zz
and
zx
act and is parallel to the x-axis. The point P where the line intersects the Mohrs circle
is the pole, P. Similarly, RP is parallel to the z-axis and it also identies the pole.
We may now use the pole of the circle to calculate the state of stress on any plane through the material.
For example, the normal and shear stresses (
) on the plane inclined at an angle to the x-axis. We

draw a line, PN, trough P inclined at with line QP (and the x-axis). The stresses at point N are the stresses
acting on that plane.
13.5 Principal Stresses and Principal Planes
The points at which the Mohrs circle crosses the -axis represent planes on which the shear stress is zero and
the normal stress is either a minimum or a maximum. These planes are known as principal planes ande the
corresponding stresses as principal stresses. From the geometry of the Mohrs circle the principal stresses
occur on two orthogonal planes, therefore the stresses must also be orthogonal (see gure 13.3.
In three-dimensional stress analysis there are three principal stresses and three principal planes. These
will be denoted by
1
,
2
and
3
, and it is usual practice to dene
1

2

3
;
1
is the major principal
stress,
2
is the intermediate and
3
is the minor.
When the layering of soils is horizontal, the vertical and horizontal stresses (
v
,
v
,
h
and
h
) are
principal stresses and the vertical and horizontal planes are principal planes. Since it is an axi-symmetric
state of stress (the horizontal stress is the same independent of the direction in the horizontal plane)
v
=
1
and
h
=
2
=
3
.
13.6 Mohrs Circles of Total and Effective Stress
So far we havent differentiated between total and effective stresses. If the stresses acting on the element in
gure ?? are total stresses, the effective stresses can be calculated using the principle of effective stress:
= u
The effective stress circle has the same diameter of the total stress circle, but it is translated to the left by
the amount of the pore pressure (see gure 13.4). By examining the circles, we note that:
Figure 13.3: Principal planes and principal stresses
Thus, for a given state of total stress, changes in pore pressure have no effect on the shear stresses.
Figure 13.4: Mohrs circles of total and effective stress.
Figure 13.5: Example 1.
Figure 13.6: Example 2.
A loading due to a proposed embankment is estimated to be equivalent to a uniform load of 100kPa as shown in gure
13.7. The unit weight of the foundation material is 16kN/m
3
, and K
o
is 0.5. The water table is at 5m depth.
Draw the Mohrs circle for the initial stresses in the soil, before the construction of the embankment.
Two exiting pipelines run parallel to the embankment at a depth of 3m, as shown in gure 13.7. We want to
make sure that the stress increase in the soil due to the construction of the embankment is not going to damage
the pipelines. What is the increase in stresses at A and B? Draw the new Mohrs circles for both points.
What is the magnitude and the direction of the principal stresses at point A and B after construction?
Figure 13.7: Schematic of the embankment and location of the pipelines.
Chapter 14
Direct Shear Test of Soils Under
Consolidated Drained Conditions
The following method departs from the ASTM Standard D3080, copyright c American Society for Testing
and Materials, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959
14.1 Purpose
This test method covers the determination of the consolidated drained shear strength of a soil material in
direct shear. The test is performed by deforming a specimen at a controlled strain rate on or near a single
shear plane determined by the conguration of the apparatus. Generally, three or more specimens are tested,
each under a different normal load, to determine the effects upon shear resistance and displacement, and
strength properties such as Mohr strength envelopes. Shear stresses and displacements are nonuniformly
distributed within the specimen. An appropriate height cannot be dened for calculation of shear strains.
Therefore, stress-strain relationships or any associated quantity such as modulus, cannot be determined from
this test.
14.2 Terminology
Relative Lateral Displacement-The horizontal displacement of the top and bottom shear box halves.
Failure-The stress condition at failure for a test specimen. Failure is often taken to correspond to the
maximum shear stress attained, or the shear stress at 15 to 20 percent relative lateral displacement.
Depending on soil behavior and eld application, other suitable criteria may be dened.
14.3 Apparatus
Shear Device-A device to hold the specimen securely between two porous inserts in such a way that
torque is not applied to the specimen. The shear device shall provide a means of applying a normal
stress to the faces of the specimen, for measuring change in thickness of the specimen, for permitting
drainage of water through the porous inserts at the top and bottom boundaries of the specimen, and
for submerging the specimen in water. The device shall be capable of applying a shear force to the
specimen in water. The device shall be capable of applying a shear force to the specimen along a
predetermined shear plane (single shear) parallel to the faces of the specimen. The frames that hold
the specimen shall be sufciently rigid to prevent their distortion during shearing. The various parts
of the shear device shall be made of material not subject to corrosion by moisture or substances within
the soil, for example, stainless steel, bronze, or aluminum, etc. Dissimilar metals, which may cause
galvanic action, are not permitted.
Shear Box, a shear box, either circular or square, made of stainless steel, bronze, or aluminum, with
provisions for drainage through the top and bottom. The box is divided vertically by a horizontal plane
into two halves of equal thickness which are tted together with alignment screws. The shear box is
also tted with gap screws, which control the space (gap) between the top and bottom halves of the
shear box.
