COMPETENCES OF FOREIGN EMPLOYEES

Executive summary

With their home markets in the throes of a prolonged stagnation, if not
downturn, companies based in developed economies are turning more and
more towards the developing world in the search for new customers and the
hunt for new talent. Meanwhile, companies from vibrant developing
economies whose ambitions have outgrown their own homelands are also
seeking opportunities to grow through international expansion. These
dynamics have combined to create a world of business that is thoroughly
international, and in which it is commonplace for workers and businesses to
communicate and collaborate with customers, colleagues, suppliers and
partners in other countries.

The resulting need for harmonious and productive cross-border relationships
that transcend cultural differences has placed new demands on companies
and their workforces. A corporate world that has at least recognized a new
reality in which the right products and services must also now be allied with
the necessary cultural sensitivity and communication skills in order for
companies to succeed in markets away from home. However, the views
expressed in the survey by senior business executives from all corners of the
world also indicate that many organisations have yet to adopt measures that
will turn this realisation into practice.

Contrary to the expectations of many experts, the current economic downturn
is spurring companies into becoming more international. While previous
recessions have often resulted in businesses reducing their risk exposure
with a renewed focus on their core markets, an over whelming majority of
respondents confirm that may companies are becoming more global in their
outlook and ambitions.


INTRODUCTION

Competency development is a crucial driving force for increasing
employee effectiveness and employability. Therefore, organisations are
taking a number of initiatives to stimulate competency development.

In broad terms, diversity is any dimension that can be used to differentiate
groups and people from one another. It means respect for and appreciation
of differences in ethnicity, gender, age, national origin, disability, sexual
orientation, education, and religion.

But its more than this. We all bring with us diverse perspectives, work
experiences, life styles and cultures. As a source and driver of innovation,
diversity is a big idea in business and in society. we know the power of
diversity is unleashed when we respect and value differences.

To embrace all these differences, is pursuing a strategy of inclusion. This
means creating a working culture that values the differences between
people. It does not try to stifle or devalue the individuality of staff. Such a
culture is tolerant but also practical in recognising these differences and
enabling every member of a team to exploit their personal strengths.

Competency development = integration of training, on-the-job learning and
career management?
1. Competency development = shared responsibility of individual and
organisation?
2. Competency development = broader employability, better labour
market position and higher career satisfaction?

This study which investigated the employee perspective complements a
prior study that was focused on the organizations perspective, sought to
provide more information about employee attitudes towards competency
development and the way in which employees give shape to their
competencies in practice.

1. With regard to the first proposition, the studys results indicate that
employees most often make use of training initiatives and, in
particular, the traditional forms of training and education to develop
their competencies. So, training still forms an important part of
competency development which is not surprising, given its long-
standing history as a developmental practice. However, initiatives in
the field of on-the-job learning (e.g. coaching) and career
management (e.g. career counselling) are increasingly being used by
employees as well. By communicating about the availability of these
newer competency development practices and their goals,
organisations can ensure that employees will take advantage of them
more readily.

2. With regard to the role of the organisation in competency
development, employees indicate that their organisation supports
them in their learning activities. However, initiatives in the field of
career management seem to lag behind. With regard to their own role
in the competency development process, employees indicate that they
themselves take initiatives to develop their competencies. Moreover,
employees estimate their own share as being high. Therefore,
competency development can be seen as a shared responsibility of
both the organisation and the individual employee.

3. With regard to the third proposition, the results show that initiatives
in the field of competency development not only increase the
employability of employees, but also their general level of career
satisfaction and their perceived labour market position. Employees
who participate in a broad range of development initiatives and
experience organisational support in their development, report more
positive career outcomes. These results indicate that organisations
should indeed invest in competency development.
A Shared Responsibility
Competency development draws its strength from a variety of different
learning activities. By integrating training, on-the-job learning and career
management into one development trajectory, organisations can approach
the developmental needs of their employees from different angles. Given the
positive career outcomes that are associated with competency development,
its important that organisations make sufficient efforts to support their
employees in developing their competencies. However, significant
responsibility rests with the employee as well. While the organisation can
create a stimulating environment and offer the employee opportunities for
competency development, it is then up to the employee to seize these
opportunities and develop his/her competencies accordingly. Here too, the
organisation can play a role by encouraging employees to develop their
competencies and by drawing their attention to the important role they
themselves play in this matter.



Effects
Effective cross-border communication and collaboration are becoming
critical to the financial success of companies with international
aspirations

Presumably as a result of their companies focus on international growth,
almost two-thirds of respondents think that better cross-border collaboration
has been a critical
factor in the improvement of our organisations performance in the past three
years. However, a similar proportion feel that their organisation encounters
difficulties with crossborder collaboration or communication at least
sometimes. This can be costly. Around one-half of the executives surveyed
for the purpose of this report admitted that ineffective communication or
inadequate collaboration had obstructed major international transactions,
inevitably resulting in financial loss.

The overwhelming majority believe that if cross-border communication were
to improve at their company, then profit, revenue and market share would all
improve as well. This is partly because potential opportunities in foreign
countries are currently being spurned, with almost two-thirds of respondents
saying that differences in language
and culture make it difficult to gain a foothold in unfamiliar markets.

Most companies understand the cost of not improving the cross-border
communication skills of their employees, yetmany are not doing
enough to address the challenge

Despite acknowledging the direct impact of effective crossborder
communication on their fortunes, a significant proportion of companies, by
their own admission, are not
taking sufficient remedial action to address the root causes of
misunderstandings. Some 47% say their companies do not offer enough
training to hone their employees language and communication skills, and
40% believe there is not enough emphasis placed on recruiting or selecting
people who are suited to cross-cultural environments.

Some organisations appear to be underestimating the extent of the
challenge. Interconnectedness through modern technology has deluded
many people, according
to Nancy J. Adler, chair in management at McGill University in Montreal,
Canada, and author of International dimensions

of organizational behavior. There is the false assumption that just because
we can reach anyone in the world so easily through email or Skype, we are,
therefore, all the same.

Organisations with international ambitions increasingly expect
prospective employees to be fluent in key foreign languages
Multilingual nature of the modern business world. According to almost one-
half of the companies surveyed, at least one in five of their workers need to
speak another language in their job, and one-quarter say that a majority of
their workforce require some foreign language skills.
Not surprisingly, a majority of executives surveyed believe that their
workforce will need to know English if the company is to succeed in its
international expansion plans. Mandarin is considered the second-most
important foreign language, but just 8% say their workers will need to be
fluent in it. The importance of language skills in a globalised world is reflected
in companies hiring strategies. Very few companies never consider
multilingual skills to be essential in job seekers, but many now expect them
to be fluent in at least one non-native language.