Porous Inserts, Porous inserts function to allow drainage from the soil specimen along the top and
bottom boundaries. They also function to transfer horizontal shear stress from the insert to the top and
bottom boundaries of the specimen. Porous inserts shall consist of silicon carbide, aluminum oxide, or
metal which is not subject to corrosion by soil substances or soil moisture. The proper grade of insert
depends on the soil being tested. The permeability of the insert should be substantially greater than
that of the soil, but should be textured ne enough to prevent excessive intrusion of the soil into the
pores of the insert. The diameter or width of the top porous insert or plate shall be 0.01 to 0.02 in. (0.2
to 0.5 mm) less than that of the inside of the ring. If the insert functions to transfer the horizontal stress
to the soil, it must be sufciently coarse to develop interlock. Sandblasting or tooling the insert may
help, but the surface of the insert should not be so irregular as to cause substantial stress concentrations
in the soil.
Device for Applying and Measuring the Normal Force-The normal force is applied by a lever loading
yoke which is activated by dead weights (masses) or by a pneumatic loading device. The device shall
be capable of maintaining the normal force to within 61 percent of the specied force quickly without
exceeding it.
Device for Shearing the Specimen-The device shall be capable of shearing the specimen at a uniform
rate of displacement, with less than 65 percent deviation, and should permit adjustment of the rate
of displacement from 0.0001 to 0.04 in./min (.0025 to 1.0 mm/min). The rate to be applied depends
upon the consolidation characteristics of the soils (see 9.12.1). The rate is usually maintained with an
electric motor and gear box arrangement and the shear force is determined by a load indicating device
such as a proving ring or load cell. 6.4.3 The weight of the top shear box should be less than 1 percent
of the applied normal force: this may require that the top shear box be modied and supported by
counter force.
Shear Force Measurement Device-A proving ring or load cell accurate to 0.5 lbf (2.5 N), or 1 percent
of the shear force at failure, whichever is greater.
Shear Box Bowl-A metallic box which supports the shear box and provides either a reaction against
which one half of the shear box is restrained, or a solid base with provisions for aligning one half of
the shear box, which is free to move coincident with applied shear force in a horizontal plane.
Miscellaneous Equipment, including timing device with a second hand, distilled or demineralized
water, spatulas, knives, straightedge, wire saws, etc., used in preparing the specimen.
14.4 Procedure
1. Assemble the shear box.
14. Direct Shear Test of Soils Under Consolidated Drained Conditions 83
2. Place moist porous inserts over the exposed ends of the specimen in the shear box; place the shear box
containing the undisturbed specimen and porous inserts into the shear box bowl and attach the shear
box.
3. Connect and adjust the shear force loading system so that no force is imposed on the load measuring
device.
4. Properly position and adjust the horizontal displacement measurement device used to measure shear
displacement. Obtain an initial reading or set the measurement device to indicate zero displacement.
5. Place a moist porous insert and load transfer plate on the top of the specimen in the shear box.
6. Place the normal force loading yoke into position and adjust it so the loading bar is horizontal.
7. Apply a small normal load to the specimen. Verify that all components of the loading system are seated
and aligned. The top porous insert and load transfer plate must be aligned so that the movement of the
load transfer plate into the shear box is not inhibited. Record the applied vertical load and horizontal
load on the system.
8. Attach and adjust the vertical displacement measurement device. Obtain initial reading for the vertical
measurement device and a reading for the horizontal displacement measurement device.
9. Select the appropriate displacement rate.
10. Shear the specimen, until the shear resistance measured by the load transducer levels off indicating
that the specimen has failed.
14.5 Calculation
Calculate the nominal shear stress:
=
F
A
where:
= nominal shear stress (lbf/in
2
,kPa),
F = shear force (lbf, N),
A = initial area of specimen (in
2
, mm
2
).
Calculate the normal stress acting on the specimen:
n =
N
A
where:
n = normal stress (lbf/in
2
, kPa),
N = normal vertical force acting on the specimen (lbf, N),
A = initial area of specimen (in
2
, mm
2
).
14.6 Report
Shear stress versus time for each normal stress
Mohr Circle plot with , versus n
14. Direct Shear Test of Soils Under Consolidated Drained Conditions 85
Shear Test Data
Initial Reading Initial Reading Initial Reading
Load Applied Load Applied Load Applied
Seconds Reading Seconds Reading Seconds Reading
(mV) (mV) (mV)
Chapter 15
One-Dimensional Consolidation
15.1 Purpose
A surface load, for example due to the construction of a building, results in increased stresses in the under-
lying soils. The increase in stress also causes settlements. When the soils are ne grained and saturated the
increase in total stress is carried by the water, as excess pore pressure. Since these soils have low hydraulic
conductivity the excess pore pressure will dissipate slowly and the settlement will be delayed in time.
The consolidation test, or oedometer test, is used to determine the parameters that can be used to estimate
both the magnitude and the time rate of the settlements. The test is performed on a cylindrical specimen,
constrained laterally by a ring and allowed to compress under a constant load. The load is held on the
sample for 24 hours or until all excess pore pressure is dissipated. During this time the change in height is
measured. The load is usually doubled at the end of the 24 hour period and the process repeated. Usually 5
or 6 load increments are applied and then data are taken during one unloading step. The measurements are
used to determine the relationship between the effective stress and void ratio or strain, and the rate at which
consolidation can occur.
This test method uses conventional consolidation theory based on Terzaghis consolidation equation to
compute the coefcient of consolidation, c
v
. The analysis is based on the following assumptions:
The soil is saturated and has homogeneous properties.
The ow of pore water is in the vertical direction.
The compressibility of soil particles and pore water is negligible compared to the compressibility of
the soil skeleton.
The stress-strain relationship is linear over the load increment.
The ratio of soil permeability to soil compressibility is constant over the load increment.
Darcys law for ow through porous media applies.
ASTM D 2435 - Standard test method for one-dimensional consolidation properties of soils.
Figure 15.1: Consolidometer assembly.
Load Device - two systems are available in our laboratory: (a) pneumatic load frame; (b) mechanical
load frame.
Consolidometer - the consolidometer is the device holding the sample during the test. It is composed
of various parts, shown in gure 15.1.
Porous disks - to allow loading of the sample and free drainage at one or both ends of the specimen.
Specimen trimming device - The specimen ring has a sharp edge that can be used as a cutter and can be
used for trimming the sample down to the inside diameter of the consolidometer ring with a minimum
of disturbance.
Deformation indicator - to measure change in specimen height. Usually, two independent measure-
ment devices are used. One is a simple dial gauge and the other is a linear strain conversion transducer
(or LSCT).
Miscellaneous equipment - distilled or demineralized water, water content cups, spatulas, knives, and
wire saws, used in preparing the specimen.
15. One-Dimensional Consolidation 89
15.3 Preliminary Preparation
It is a good idea to become familiar with the equipment before getting started with specimen preparation.
In addition, look at the data sheet to make sure you remember to take all the measurements that are needed
later.
15.3.1 The consolidometer and the dial gauge
1. Unassemble the consolidometer and become familiar with its parts. Practice assembling the con-
solidometer again, pay attention to the right t of the parts.
2. Place the porous disk in distilled water and gently tap them to improve their saturation by driving air
bubbles out.
3. Weigh and measure the diameter and height of the consolidation ring. Take measurements at 3 different
location around the ring. Enter the values in the data sheet.
4. Record the serial number of the LSCT on your data sheet and write down the calibration factor.
5. Each member of the team must become familiar with the workings of a dial gauge. Our dial gauges
can measure up to 1 in displacement in increments of 0.001 in. The dial gauge typically has two dials:
a large one with subdivisions from 0 to 99, and a small one with subdivisions from 0 to 9 (see gure
15.2). The small dial indicates the 1/10 in for the reading and the large one gives the 1/1000 in reading.
The dial gauge in gure 15.2 is measuring 0 in. The dial gauge starts at 0 when the rod is completely
extended and indicates 1 in when the rod is all up if you reading on the back numbers in the large dial.
This means that the readings during the test will go backward from 1 in to 0 during the test since you
want the rod to be almost all up at the beginning of the test.
I strongly recommend you do not use red numbers to take your dial readings. Play with the dial gauge
to gure out why.
Always remember that reading a dial gauge may seem obvious, but every semester some group data
of this week-long test must be thrown away because someone failed to take the right reading. I am not
kidding.
15.3.2 The data acquisition software
1. Now look at the software. Start the GGdatalogger. It should appear as in gure 15.3. There are
3 windows on the screen because 3 LSCTs will be connected to each laptop. Therefore 3 different
groups will refer to the same laptop. Select one of the ports in the signal processing box (the black
box under the laptop) and plug in your LSCT. Write the channel number in the data sheet. Be careful
because data acquisition channel numbers are not sequential. The plugs are labelled but you may need
to look under the laptop.
2. Before you can run the software you need to enter the le names for your data les with path. Right
now we just need to test the system and we are not going to save the data, so pick any name you want
as long as you can remember what it is. Before you start the real test you will want to look at this le
and then delete it. All the 3 paths must be lled, otherwise you get an error message.
3. You also need to check that the data acquisition system is actually reading the right channels. The
channels listed in the text box labeled I/O should match the channel numbers that will be plugged in
(typically: 0,8,1). Make sure your channel number is listed.
Figure 15.2: Dial gauge.
Figure 15.3: Screen shot of the GGdatalogger.
4. Run the VI (virtual instrument is the name of the programs in LabView) by clicking on the right arrow
on the toolbar. It does not really matter whether the 3 channels are all plugged in or not. The readings
should appear in the graphs. If you move the LSCTs rod the reading should change. If not, stop
the software, check that the channel is correct. Try plugging into a different channel and restart the
software.
5. record the reading of the LSCT voltage output when it is all extended and all retracted and write down
the range in Volts on your data sheet. Do not forget the sign!