Misunderstandings rooted in cultural differences present the greatest
obstacle to productive cross-border collaboration

Regard differences in cultural traditions and different workplace norms as
the reatest threats to the smooth functioning of cross-border relationships.
Nandita Gurjar, global head of human resources at Infosys, one of the
worlds largest information technology services companies based in India,
agrees that cultural awareness and
cross-border ambitions go hand in hand: We are a global company. We
simply cannot progress without the knowhow and experience to deal with
other cultures.

MEASURING CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

Cultural differences can be seen in a broad range of beliefs and behaviours
found on a daily basis in the workplace. Several management thinkers, such
as Geert Hofstede, Fons Trompenaars and Edward T. Hall, have formulated
frameworks which attempt to measure how each national culture fits into this
complex spectrum.

Such frameworks can help international managers to anticipate and then
solve possible conflict caused by misunderstandings between various
cultures. Nandita Gurjar, global head of human resources at Infosys, a global
IT services company based in India, believes that cultural awareness is key.
Most managers, when confronted with cultural conflict, often have little idea
that the underlying issue could be cultural. They tend to think: Why are you
so upset? This is the way I normally behave and people in my home office
never get upset.

Whats wrong with you? A manager has to get the best out of people, and
therefore needs to know that an individuals cultural background will strongly
influence the way they respond.

Geert Hofstedes framework, the most widely known, hones in on key cultural
differences such as the various attitudes towards hierarchy or uncertainty, or
the extent to which a society or community values individual achievement on
the one hand, or long-term loyalty to a collective group on the other. Scores
on the various dimensions of the framework vary hugely. For example,
workers in Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Arab world are likely to show
much more deference to their manager than their counterparts in countries
such as Denmark, Israel and Austria, where subordinates tend to want to be
frequently consulted by those above them in the hierarchy. Unsurprisingly,
given the importance of the American dream within its culture, the United
States scores highly for individualism, whereas several countries in Central
and Latin
America (Ecuador, Panama, Venezuela) and Asia (Pakistan, Indonesia,
South Korea) are at the collectivist end of the spectrum.

The United States would also be what Edward T. Hall refers to as a low-
context culture, in which people communicate very much through a direct,
and often terse, exchange of words that carry a literal meaning.
Communication in high-context countries, on the other hand, will be much
more subtle, with the attentive listener required to pay greater attention to
gestures, tones and the overall context of the
conversation.

Lan Kang, general manager of human resources at Fosun Group, a
conglomerate headquartered in Shanghai, explains how the high-context
Chinese approach to communication can clash with more abrupt styles.
Americans are very explicit and quick to get to the point. The Chinese are
accustomed to using vaguer language in the initial stages. Details are then
gradually established during further discussions, as the relationship between
the two sides grows stronger.
THE GLOBALIZATION ENIGMA: CONTRADICTIONS AND CHALLENGES
Stress the need to consider the interplay of both contextual and intrapersonal
variables. Economists, too, are beginning to accept the need to work on
assumptions of both increasing and decreasing returns13 and multiple
versus single equilibrium. Science seems to march under the banner of
integrating knowledge that spans beyond the simplistic either-or logic in
favor of a more holistic both-and approach. This approach can also assist
with understanding recent globalization effects and outcomes.

Using a dualities perspective, we can view globalization as existing in a
dynamic state of flux and consisting of multiple processes and forces that
flow in different, and often conflicting, directions. These conflicting forces
can often influence how firms organize, people communicate, and managers
manage; hence, the enigma. In point of fact, we can identify three such
globalization dualities, each operating in two conceptually distinct areas.

Cultural convergence versus cultural divergence
The first challenge facing managers and their companies in the new global
economy involves the contradiction, or duality, between cultural convergence
and cultural divergence.
Simply put, does globalization lead to converging or diverging modes of
behavior?
That is, does increased globalization cause nation-states to become more
similar in nature and outlook or does it force them to retrench and reinforce
their unique beliefs and value systems. This debate can lead managers in
circles if questions are considered in terms of discovering a final overall
pattern of either convergence or divergence. Rather than force an answer
that is only half true, a duality perspective is required to see that globalization
in fact leads simultaneously to both increased convergence and increased
divergence. Understanding this will make the managers job in new
environments considerably easier.

Challenges facing global managers
Globalization. Technology. Change. Competitiveness. If this is the new global
economy, what are the implications for managers and their organizations? In
view of the seismic shifts around the world in terms of how business is now
conducted, corporations are scrambling to become more competitive, more
market sensitive, more innovative, and more nimble. How is this best
accomplished? As they attempt to move ahead, the ground underfoot
continues to move. Success in the global economy requires a number of
ingredients, including innovative ideas and products, access to raw materials
and competitive labor, savvy marketing strategies, solid financing,
sustainable supply chains, and predictable logistical support. However, the
central driver in this endeavor perpetually caught in the middle is the
global manager. Indeed, no one ever said being a manager was easy, but it
seems to get more difficult with each passing year. As competitive pressures
increase across most industries and services, so too do the pressures on
managers to deliver results. Succeeding against the odds often catapults a
manager into the higher echelons of the organization, with a concomitant
increase in personal rewards. But failure to deliver often slows ones career
advancement, if it doesnt stop it altogether. The stakes are very high for both
managers and organizations. With this in mind, what do managers need to
know to survive and succeed in this complex and turbulent environment?
Certainly they need to understand both microand macroeconomics. They
need to understand the fundamentals of business practices, including
strategy, marketing, operations and logistics, finance, and accounting. And
they need to understand issues such as outsourcing, political risk, legal
institutions, and the application of emerging technologies to organizational
operations. In addition to this knowledge, however, global managers must
understand how to work with other people and organizations around the
world to get their jobs done.

Challenge #1: Develop a learning strategy to guide both short- and
long-term professional development as a global manager.

Challenge #2: Develop a basic knowledge of how different cultures
work, what makes them unique, and how managers can work
successfully across such environments.

Challenge #3: Develop effective strategies for working with managers
from other
cultures who may process information differently and view their roles
and responsibilities in unfamiliar ways.

Challenge #4: Develop an understanding of the competing interests
and demands of various stakeholders in an organization, as well as
the organizational processes necessary for achieving targeted
outcomes.

Challenge #5: Develop an understanding of how business enterprise
can be organized differently across cultures, as well as the
implications of these differences for management, cooperation, and
competition.

Challenge #6: Develop effective cross-cultural communication skills. It
is often said that communication is the glue that holds organizations
and inter-organizational relationships together.

Challenge #7: Develop an understanding of leadership processes
across cultures, and how managers can work with others to achieve
synergistic outcomes. People often confuse leadership with
management, perhaps because of their own culture-based views of
what leaders should look like and how they should behave.
Challenge #8: Develop a knowledge of how cultural differences can
influence the nature and scope of employee motivation, as well as
what global managers might do to enhance on-the-job participation
and performance.

Challenge #9: Develop effective negotiating skills and an ability to use
these skills to build and sustain global partnerships.

Challenge #10: Develop an understanding of how ethical and legal
conflicts relate to managerial and organizational effectiveness, as well
as how managers can work and manage in an ethical, fair, and
socially responsible manner.


BUILDING GLOBAL MANAGEMENT SKILLS


simply as multicultural competence. It represents the capacity to work
successfully across cultures. Being multiculturally competent is more than
being polite to people from other cultures; it is getting things done through
people in other cultures. Multicultural competence can be seen as a way of
viewing the world with a particular emphasis on broadening ones cultural
perspective as it relates to crosscultural behavior. That is, it asks the
question: What can we learn from people around us from different cultures
that can improve our ability to function effectively
in a multicultural world? Multicultural competencies include elements of
curiosity, awareness of diversity, and acceptance of complexity Such people
tend to open up themselves by rethinking boundaries and changing their
behaviors. They are curious and concerned with context, possessing an
ability to place current events and tasks into both historical and probable
future contexts. They accept inherent contradictions in everyday life, and
have the ability to maintain a comfort level with continual conflict.

So, how can we put all of these diverse skills and abilities into a succinct
framework, or set of targets, for furthering the development of global
management skills? This can be accomplished by identifying six specific
multicultural competencies.

A cosmopolitan outlook
Intercultural communication skills.
Cultural sensitivity
Rapid acculturation skills
Flexible management style
Cultural synergy

THE EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING CYCLE
Developing global management skills is the central theme of this book. The
obvious question here is how these skills are developed and refined and then
used effectively in the global arena. To answer this question, we refer back to
Nasrudins observation 700 hundred years ago that people learn and develop
based largely on their past experiences and past mistakes. In our view, this
is particularly noteworthy with regards to global managers. People try, make
mistakes, and learn from those mistakes. This is the essence of experiential
learning.

According to experiential learning theory, individual learning occurs over four
stages that are collectively and interactively aimed at collecting and
transforming knowledge: concrete experience, reflective observation,
abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. This is illustrated in
Exhibit . In theory, a learning cycle begins with concrete experiences how
we feel about things that happen to us in everyday life. For example, imagine
we come from a culture that values direct and straightforward ommunication.
We tell things like they are and dont pull our punches. As we engage in
conversations with others, we are likely to think that direct questioning is
appropriate and will result in a straightforward answer. The experiential
learning cycle

A LEARNING STRATEGY


CULTURAL COMPLEXITIES AND CONTRADICTIONS
Our two examples Swedens Anna Hkansson and Bahrains Nahed Tahler
highlight some important limitations of applying simplistic models to
complex phenomena. On the one hand, such models provide a good starting
point to understanding the influence of culture and the challenges posed by
cultural differences. On the other hand, they focus our attention to a limited
set of parameters and may mislead our interpretation of reality.

The dualities perspective using a both/and logic in which both alternatives
or paths have merit for purposes of analysis, rather than an either/or logic
that forces analysts to choose between alternatives that are simultaneously
worth pursuing Holistic and fragmented behavior Another fundamental
problem of trying to categorize cultures is that it implies a degree of
homogeneity. When describing individual cultures Universal and idiosyncratic
characteristics
Descriptions of culture using a limited set of dimensions may lead to the
impression that this limited set of adjectives can capture the essence of
culture. However, experience and observation tells us that culture is more
complex and paradoxical, with many exceptions and qualifications to any
general classification.
Explanatory and predicative powers
A discussion of culture frequently leads to an exaggerated assumption of
causality and determinism. It is easy to make connections between general
cultural characteristics and actions, such as People from collectivistic
cultures will prefer team work or Hierarchical cultures prefer authoritarian
leaders. However, these types of conclusions are problematic for several
reasons. To begin with, as it was discussed above, fragmentation can result
fromthe acceptance of cultural values within cultures. Second, cultures are
composed of idiosyncratic elements that can be combined in unique ways
leading to unpredictable consequences. And third, culture both constrains
and enables behavior.
Cultures and subcultures
Finally, as noted earlier, a key characteristic of culture is that it is learned.
People acquire values, assumptions, and behaviors by seeing how others
around us behave and by observing their families. However, herein lies a
major source for over-generalizations and stereotypes about national
cultures.
TEAM BUILDING OUTBOUND EXPERIMENTAL TRAINING
In the past 25 years the use of the outdoors for management development
(OMD) has grown into a multi-million pound international industry. Although
methodologically robust empirical research into OMD has increased
significantly over the past decade, a number of problems remain; not least
because the term OMD can be used to describe anything from an afternoon
of activities on a hotel lawn to a month of outdoor
adventure training in the Scottish wilderness. It has been hypothesized that
confusing the different types or classes of OMD may have prevented the
identification of any associated benefits and liabilities (Dainty and Lucas,
1992; Jones and Oswick, 1993; Wagner, Baldwin and Roland, 1991).
Heterogeneity of practice together with a lack of detail in the reporting of
studies has made this claim difficult to test.
OMD research often focuses upon training outcomes and neglects the
underlying mechanisms by which these effects are elicited (Burke and
Collins, 2004a, p. 678).

Definition: Outbound Management Development is carefully sequenced and
integrated experiential learning activities conducted (primarily) in the
outdoors and designed to facilitate participants behaviour change. It is a
training method for enhancing organizational performance through
experiential learning.