6. Stop the VI and scroll up the window. Some additional boxes should be hidden up there (gure 15.4).
You need to adjust the range of the data acquisition system to match the voltage range of your LSCT.
7. Set the scan rate to 20 scans/sec and the scans to read to 20. This is sufcient for a slow test such as
consolidation.
8. Click on the up or down arrows on the left of the input limits box, until your channel is selected.
9. Click on the high limit box and enter the highest value of the voltage range of your LSCT in Volts.
Round up to the nearest higher 0.01 V. Remember the sign. If the highest value is a small negative
number enter 0.
10. Click on the low limit box and enter the lowest value of the voltage range of your LSCT in Volts.
Round up to the nearest lower 0.01 V. Remember the sign. If the lowest value is a small positive
number enter 0.
11. Scroll down so that the top windows are hidden again.
12. Start the VI and verify that the system can still read the correct voltage.
13. Stop the software and look at the le. It should consist of two columns of numbers. The rst one is
the time in seconds, the second is the voltage in Volts. The time may restart at 0 multiple times in your
trash le because every time you restart the VI without changing the the le name the new data are
appended at the end of the le, but the time count restarts from 0.
15.3.3 The remaining preliminary details
1. Assign a person responsible to the readings and changing the load for each day of the test. Write down
the names and contact info.
2. Select a basic le name for the data les. It is a good idea to have a different le for each day of
testing, so add a number at the end to distinguish among the different days.If someone should forget
to change the le name, the data is not lost, just appended to the end of the previous day data. This
makes for really large les that need special handling. but it is a minor annoyance.
3. enter the le name for day 1 in the VI.
15.4 Specimen Preparation
All possible precautions should be taken to minimize disturbance of the soil or changes in moisture and
density during specimen preparation. Avoid vibration, distortion, and compression.
Figure 15.4: Location of the hidden windows in the GGDataLogger and close-up of the hidden section.
1. Use the ring to trim the specimen to the desired size. Do not slam the ring down into the soil as
a cookie cutter. Remember you are trying to minimize disturbance and this would most denitely
disturb the soil. The appropriate procedure requires you to trim the soil to a gentle taper in front of
the cutting edge. After the taper is formed, advance the cutter a small distance. Continue until the
specimen protrudes from the ring.
2. Trim the specimen ush with the at ends of the ring. Use a thin wire saw to minimize smearing.
3. Weigh the ring and the specimen to determine the initial wet mass of the specimen, M
To
(see data
sheet).
4. Obtain the natural water content of the soil from material trimmed adjacent to the test specimen. It is
best to use the traditional oven method. Fill in the appropriate information in the data sheet.
5. Assemble the ring with specimen, porous disks, in the consolidometer.
15.5 Procedure for pneumatic load frames
The pneumatic load frame applies the desired load to the specimen by regulating the supply of air pressure.
A different supply pressure results in a different load on the sample. Since all our consolidometers are the
same and the specimen have a nominal diameter of 2.5 in, the loads have already been transformed into
stresses, as shown in table 15.1. Notice that the frame operates in two modes: low load (below 100 lbf)
or high load (above 100 lbf). The following procedure should be followed to apply the desired load to the
sample. Refer to gure 15.6 to identify the different switches.
1. Center the consolidometer below the cross arm of the pneumatic (gure 15.5) load frame.
2. Apply a seating pressure of 5 kPa (100 psf). Refer to gure 15.6 to identify the switches described in
the following instructions.
(a) Set the HIGH/LOW LOAD selector valve to LOW LOAD
(b) Set the LOAD valve to OFF.
(c) Set the regulator to the desired seating stress (see table 15.1).
(d) Turn the LOAD valve to LOAD.
3. Check that the load is sufcient by trying to gently roll the loading ball between the consolidometer
and the cross arm of the frame. You should not be able to move it.
4. Adjust the location of the LSCT and dial gauge. Remember the sample is supposed to decrease in
height and the cross bar should be moving down. When you adjust the deformation indicators you
need to insure they can measure the change in height of the specimen throughout the test. Therefore,
try to place the displacement indicators with their rods almost all the way up, but not completely.
5. Inundate the specimen with water. Check if the dial gauge reading is changing.
6. Record the initial dial gauge reading on the appropriate location in the data sheet.
7. Select the supply air pressure for the loading frame which matches the desired load for the increment
from table 15.1.
8. Wait until all the groups using the same data acquisition system have completed all the previous steps
and are ready to start the actual test.
Figure 15.5: Pneumatic load frame setup.
Desired stress on the specimen Load Air supply pressure
Low load High load
(psf) (kPa) (lbf) (N) (psi) (psi)
100 4.79
250 11.97 8.52 37.9 22.12
500 23.94 17.04 75.8 30.24
1,000 47.88 34.09 151.64 46.43
2,000 95.76 68.18 303.28 78.69
4,000 191.52 136.35 606.52 8.60
8,000 383.04 272.7 1213.03 16.32
16,000 766.08 545.4 2426.06 31.83
32,000 1532.17 1090.8 4852.12 62.60
64,000 3064.34 2181.6 9704.24 123.61
Table 15.1: Air pressure supply for pneumatic loading frame and corresponding applied pressure on the
sample.
9. Prepare the loading system for application of the rst load. Refer to gure 15.6 to identify the switches
described in the following instructions.
(a) Turn the LOAD valve to OFF. This actually locks the load to whatever it is supposed to be. It
should not unload the sample.
(b) Set the regulator to the desired stress (see table 15.1).
(c) Stop
10. Make sure everyone is ready to go.
11. Start data acquisition. Wait a few seconds to see the readings on the graphs.
12. Load the sample by turning the the LOAD valve to LOAD.
13. Look at the dial gauge and LSCT readings indicate change in height for a few minutes.
14. After about 5 minutes, change the rate to 10 s interval. Type 10 in the text box and hit enter.
15. You are done for today. Return tomorrow to change the load.
15.6 Procedure for mechanical load frames
The mechanical load frames simply use weights to apply the load (gure 15.7). The loading arm multiplies
the load on the specimen by 10. The load required to obtain the desired stress can be calculated given the
area of sample. It is also listed in table 15.1. Remember to divide by 10 to obtain the actual weight you need
to apply on the loading arm. Be extremely every time you change the load. The counterweight is not secured
to the upper arm of the loading frame and it is known to crash to the oor while the load is changed.
1. Assemble the ring with specimen, porous disks, in the consolidometer.
2. Place the consolidometer in the mechanical load frame and apply a seating pressure of 5 kPa (100 psf).
Figure 15.6: Close-up of the front panel of the pneumatic load frame.
3. Adjust the location of the LSCT and dial gauge. Remember the sample is supposed to decrease in
height and the cross bar should be moving down. When you adjust the deformation indicators you
need to insure they can measure the change in height of the specimen throughout the test. Therefore,
try to place the displacement indicators with their rods almost all the way up, but not completely.
4. Inundate the specimen with water. Check if the dial gauge reading is changing.
5. Record the initial dial gauge reading on the appropriate location in the data sheet.
6. Select the weights you are going to use for the rst stress increment.
7. Wait until all the groups using the same data acquisition system have completed all the previous steps
and are ready to start the actual test.
8. Start data acquisition. Wait a few seconds to see the readings on the graphs.
9. Load the sample.
15.7 Second and following days
Follow these directions for all the tests running data acquisition on the same laptop.
1. Check that the specimens are still covered in water. Add water if necessary.
Figure 15.7: The mechanical load frame.
2. Stop the software.
3. Enter the new le names for all 3 groups.
4. Reset the rate to 1.
5. Write down the dial gauge readings for all 3 specimens.
6. Change the load to the next increment.
Turn the LOAD valve to OFF.
Set the regulator to the desired air supply pressure (see table 15.1).
If changing to the high load mode, turn the HIGH LOAD/LOW LOAD valve to HIGH
LOAD.
Stop
7. Repeat with the other specimen.
8. Figure out what weights should be added or removed from the mechanical loading frame stack. Do
not do it.
9. Start the data acquisition.
10. Load the sample by turning the the LOAD valve to LOAD.
11. Now add or remove the weights from the mechanical loading frame arm.
15.8 Last day
To minimize swell during disassembly, rebound the specimen back to the seating load (5 kPa). Once height
changes have ceased (usually overnight), dismantle quickly after releasing the nal small load on the speci-
men. Remove the specimen and the ring from the consolidometer and wipe any free water from the ring and
specimen. Determine the mass of the specimen in the ring and subtract the tare mass of the ring to obtain
the nal wet specimen mass, M
Tf
. The most accurate determination of the specimen dry mass and water
content is found by drying the entire specimen at the end of the test. Determine the nal water content, w
f
,
and dry mass of solids, M
d
, using the entire specimen.
15.9 Calculation
The goal of this test is to determine the magnitude of settlement and the rate of settlement. For this purpose,
the compression index, C
c
, the re-compression index or swelling index, C
r
, the coefcient of secondary
compression, C
, the coefcient of consolidation, c

v
, and the pre-consolidation pressure
zc
must be ob-
tained from the data. Consult your textbook for the appropriate methods to use for interpretation of the
data.
15.10 Report
c
v
, C
, and void ratio for each day

Void ratio versus effective stress plot

z
c, C
c
, C
r
Displacement versus time for each day included in appendix
Incremental loading consolidation test data
Date Tested by
Ring mass (g) Ring diameter ( ) 1) 2) 3) Avg.
Ring height ( ) 1) 2) 3) Avg.