Outdoor experimental training appears to be the most widely accepted. The
term includes a broad range of training interventions, premised on the
assumptions of experiential learning theory, which use structured tasks and
exercises as consciously designed metaphors and isomorphs of managerial
and organizational processes. The
training is conducted in an outdoor setting and requires some physical
exertion from participants. It is often used as part of wider managerial training
and development programmes, the general aims of which are to achieve
improvements in organizational functioning via the transfer of learning from
the OMD intervention to the workplace.
OMD should exhibit the following:
_ Be underpinned by experiential learning theory.
_ Aim to improve participants understanding and management of self and
others.

_ Aim to improve the performance of an existing work group, team,
department or organization.
_ Rather than being stand alone, it is embedded in a temporally extended
process of management and/or organization development.
_ Is collaboratively designed by provider and sponsor to address the training
needs of a specific group of participants.
_ Of five to seven days duration in a residential, wilderness setting, with all
activities taking place outdoors.
_ Tasks are technically novel and physically challenging.
_ Tasks provide participants with high discretion about the methods used to
solve the problems.
_ Task completion requires the application of managerial skills together with
cooperative and integrated effort by the whole team.
_ The duration and complexity of specific tasks increase as the programme
progresses.
_ Half of the training time is spent on structured facilitated reviews.
_ Feedback is about process issues, not technical aspects of the task.


WHY OUTBOUND TRAINING IS NEEDED
The work atmosphere in the corporate set up today is far too complex and
competitive. This obviously implies that there is greater stress on the
employees to perform better every time. Due to the tight working schedules
the employees hardly find any time to unwind or make up for their lost
energies. Also the crammed offices spaces have there own impact on the
general psyche of the employees. The Outdoors comes forth as the panacea
for most of these issues. The Outdoors provides physical freedom of space
and movement that helps one to think in an open and free manner. The
proximity with nature refreshes the mind. The time spent in the outdoors is a
welcome break for the Corporate from their busy schedules. The activities in
the outdoors involve some amount physical activity that works as an antidote
against mental stress and pressures.
Management strongly believe in
experience is a powerful teacher.
On the job it can be costly to
learn from our mistakes, but in
the classroom, this valuable
learning methodology carries far
less risk. Thats what makes
experiential learning so effective!
Corporate leaders want to see the
change in team members and
want to create the feeling of trust
and bonding in the team so
experiential Learning was the way
to enables people to make permanent, effective changes in behaviour by
understanding the wide range of consequences of their choices and
accepting responsibility for them.
Using structured experiences designed to accurately reflect situations in the
workplace, participants learn by doing; and then further their understanding
by examining ways they could have been more effective. Powerful learning
emerges in the debrief when their experiences are linked to their real-world
situations. People see, understand and experience how their own behaviour
can change to significantly and positively impact their performance back on
their job. Participants receive maximum learning in less time through the use
of theming, tactile components, fun and relevant links to their business
environment.
Need to use OMD
OMD takes the participants out of their comfort zone (office environment) that
is out of doors to participate in some specially designed outdoor exercises
and management games, instead of traditional class room training
methodology. OMD facilitate to learn management skills through real life
situations have been an exciting and a unique experience for participants.
Outbound experimental training aim at consistently helping trainees gain
immediate and powerful insight into their own and their teams work styles
and behavior. One of the most unique aspects of outbound training is that
trainees are immediately able to see the consequences of wrong actions and
can see the tangible difference that can be made by a change in thinking and
behavior.
One of the basic objectives of most management training programs is to
enhance organizational team bonding, the foundation of cohesive functioning
and productivity. Team bonding options available to human resources
training professionals include a range of corporate team events that could be
one-off or ongoing, onsite teamwork activities within the organizational
structure, team building days or an outdoor team building program. Of these,
a structured outdoor team building and adventure program high up in the
mountains or deep in the wilderness adds significant value to executive
education programs.

Suggestions from training need analysis to conduct OMD
Training need analysis concluded that there is heavy amount of gap within
the team and among the department which lead to the lack of motivation and
dip in performance of individual and as well as of team. At organisational
level some time strict deadline of the IRDA circular were missed to action
upon. Workplace environment of the organisation strongly interdependent of
teams, continuous interaction, meeting, support and coordination is required
between departmental activities. For e.g. In case of new ULIP product launch
marketing can not realise the product brochure unless the compliance
department approval as per the regulatory advertisement guidelines.
Learning and development team proposed the organisation leader the break
even in performance can be only be achieve when team have the immense
trust and team spirit
There was definitely the need of program that aim to meet different training
goals.
1. A real experience of teamwork
2. An experience in dealing with change and uncertainty
3. Attitudinal change in the assessment of self and others
4. Self-development through improved self-esteem, trust and confidence.
Obviously not all training needs can be addressed with the general in-training
approach, Outdoor training is an appropriate vehicle for addressing the
process issues that frequently get in the way of goal accomplishment and
group effectiveness
Developing self awareness
Risk taking
Communicating support
Giving and receiving feedback
Problem solving
Decision making
Assessing and using resources
Managing conflict
Team building
Reasons for Team Building:
To Improve communication skills
To Motivate a team
To Get to know each other
To Teach the team self-regulation strategies
To Help participants to learn more about themselves (strengths
and weaknesses)
To Identify and utilize the strengths of team members
To Improve team productivity
To Practice effective collaboration with team members














Outbound Experimental Learning Program-Benefits
The benefits of the Outbound Experiential Learning Programme are multiple.
Participants show increased pro-activeness, accountability and self-esteem.
Clarity of purpose and a healthy shift in relationships are often the outcome.
Benefits
OMD can be cognitive (i.e. the acquisition of facts), physical (i, e. technical
skill development), or affective (i.e. emotional and social development).
Affective learning has two interactive products: Development of individuals
through improved intra-personal relationship (emotional development) and
development of groups through enhanced inter-personal relationships (social
development).
Intra-Personal : Emotional & Individual Inter-Personal: Social & Group
New confidence in oneself.
Increased willingness to take risk.
Improved self-concept.
Enhanced leadership skills.
Increased logical reasoning skills.
Greater reflective thinking skills.
Recognition of personal learning
blocks and fears.
Enhanced co-operation.
More effective communication
skills.
Greater trust in others.
Increased participation in
decision making.
New ways to resolve conflicts.
Improved problem solving skills.
Understanding of different
leadership styles.