Ring + initial wet sample mass (g) Initial wet sample mass (g)
Final dry sample mass (g) Final water content
Cup ID Cup mass (g) Final wet sample + cup mass (g)
Final wet sample mass (g) Final dry sample + cup mass (g)
Final dry sample mass (g) Final water content
Cup ID Cup mass (g) Wet trimmings + cup mass (g)
Wet trimmings mass (g) Dry trimmings + cup mass (g)
Dry trimmings mass (g) Trimmings water content
LSCT serial No. LSCT calibration factor Channel
LSCT Voltage range (V)
Dial gauge initial reading Dial gauge readings on Red Black
Day Date Load Initial dial gauge Final dial gauge File name Reading by:
Time (kPa) reading reading
1 12
2 25
3 50
4 100
5 200
6 400
7 100
7b seat
Chapter 16
Triaxial Unconned Compression Test
16.1 Purpose
This test will be used to quickly determine the undrained shear strength of saturated clays. In this test, no
radial stress will be applied to the sample (
3
=0), but the axial stress, (
1
) will be increased until the sample
fails (can no longer support load). The load is applied quickly so that the pore water cannot drain, meaning
that the sample is sheared at a constant volume. Since we are not applying a radial stress, the principle of
effective stresses gives:
3
=
3
u = 0 u = u (16.1)
Because soils cannot sustain tension,
3
must be positive, and therefore, the excess water stresses, u,
must be negative. The results from the UC test are used to:
Estimate the short-term bearing capacity of ne-grained soils for foundations
Estimate the short-term stability of slopes
Compare the shear strengths of soils from a site to establish soil strength variability quickly and cost-
effectively (the UC test is cheaper than others)
Determine the stress-strain characteristics under fast (undrained) loading conditions
16.2 Procedure
16.2.1 Materials
Soil sample
Sample form and sample manual rammer for compaction
Sample extruder
Knife
Sample holder
Calipers
Pressure chamber
Porous stones
Transducers - force and displacement
Shearing apparatus
Computer - Geotech Data Logger Program
Digital Voltmeter
16.2.2 Procedure
1. Refer to Chapter 3, Compaction Using Standard Effort, for sample preparation.
2. The sample extruded may now be cut in two, lengthwise. Each group should take half of the original
sample.
3. Place the sample in the sample holder.
4. Each side of the sample holder cuts the sample to different diameters; one for a coarse preparation,
and one for a nal sample preparation
5. Carefully, (very carefully), shave the sample with the knife so that the nal product is a cylindrical
sample with a diameter equal to that of the sample holder.
6. Take the sample and lay it horizontally on the sample holder. Using the edge of the holder, cut the ends
off of the sample so that they are square. You want a sample with a height-to-diameter ratio between
2 and 2.5
7. Record the dimensions of the sample in several places and record the average height and diameter.
8. Disassemble the compression chamber
9. Place a porous stone on the bottom platen of the compression chamber. Then place the sample with a
porous stone on top of it. Re-assemble the compression chamber, taking care to prevent the plunger
from interfering with the sample.
10. Place the compression chamber with the sample inside it onto the loading frame.
11. Prepare the computer data acquisition system as directed.
12. Record the serial numbers of the force and displacement transducers
13. Begin data acquisition and then start applying a load to produce an axial strain at a rate of 1/2 to
2%/min. Allow the computer to take the readings, and stop the data acquisition when the failure plane
in the sample is visible.
14. Save the computer data, and make a sketch of the failed sample, noting the angles of the failure planes.
15. Record a water content of the sample after completion of the test.
16. Triaxial Unconned Compression Test 103
16.3 Calculations
The undrained shear strength is given as:
S
u
=
P
z
2A
=
1
2
1
(16.2)
where P
z
is the axial load applied to the sample and
A =
A
o
(1 e
1
)
(16.3)
Note that because we are assuming no volume change, and we are axially deforming our sample, the
cross sectional area of the sample changes as the strain increases.
16.4 Report
Force vs. time plot
Displacement vs. time plot
Stress versus strain plot
versus plot, (including the Mohrs circle)
Values for s
u
and q
u
(ultimate stress, or s
1
at failure)
Unconned Compression Test Data
Sample No. Project
Boring No. Location
Depth
Date Tested by
Time Force Displacement
(s) (mV) (mV)
Chapter 17
Unconsolidated Undrained Triaxial Test
17.1 Specimen preparation
The test will be carried out on a compacted specimen of clayey sand. Prepare the compacted specimen
following the directions on chapter 8 and as directed by your teaching assistant. The procedure is similar to
that used for the preparation of the unconned compression specimen. Once the soil is extruded, carefully
divide the sample into two parts and obtain one specimen from each part.
17.1.1 Preparation of the specimen
1. Trim the specimen to the desired dimensions: diameter 38mm (1.5in) and height 76mm (3in), using
a trimming device. The trimming apparatus should allow for convenient trimming of a cylindrical
specimen of constant cross section, using either a wire saw or a steel blade. Be careful during the
trimming and while handling the specimen because the material is prone to cracking and crumbling.
The specimen should be slightly taller than the nal desired height to allow the removal of top and
bottom slices prior to nal measurement and testing. Be particularly careful in trimming the specimen
ends to ensure they are perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the specimen (otherwise alignment
becomes a real problem).