Benefits for Individual
Establishment and Development of Personal Attitudes:
To increase self-confidence and self-motivation
To improve every individual toward positive thinking
To recognize every individual toward the environment

Establishment and Development of Personal Skills:
To improve the Interpersonal Skill
To improve the Leadership Skill
To improve the Communication Skill
To improve the Teamwork
To improve the Wide Management Perspective and Strategy
Benefit for Department
The edifice of outbound experimental training is based on the foundation of
experiential learning. The famous Chinese thinker Confucius said,
"Tell me something and I will remember some of it, show it to me and I will
remember most of it, involve me and I will remember all of it."

Outbound experimental training involves the trainees into the process of
learning. This is called participatory learning. Through carefully designed
games and activities certain situations, analogous to the situations at the
workplace, are simulated. The reactions of the participants are closely
monitored and analyzed by qualified facilitators and Outdoor Experts (OE).
These facilitators and OEs are like catalyst in this "Human Reaction.

They subtly steer the activity in the desired direction. In this manner change
is brought about by the way of self-realization rather than by external inputs.

In the outdoors the Nature, which is regarded as the best teacher, plays its
own part. This helps in refreshing the mind; in turn making it more receptive
to learning and change. This break from the daily routine gives the
employees the much-needed recreation, which is as important as learning
itself. The recreation is in the form of a change of work rather than trivial
merry-making. The simulated challenges and adventure tasks in the training
are analogous to the real life.
Problems and creative problem solving can thus be practiced. The activities
and tasks involve a great deal of interaction with other people, either in
groups or on an individual basis. In these exercises the participants are
made to tackle situations, which test and also help enhance their
interpersonal skills.
Organizational Benefit
How will the company benefit?
Outbound Experiential Learning helps resolve most of the issues that
corporate today have to confront. Firstly the employees can relax and refresh
their minds by moving out of the same old office environment. Primarily a
training program in the outdoors revitalizes the participants. Hence there is a
marked increase in the level of enthusiasm at the work place. This
enthusiasm brings out the creativity in the employees, which naturally
enhances the efficiency in their work.

Through the various games and sessions the participant employees get to
know their colleagues better, which is not possible in the formal office
atmosphere. Hence it helps to reduce the inhibitions and apprehensions,
which may be present amongst them. The participants are able to blend
more easily with each other, which is very necessary for successful working.
The interpersonal communication within the participants improves,
which generates a sense of comradeship within the group. The participants
get an idea of their strengths and weaknesses, which helps them to have a
clearer image about their own self. This realization is beneficial to every
individual and also the team. All of these changes reflect in the companys
increased profits and productivity as well as contribute
in generating a healthy work environment.
Thus, outdoors is indeed an effective tool in facilitating positive change in
individuals
Benefit for Organization/Company
To improve and making stronger of Teamwork
To improve the harmony of working environment
To improve the productivity for every employee or every personnel in
organization
To improve the motivation for every employee or every personnel in
organization to achieve the goals
To improve the loyalty for every employee or every personnel in
organization

HOW TO RESOLVE TEAM ISSUES THROUGH OUTBOUND TRAINING
A Team is a group of people with a high degree of interdependence focussed on the achievement of some goal
or task. The group agrees on the goal and the process for achievement. Each team has a common purpose,
mission, and goal. The members are interdependent and they agree to work
effectively to reach their goal.
The most challenging teams are the cross functional, ad hoc teams. The
challenge increases when the purpose is unclear. Although the payoff is
potentially great, the difficulty of forging an effective team is complicated by
different styles that the people from the various disciplines bring to the table.
Also the temporary nature of the relationship often decreases the motivation
to work hard on building an effective team.
Team building is data-based intervention, which assesses the strengths and
improvement opportunities of a working team and then prepares and
implements plans to increase the effectiveness of the team.
The workshop accomplishes the following learnings
To understand the concept of team dynamics.
To understand the importance of communication, co-operation and co-
ordination in a team.
To understand the importance of conflicts / upsets and its resolution
techniques.
To create a sense of understanding / bonding towards each other.
To understand interpersonal relationships and their impact on self and
others.
To understand the dynamics of delegation - trust and ownership
accountability.
To understand how to appreciate each others constraints in roles and
functions.

Types of Team Building:
Fun & Learning
Recreational Team building
Simple bonding exercises
Complex stimulations
Multi-day team building retreats
Group-dynamic games
Adventure Team Building Activities
Benefits of Team Building:
Develop employee motivation
Improve communications
Self development
Positive communication
Improve Leadership skills
Enhancing Individual & Team Performance
Making workplace more enjoyable


Outbound training is also referred to as experiential learning or action
learning; it is a process wherein a group of individuals from an organization
meet outdoors to participate in a range of activities that are both physically
and mentally challenging. It is a reflective learning process that takes place
amongst the participants.
Learning occurs through experience; this includes reflection and action. It
fosters the individual's ability to reflect on past events, understanding one's
own actions and finding ways of dealing with similar relative situations in the
future.
Some of the areas that could be impacted greatly by outbound training
are:
o Time Management
o Goal Prioritization
o Conflict Resolution
o Communication
o Strategizing
o Planning And Organizing
o Delegation
"Nothing like a break in the wilderness to bring a jaded team together again."
- Author Unknown
Team bonding and increased self confidence are the two greatest benefits
achieved through outbound training/experiential learning activities. It helps
employees discover new facets about each other; bonding with each other in
a way that would not be possible in a regular office environment.
Outbound training use scenarios that employees encounter in their everyday
work. It invigorates the individual's ability to find effective solutions to the
problems encountered in the activities. The individual will be able to transfer
this ability to overcome hurdles that are prevalent in the numerous areas of
everyday work life.

By reflecting and applying what they learnt during their training, they become
better team players through the self confidence they acquire. They also
awaken the dormant skills present within themselves that surface as a result
of the relative nature of the training activities.
In short, outbound training instils a sense of team spirit and self belief in each
individual. Since it involves the concept of shared learning, it gives maximum
benefit to the organization.
However, there is a section amongst the corporate audiences who are
sceptics and believe that outbound training programs may result in a waste
of energy and time. They feel that participants focus on the fun element and
are unable to translate the learning to the work environment. While this
maybe true, this problem can be conclusively addressed by selecting the
right facilitator for the task. A facilitator, who has considerable expertise in
the field of training, could lead the participants toward the right direction of
learning and reflection.
Outdoor Team Building and Corporate Leadership Training Programs:
Powerful Tools for Change
Often used purely as a team reward, a mature and well-designed OMD
program is capable of delivering far more: it can become a powerful
management tool that results in lasting positive changes in participants.
In the hands of experienced facilitators, outdoor team building programs can
help teams in the areas of communication, resource allocation and utilization,
trust building, problem solving and much more. Outdoor corporate leadership
training programs can help future leaders explore their capabilities in
decision making, risk management, goal setting and other areas critical in the
formation of a leader.