2. Place the specimen on a small piece of saran wrap while you are handling it to avoid loss of moisture.
3. Obtain the moist weight of the specimen.
4. Measure height to 0.1mm (0.01in) with a caliper. Care should be taken that the measuring does not
penetrate soft specimens. The average of 3 readings should be used.
5. Measure the specimen diameter to 0.01mm (0.001in) in two perpendicular directions and three eleva-
tions (center, near top and near bottom) to obtain an average.
6. Measure the thickness of the membrane. Usually this is done by folding the membrane and measuring
the thickness of several layers at a time and then dividing by the number of layers.
17.1.2 Fitting end caps and membrane
1. Carefully place the specimen on the bottom cap and then the top cap on the specimen. If needed,
also place porous stones. Make sure the specimen is centered and the assembly is aligned (VERY
IMPORTANT!!).
Figure 17.1: Stages of membrane tting (from Head, 1992)
2. Fit two o-rings over the membrane stretcher and roll themnear the middle of its length. Fit a membrane
inside the stretcher and fold back the ends, over and outside. Apply vacuum to the membrane stretcher.
Make sure the membrane is actually being pulled out and adheres to the stretcher. It may take a little
tugging, but be careful not to twist the membrane at this point.
3. Carefully lower the membrane stretcher over the specimen until it is nicely centered. Then release
vacuum and allow the membrane to adhere to the specimen.
4. Carefully release the membrane ends covering the caps and trying to minimize the amount of air
entrapped in contact with the sample.
5. Lower the stretcher so that the bottom is located at about mid-height of the lower cap. Roll down and
off one o-ring to seal the membrane.
6. Raise the membrane stretcher all the way up so that the bottom is located at about mid-height of the
top cap. Roll down and off the o-ring.
7. Carefully fold the membrane over the o-rings.
17.2 Procedure
1. Assemble the triaxial cell.
2. Carefully check that the piston is aligned with the top cap.
3. If not, undo the cell set up and try to gently adjust the alignment until it works. It is important that you
do so very gently as to minimize the disturbance to the sample.
4. Place the cell in the loading frame.
17. Unconsolidated Undrained Triaxial Test 107
5. Prepare the computer data acquisition system as directed.
6. Record the serial numbers of the transducers.
7. Slowly increase pressure in the cell to the desired conning pressure. Be careful, the loading rod may
be lifted by the pressure if it is not locked. Allow 10 minutes under conning pressure for the sample
to equilibrate.
8. Begin data acquisition and note the reading for the load transducer (this should be the zero reading,
or no load is applied). Then start loading at a strain rate of approximately 1%/min. Before the loading
rod comes into contact with the top cap the load transducer is reading the upward force due to the
chamber pressure and the friction between the rod and the seal.
9. Allow the computer to take the readings, and stop the data acquisition when the axial strains reach
15%.
10. Save the computer data, and make a sketch of the failed sample, noting the angles of the failure planes.
11. Record a water content of the sample after completion of the test.
17.3 Calculations
The deviator stress is given as:
3
=
P
z
A
(17.1)
where P
z
is the axial load applied to the sample (corrected for uplift and friction and:
A =
A
o
(1 e
1
)
(17.2)
Note that because we are assuming no volume change, and we are axially deforming our sample, the
cross sectional area of the sample changes as the strain increases.
You also need to correct the deviator stress
1
3
for the effect of the membrane:
(
1
3
) =
4E
m
t
m
1
D
(17.3)
where: E
m
is Youngs modulus of the membrane, use 1400 kPa; t
m
is the thickness of the membrane
and
1
= H/H is the vertical strain.
17.4 Report
Include the following information in the report:
Rate of strain, in percent per minute.
The stress-strain curve, (
1
3
) vs.
1
.
Axial strain at failure, in percent.
The value of compressive strength and the major and minor principal stresses at failure.
The sample water content
A failure sketch of the specimen.
Chapter 18
Triaxial Consolidated Drained Compression
Test
18.1 Purpose
This test method covers determination of the strength and stress-strain relationships of a cylindrical specimen
of cohesionless sand. Specimens are subjected to a conning pressure in a triaxial chamber. Dry sand will be
used and the specimen is sheared in compression at a constant rate of axial deformation (strain controlled).
This test method provides data for determining undrained strength properties and stress-strain relations for
cohensionless soils. This test method provides for the measurement of the total stresses applied to the
specimen. This handout is based on the ASTM 5202-91 Standard Test Method For Determining Triaxial
Compression Creep Strength of Chemical Grouted Soils.
18.2 Summary of Test Method
A dry sand is placed in a sample form to make a sand cylinder. The sand cylinder is then placed in the
triaxial compression chamber and air pressure is applied. Axial load is then applied in the vertical direction
and compress the soil cylinder at a constant rate until the soil fails. This procedure is repeated three times
under different conning pressures. The applied force, vertical displacement and the air pressure are recorded
every 15 seconds until the soil fails. The results are used to determine the shear strength and the Youngs
Modulus of the soil.
18.2.1 Apparatus
Triaxial Compression Chamber - used to apply a conning pressure and an axial load.