Exercise & Learning
Outlines of some exercises and their relevance to management issues.
Short Duration Exercises

Ankles Away: All team members are linked in a line by having their ankles
tied effectively forming a worm. The task involves the whole team walking
a route led by a safety person. The complexity can be increased by having
the two ends also being tied off
This activity serves well as an ice-breaker and is quite exciting, helping in
setting the tone of the programme in a fun way

Relevant themes: Advantages and drawbacks/problems of working together
in an organisation; and is it easier to work when we come together (which
happens when the two ends are tied off), care & concern, etc.

Trust games: These proceed in stages, incorporating a few or all of them.
The whole group forms a circle and holds on to a rope the ends of which are
tied off to each other. Individuals are asked to gradually lean back without
leaving the rope to an extent where they are being held upright in a tilted
position only because they are leaning away with the rope in their hands.
The next stage involves people leaning inwards, then alternate people
leaning inwards and outwards, etc.
Discarding the rope, the group is split into pairs. One person supports his/her
partner who takes a dead fall in a pre-determined direction.

The next stage involves one person standing in the middle of a circle of 4-5
persons and taking a standing dead fall in an undetermined direction with
the circle preventing a fall to the ground. These two stages help people
understand how to take a dead fall, which prepares them for the last stage.

The ultimate stage involves a team of at least 8 people. Three pairs stand
next to each other with the partners facing each other in a formation with
their hands and feet in a defined position. One person stands at one end of
this group of pairs and co-ordinates the fall of the last team member into the
hands of the three pairs from a height of at least 3 feet.

Relevant themes: Trust, Team work, Overcoming of real risk Feelings &
emotions like fear, anxiety & sense of achievement.
Medium Intensity Exercises

Cobweb: The cobweb is of ropes built between two supports, with the
number of spaces in it equal to the number of team members. Objective is to
have the whole team cross from one side of the web to the other, within
certain operational constraints.
Relevant themes: Formation of team, strong bonding, Communication,
Emergence of roles, Operating within constraints, Resource utilisation
Management processes(planning, organisation) Personal attributes like
assertiveness and initiative

Raft - building: Two or three teams build rafts from available kit (bamboos,
tubes, strings) this can be conducted variously involving planning,
delegation, etc. Objective is to prove water-worthiness of each raft by doing a
route in the water.

Relevant themes: Teamwork, Project management, Leadership, Creativity

Trust, Emergence of roles, Overcoming of risk, Sense of achievement, Fun!
Blind Intent
Team of 5-7 people is supposed to pitch a tent with there being only one
sighted person (the rest blind folded); and the sighted person operates under
the constraint of not being to touch anything or anybody.
This exercise can be offered in many forms: e.g., all team members first
understand the tent before getting blind folded, or only the sighted co-
ordinator is shown the tent while the others are getting blind folded, or there
could be two co-ordinators,
Relevant themes: Task clarity, Constraint clarity, Role clarity, Leadership
styles, Initiative & responsibility, Resource management, Planning,
Delegation

High Intensity Exercises

Rappelling (Abseiling): Rappelling is coming down steep (rock) faces with
the help of ropes & other equipment. Very simple & safe method, but with a
very high perceived risk factor.
Relevant themes: Personal performance, Feelings: intense fear, overcoming
of same, intense joy, sense of achievement, Self-confidence, Self esteem,
Self-awareness, Tackling stress, Trust (on partner, on operating systems)
Issues of organisational support and responsibilities

Map & compass navigation exercises: Generally spread over an area of 4-
5 sq. km or even more. Could involve night operations, climb to a destination
(like a fort or a hill-top temple) or camping out in tents. A lot of planning of
operations goes into this (on the part of the participants). The whole group
gets split into a few teams. Each team does an independent task, which fits
into a larger picture. Drawing a parallel to the organisational set-up, teams
can be needed to collaborate. Complications like crises, the need for
negotiations, etc. can be designed. This exercise could well develop into a
miniature, intense model of a simple organisation.
Relevant themes: A very comprehensive exercise, delving heavily into
team dynamics and management processes. Project management, Single
objective perspective, Team dynamics, Communication, Leadership,
Emergence of roles, Resource management Interpersonal relationships,
Physical & mental stress, Sustained stress Sense of achievement, Crisis
PROCESS USED IN OMD
Each participant undergoes the reality and intensity of experience. He/she
faces the judicious content of challenge and stress where the inherent
element of fun and nature are incorporated. The subsequent review
confronts the individual directly with the consequences and interpretation of
his/her behaviour. This enables one to reach the real factors that underlie an
individuals performance and behaviour.
In outbound programs, participants are made to go through various outdoor
activities where they will be required to face challenging situations as
individuals and teams. These programmes generally revolve around activities
designed to improve leadership, communication skills, planning, change
management, delegation, teamwork, and motivation. Participants are divided
into teams and assigned tasks or activities for completion in a specified time.
Achievement and performance during these activities is reviewed in group
discussions to identify behaviours that enhance performance or lead to
failure or decreased performance. Strategies are formulated to deal with
factors that hinder, and these strategies are then put to use in the activities
that follow, to test their effectiveness.
In this process a typical program, a facilitator -generally responsible for 8 to
12 participants-begins by discussing individual and group goals for the
program. An individual goal might be something like, I need to work on my
listening skills.A group, on the other hand, may be trying to enhance its
understanding of the group process.
Next Participants are gradually introduced to the experiential (learn by
doing) training process, their unusual learning environment, and their fellow
team members. Simple activities act as ice-breaker. Basic Warm-up
exercises (such as stretching) prepare participants for more strenuous
activities.
Trust is an important issue to address in experiential programs, though it is
seldom the main goal. Facilitators frequently use trust falls, trust walks, and
other activities to help participant place trust issue on the table for
discussion. Such issues can be delicate; the experiential activities help to
create a level of comfort that may encourage participants to talk about trust.
Many programs spend most of their time on team problem solving activities.
Participants use permanent equipment or simple props to tackle a wide
range of problems that cannot be solved by one or two people working alone.
The entire group must become involved physically and intellectually
.Leadership and personality styles, Decision making models, problem solving
strategies, conflict management ,creativity, risk taking skills and mutual
instruction all come into play and become potential topics for discussion.
Some program in both high and low ropes courses focus on individual
problem solving. such activities emphasize risk taking, self-esteem, and
locus of control.
Debriefing
Debriefing or processing, is the most crucial part of an outdoor training
program. Debriefing is a qualitative discussion period that allows participants
to analyze their efforts to solve problems and act cohesively as a team. It is
critical step in applying the outdoor experiences to the workplace.
The outdoor activities are often videotaped and played back during the
debriefing sessions, making battery-powered monitors in the woods a
standard training accessory.
Many outdoor-centered training programs operate on rigorous one to five day
schedules. Outdoor sessions are held throughout the day with indoor
sessions (more debriefing) after dinner, continuing until 10 or 11 p.m. Many
programs allow for only an hour or 2 of free time during a 12-14 hour day.
Some programs include pre and post work. Pre work includes needs
assessments, seminars and in some cases, formal coursework in such areas
as leadership and decision making. Post-work may include additional
seminars (including review of videotapes from the outdoor program) and on-
site refresher activities.
The stated objectives of adventure training programs span a broad range of
individual and group outcomes. A review of the literature in the area reveals
various objectives, including the following:
Promoting individual risk taking, self-esteem, and trust.
Enhancing group problem solving and leadership skills
Increasing productivity.
FLOW OF OMD