Load Device
18.2.2 Specimen Preparation
1. Place the porous stone on top of the lower loading plate.
2. Place the sample membrane over the stone and the loading plate and secure the membrane with an
o-ring.
3. Place the sample form around the lower loading plate and pull the sample membrane over the top of
the sample form. Pull the sample membrane so that there are no folds in the membrane.
4. Fill the sample form with sand to the top of the sample form. Lightly tap the sand in to the sample
form and rell the sample form if needed.
5. Place the top loading plate on top of the sample form, pull the sample membrane over the top plate
and secure it with an o-ring.
6. Apply a vacuum to the sample by attaching the appropriate hose to the vacuum outlet.
7. Remove the sample form. The sample should be a smooth cylinder from the top of the porous stone to
the bottom of the top loading plate. If it is not a smooth cylinder, the results will be affected.
8. Measure and record the length of the sample in three locations.
9. Measure and record the diameter of the sample of three locations.
10. Assemble the pressure chamber as directed by your instructor.
11. Pressurize the chamber as directed by our instructor.
12. Remove the vacuum.
13. Raise the loading frame to reduce the distance top loading plate and the load cell extension.
18.2.3 Procedure
1. With the specimen encased in the rubber membrane, which is sealed to the specimen cap and base
and positioned in the chamber, assemble the triaxial chamber. Bring the axial load piston into contact
with the specimen cap several times to permit proper seating and alignment of the piston with the cap.
When the piston is brought into contact, record the reading on the deformation indicator. During this
procedure, take care not to apply an axial stress to the specimen exceeding approximately 0.5% of
the estimated compressive strength. If the weight of the piston is sufcient to apply an axial stress
exceeding approximately 0.5% of the estimated compressive strength, lock the piston in place above
the specimen cap after checking the seating and alignment and keep locked until application of the
chamber pressure.
2. Place the chamber in position in the axial loading device. Be careful to align the axial loading device,
the axial load-measuring device, and the triaxial chamber to prevent the application of a lateral force
to the piston during testing. Attach the pressure-maintaining and measurement device and ll the
chamber with the conning air. Adjust the pressure- maintaining and measurement device to the
desired chamber pressure and apply the pressure to the chamber air. Wait approximately 10 min after
the application of chamber pressure to allow the specimen to stabilize under the chamber pressure
prior to application of the axial load. Note: Make sure the piston is locked or held in place by the axial
loading device before applying the chamber pressure.
3. The axial load-measuring device is located outside of the triaxial chamber. The chamber pressure will
produce an upward force on the piston that will react against the axial loading device. In this case,
start the test with the piston slightly above the specimen cap, and before the piston comes in contact
with the specimen cap, either: ( 1) measure and record the initial piston friction and upward thrust of
the piston produced by the chamber pressure and later correct the measured axial load, or (2) adjust
the axial load-measuring device to compensate for the friction and thrust. If the axial load-measuring
device is located inside the chamber, it will not be necessary to correct or compensate for the uplift
force acting on the axial loading device or for piston friction. In both cases record the initial reading
on the deformation indicator when the piston contacts the specimen cap.
18. Triaxial Consolidated Drained Compression Test 111
4. Apply the axial load to produce axial strain at a rate of approximately 1.5mm/min. At these rates, the
elapsed time to reach maximum deviator stress will be approximately
5. Record load and deformation values every 15 seconds until the soil fails. The criterion for the soil
failure is the force reduces or levels off for at least two continuous readings. Take the readings for the
air pressure, applied vertical load and the vertical displacement.
6. After completion of the test, remove the test specimen from the chamber.
7. Repeat the procedure from 1 to 7 two times with different air pressures
18.3 Calculations
Calculate the axial strain, e (expressed as a decimal), for a given applied axial load, as follows:
=
H
H
o
(18.1)
where: H = change in height of specimen as read from deformation indicator; and H
o
= initial height
of test specimen minus any change in length prior to loading.
Calculate the average cross-sectional area, A, for a given applied axial load as follows:
A =
A
o
1
(18.2)
where: A
o
= average cross-sectional area of the specimen, and = axial strain for the given axial load
(expressed as a decimal)
Calculate the principal stress difference (deviator stress), for a given applied axial load as follows:
3
=
P
A
(18.3)
where: P = measured applied axial load, and A = corresponding average cross-sectional area.
Calculate the major and minor principal total stresses at failure as follows:
3
= minor principal total stress = chamber pressure, and
1
= major principal total stress = deviator stress at failure plus chamber pressure.
18.4 Report
Description the soil specimen at failure such as shape and angle of the failure plane.
Figure of the shear strength versus the normal stress with Mohrs circle at failure for each test
Cohesion coefcient
Friction angle of the soil.
x
18. Triaxial Consolidated Drained Compression Test 113
Triaxial Unconned Compression Test Data
Sample No. Project
Boring No. Location
Depth
Date Tested by
Time Force Displacement
(s) (mV) (mV)

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CVEN365 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering

) on the plane inclined at an angle to the x-axis. We

, the coefcient of consolidation, c

, and void ratio for each day

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