TRANSFER OF LEARNING
After the completion of course the participants make an Action Plan based on
learnings and the same is reviewed to ensure its impacts at the work place.
There are many variations in how an outdoor leadership training program is
delivered, but the core methodology of experiential learning is simple and
powerful. Depending on the program objective, participants are guided
through a series of activities that are fun, engaging and challenging. These
activities are then facilitated by behavioural experts, who observe and
discuss participants responses to situations across activities. Patterns of
behaviour are correlated, and there is free and frank discussion on functional
and dysfunctional behaviour. The facilitators then relate the learning to the
organizational context, and discuss how positive change can improve
individual and organizational effectiveness.

A major advantage of an outbound program is that over the course of the
program, participants are offered reflections that help them realize which
aspects of their behavior are dysfunctional, and are then provided with
opportunities to experiment with changed behaviour in a setting where there
is no penalty for failure.
Learning Methods in Outbound Management Development
Outdoor education focus model
1. Interpersonal growth
a. Teamwork
b. Sense of respect
c. Intra and interpersonal development
d. Integrity
e. Fun and enjoyment
f. Dan lain-lain lagi

2. Outdoor pursuits and adventure education
a. Outdoor adventure activity skills
i. Kayaking
ii. Repelling
iii. Orienteering
iv. Swimming
v. Mountaineering
vi. Dan lain-lain lagi

3. Environmental education
a. To develop sense of belongings to the environment
b. Conservation
c. Preservation
d. Minimal impact camping
Outdoor experiential learning methods
Learning Methods
In order to achieve these specific goals, OE adopted a very special and
unique learning method: Outdoor experiential learning
The Experiential Process

Fig: Experiential Learning Cycle (Kolb, 1984)
The Processing Stages

Figure: Outdoor Experiential Learning Process Stages
OUTCOMES OF OMD
1. The factors behind this method gaining popularity among companies
are the enjoyable nature of the activities, and the inputs of the
participants themselves leading to development. The targeted
activities decrease resistance to negative feedback and make it more
likely for it to be accepted and acted upon.
2. Decisions made or actions taken during the outdoor exercises have an
important and immediate effect on the participants involved. it
provides delegates with unlimited opportunities to increase awareness
of others and themselves. This awareness will enable them to
communicate with others more effectively and to enhance the
performance of the team.
Outbound experimental training: Vendors
List of vendors for OMD in Mumbai /India
Vendors for OMD Location Links
Wildrift New Delhi http://www.wildrift.com/
Natura Delhi http://www.natura.co.in/
Ecomantra Mumbai http://ecomantra.com
Outcomes of OMD

Self Awareness Acceptance Transformation

Performance
Inspiring India Delhi http://www.inspiringindia.in/
Zenith Hospitality

Mumbai http://zenithhospitality.net/company_profile.htm
Insearch Outdoors Pune http://www.indiamart.com/insearchoutdoors/
Middle Earth
Consultants
Hyderabad http://www.mecindia.in/index.html
Step Consultants New Delhi,
Mumbai
http://www.stepconsulting.org/
ZBAC Mumbai http://www.zbacadventures.co.in/
Organizations which use OMD
HSBC EDPI Motorola
Infosys Technologies Saankhya InfoTech
Infotech Enterprises Indian School of Business
Oracle Pix
ICFAI Adlabs Films
Dr.Reddys Laboratories Citibank Ltd
Zee TV Johnson & Johnson
UTV Sony TV
Accenture Cognizant
L&T TCS
Wipro ICICI Prudential
AC Nielsen Tata Sky
Bharti AXA Life Insurance ICICI Prudential
Training Programmes
Apart from the OMD, below mentioned trainings were conducted by the L&D
team:
Driving Self Excellence
Assertiveness
Effective Communication Skills
Time Management
Driving Self Excellence
7 Habits
























RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Primary Data
Primary data is collected mainly through questionnaire which is sent to the
participants
Secondary Data
Secondary data is collected mainly through existing data available in the
company records.
Questionnaire type
An Open-ended questionnaire is sent to the managing staff through e-mail.
There are 17 questions regarding training programme. For every question 4
options are there, Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree.
According to that they have to give marking 1,2,3,4.
Sampling Size
A Sample Size of 25 employees is selected from each training programme
conducted.
Limitations
1. Only 4 programmes were conducted during the months of June & July in 2
years.
2. The project will be limited to the impact of OMD on team building

Training Program conducted in June & July
Training Name Outbound Management training
Location Mumbai
Frequency Twice in a year
Grade For all grade (including CFO)
Participants 70
External Consultant Zenith Hospitality
http://zenithhospitality.net/company_profile.htm
Age Group 25yrs to 52 yrs
Work Experience Above 2yrs

Research Questionnaire:
Program Name: Outbound Management Training
Name: ____________________ Designation: _______________
Total Work Exp:______
Dear Participant,
Please mark your responses to the following questions as given below:
Attribute Rating
A) Strongly Disagree 1
B) Disagree 2
C) Agree 3
D) Strongly Agree 4
Items Rating
(1 to 4)
1. The programme helped me understand the concept of team
building.

2. The Program increased my awareness about the importance of
effectiveness in managerial roles.

3.I shared the knowledge I gained with my other colleagues
4. The programme helped in identifying the individuals strengths,
styles & skills.

5. My job offers adequate opportunity to apply some or all that I
have learnt.

6. The programme helped me perform better at work.
7. The Programme taught me the ways & means through which the


Comments /Suggestion if any:_____________________________
Sample

team building & conflict handling can be done better.
8. My superiors & colleagues have acknowledged my improved
knowledge in the field.

9. I believe I have been able to take more effective decision after
undergoing the course.

10. I could apply some or all of the knowledge gained.
11. I feel that that programme was useful for our team.
12. I like the methodology used in the OMD training.
13. The programme increased team cohesiveness.
14. The environment was appropriate to achieve the goal of the
programme.

15. The programme helped to build trust within the team.
16. I understand & accept each team member with their strength &
weakness.

17. I recommended this courses to all of my other colleagues
The proposed sample size is 25, which includes:

Data of 14 Executive & Sr. Executive.
Data of 5 Associate Manager
Data of 4 manager
Data of 2 VP & Sr.VP

Data Analysis:


Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Agree
Strongly
agree
Total
Question 1 0 1 14 10 25
Question 2 0 1 17 7 25
Question 3 0 2 18 5 25
Question 4 0 1 15 9 25
Question 5 2 6 10 7 25
Question 6 1 7 12 5 25
Question 7 0 3 15 7 25
Question 8 1 4 14 6 25
Question 9 1 0 17 7 25
Question
10
0 5 13 7 25
Question
11
0 2 8 15 25
Question
12
0 2 15 8 25
Question
13
1 1 16 7 25
Question
14
0 1 13 11 25
Question
15
0 1 16 8 25
Question
16
0 0 20 5 25
Question
17
0 3 15 7 25






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Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
Conclusion:
We can conclude that if a course aims to bring about positive shifts in
participants attitudes towards the veracity and utility of leadership and team-
working theory, these are likely to be elicited by a programme consisting of
micro-dynamic tasks followed by structured, facilitated reviews.

The objective of this project was to find out the impact of OMD, whether
OMD is beneficial to participants

There is substantial response evidence to suggest that outdoor experimental
programmes can impact positively on participants:
attitudes, beliefs and self-perceptions examples of outcomes include
independence, confidence, self-esteem, locus of control, self-efficacy,
personal effectiveness and coping strategies interpersonal and social skills
such as social effectiveness, communication skills, group cohesion and
teamwork.

The evidence base for physical/behavioural benefits is less strong than for
affective and interpersonal/social outcomes. In cases where there is a focus
on such measures, however, there are examples of outdoor experimental
programme yielding benefits in terms of:

the development of general and specific professional skills, as well as
improved engagement and achievement

the promotion of positive behaviour and reduced rates of team conflict
and improved team cohesiveness.

In relation to fostering organisational concern and awareness, the evidence
of a positive link between outdoor adventure activities and environmental
understanding and values is not strong. There seems to be a strong case for
questioning the notion that nature experience automatically contributes to
environmental awareness, commitment and action.

Team building games, exercises and activities through outbound
experimental help build teams, develop employee motivation, improve
communications and are fun - for corporate organizations, group. This
outbound training helped member to understand and accept other team
member with their strength and weakness.


These team building games, ideas and rules will help you design and use
games and exercises for training sessions, meetings, workshops, seminars
or conferences, for adults, young people and children, in work, education or
for clubs and social activities. Team building games, exercises and activities
can also enhance business projects, giving specific business outputs and
organizational benefits.


Team-building is an important factor in any environment, its focus is to
specialize in bringing out the best in a team to ensure self development,
positive communication, leadership skills and the ability to work closely
together as a team to problem solve.

Work environments tend to focus on individuals and personal goals, with
reward & recognition singling out the achievements of individual employees.
"How to create effective teams is a challenge in every organization Team
building can also refer to the process of selecting or creating a team from
scratch.

The goal of the open-ended question was to evaluate the general attitude
towards outdoor training for team building among working professionals.
Responses ranged from total support to disdain

For Examples, Some respondents noted improved morale among
participants as well as improved teamwork within their organisations. Others
called outdoor training an expensive and trendy gimmick and worried about
legal and liability problems.


Outbound experimental training is more than a trend; it will probably rank as
an effective human resource development strategy, particularly for enhancing
team building for work groups. Hence It clearly show from the response data
of participants majority of the audiences have understood the concept of
team building however there is limitation of practical application of it in the
closed door environment of the work place.

References

http://ecomantra.com/pages/clients/
http://www.mecindia.in/companycases.html )
http://www.leoadventuresports.co.in/corporate_outbound.php
http://www.balistarisland.com/Groupevents/Outboundteambuilding.html
http://www.hornelake.com/about_us.htm
http://www.newleaftraining.in/whatwedo.htm
http://www.mile.net.in/index.php/beyond-the-classroom/outbound-
activities.html

http://www.articlesbase.com/team-building-articles/how-to-resolve-work-
issues-through-outbound-training-893848.html

Broderick, Learning the ropes. Training, October 1989.
Cosgrove, D.J The outdoor Experience.Midwest Academy of
Management meeting, Toledo, Ohio April 1988
Ewert, A. W, Outdoor Adventure Pursuits: Foundations Models and
Theories. Columbus, Ohio: Publishing Horizons
Paper presented at UPSI OE Facilitators Workshop 9 20 May 2007,
Pulau Redang, Terengganu
Mishra R K Ravishankar,s eds management development and training
in public enterprise Delhi Ajanta publications 1983
Paul s managing development programmes. the lessons of success
boulder Colorado west view press 1982
Susan Connolly participant evaluation finding out how well training
worked training and development journal 10 1983
A Mathur - Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning

Developing Teams Outdoors Veal, Bob Executive Excellence; Dec
1991; 8, 12; ABI/INFORM Global.
Getting the most out of outdoor training: Training & Development
Journal, March 1991