Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Thirteen

POWER AND POLITICS

CHAPTER 13 OUTLINE
A Definition of Power
1. Definition: Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of
B, so that B acts in accordance with As wishes.
Power may exist but not be used. t is, therefore, a capacity or potential.
!. Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of
dependency.
"he #reater Bs dependence on A, the #reater is As power in the
relationship.
Dependence, in turn, is based on alternatives that B perceives and the
importance that B places on the alternative$s% that A controls.
A person can have power over you only if he or she controls somethin#
you desire.
&ontrastin# 'eadership and Power
1. 'eaders use power as a means of attainin# #roup #oals. 'eaders achieve
#oals, and power is a means of facilitatin# their achievement.
!. Differences between 'eadership and Power:
Goal compatibility:
a. Power does not re(uire #oal compatibility, merely dependence.
b. 'eadership, on the other hand, re(uires some con#ruence between the
#oals of the leader and those bein# led.
The direction of influence:
a. 'eadership focuses on the downward influence on ones followers.
b. 'eadership research, for the most part, emphasi)es style.
c. Power does not minimi)e the importance of lateral and upward
influence patterns.
d. "he research on power has tended to encompass a broader area and
focus on tactics for #ainin# compliance.
Bases of Power
A. ormal !o"er
1. Coercive !o"er:
"he coercive power base is bein# dependent on fear.
t rests on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions
such as the infliction of pain, the #eneration of frustration throu#h
restriction of movement, or the controllin# by force of basic physiolo#ical or
safety needs.
At the or#ani)ational level, A has coercive power over B if A can dismiss,
suspend, or demote B, assumin# that B values his or her *ob.
+imilarly, if A can assi#n B wor, activities that B finds unpleasant or treat B
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Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Thirteen
in a manner that B finds embarrassin#, A possesses coercive power over
B.
!. Re"ard !o"er:
"he opposite of coercive power is reward power.
People comply because doin# so produces positive benefits- therefore,
one who can distribute rewards that others view as valuable will have
power over those others.
"hese rewards can be anythin# that another person values.
&oercive power and reward power are actually counterparts of each other.
a. f you can remove somethin# of positive value from another or inflict
somethin# of ne#ative value upon him.her, you have coercive power
over that person.
b. f you can #ive someone somethin# of positive value or remove
somethin# of ne#ative value, you have reward power over that person.
/. #egitimate !o"er:
n formal #roups and or#ani)ations, the most fre(uent access power is
ones structural position. t represents the power a person receives as a
result of his.her position in the formal hierarchy.
Positions of authority include coercive and reward powers.
'e#itimate power, however, is broader than the power to coerce and
reward. t includes acceptance of the authority of a position by members of
an or#ani)ation.
0. $nformation !o"er:
1efers to power that comes from access to and control over information.
2hen people have needed information, others become dependant on
them. $3or example, mana#ers have access to data that subordinates do
not have%.
B. !ersonal !o"er
1. %&pert !o"er:
%&pert po"er is 4influence wielded as a result of expertise, special s,ill, or
,nowled#e.4
5xpertise has become a powerful source of influence as the world has
become more technolo#ical. As *obs become more speciali)ed, we
become increasin#ly dependent on experts to achieve #oals.
!. Referent !o"er:
ts base is identification with a person who has desirable resources or
personal traits. f admire and identify with you, you can exercise power
over me because want to please you.
1eferent power develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be
li,e that person- it is a lot li,e charisma.
1eferent power explains why celebrities are paid millions of dollars to
endorse products in commercials.
/. Charismatic !o"er:
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Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Thirteen
s an extension of referent power stemmin# from an individuals personality
and interpersonal style6
7thers follow because they can articulate attractive visions, ta,e personal
ris,s, demonstrate follower sensitivity, etc.
Dependency: "he 8ey to Power
1. "he 9eneral Dependency Postulate:
"he #reater Bs dependency on A, the #reater the power A has over B.
a. 2hen you possess anythin# that others re(uire but that you alone
control, you ma,e them dependent upon you and, therefore, you #ain
power over them.
Dependency, then, is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of
supply.
a. "his is why most or#ani)ations develop multiple suppliers rather usin#
*ust one.
b. t also explains why so many of us aspire to financial independence.
!. 2hat &reates Dependency6
$mportance
a. "o create dependency, the thin#$s% you control must be perceived as
bein# important.
b. 7r#ani)ations actively see, to avoid uncertainty.
c. "herefore, those individuals or #roups who can absorb an
or#ani)ations uncertainty will be perceived as controllin# an important
resource.
'carcity
a. A resource needs to be perceived as scarce to create dependency.
b. 'ow:ran,in# members in an or#ani)ation who have important
,nowled#e not available to hi#h:ran,in# members #ain power over the
hi#h:ran,in# members.
c. "he scarcity:dependency relationship can further be seen in the power
of occupational cate#ories.
d. ndividuals in occupations in which the supply of personnel is low
relative to demand can ne#otiate compensation and benefit pac,a#es,
which are far more attractive than can those in occupations where
there is an abundance of candidates.
(onsubstitutability
a. "he more that a resource has no viable substitutes, the more power
that control over that resource provides.
Power "actics
1. ;sin# power tactics to translate power into action
1esearch has identified nine distinct influence tactics. $see %&hibit )*+,-
a. #egitimacy. 1elyin# on ones authority position- re(uest is in accord
with or#ani)ational policies or rules..
b. Rational persuasion. 'o#ical ar#uments and factual evidence- re(uest
is reasonable.
c. $nspirational appeals. 5nvelopin# emotional commitment- appeal to
values, needs, hopes, and aspirations.
d. Consultation. ncrease motivation and support- involve people in
decidin# how the pan will be implemented.
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Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Thirteen
e. %&change. 1eward with benefits or favors in exchan#e for followin# a
re(uest.
f. !ersonal appeals. As, for compliance based on friendship or loyalty
#. $ngratiation. ;se flattery, praise, or friendship prior to ma,in# re(uest
h. !ressure. ;se warnin#s, demands, and threats.
i. Coalitions. 5nlist other people to persuade others.
2. People in different countries tend to prefer different power tactics.
/. "he or#ani)ations culture
"he or#ani)ational culture in which a mana#er wor,s, therefore, will
have a si#nificant bearin# on definin# which tactics are considered
appropriate.
"he or#ani)ation itself will influence which subset of power tactics is
viewed as acceptable for use by mana#ers.
Power in 9roups: &oalitions
1. "hose <out of power= and see,in# to be <in= will first try to increase their power
individually.
!. f ineffective, the alternative is to form a coalition>an informal #roup bound
to#ether by the active pursuit of a sin#le issue.
/. "he natural way to #ain influence is to become a power holder but this may be
difficult, ris,y, costly, or impossible.
n such cases, efforts will be made to form a coalition of two or more <outs=
who, by *oinin# to#ether, can combine their resources to increase rewards
for themselves.
+uccessful coalitions have been found to contain fluid membership and are
able to form swiftly, achieve their tar#et issue, and (uic,ly disappear.
0. Predictions about &oalition 3ormation
3irst, coalitions in or#ani)ations often see, to maximi)e their si)e.
a. Decision:ma,in# in or#ani)ations does not end *ust with selection from
amon# a set of alternatives.
b. "he decision must also be implemented.
c. "he implementation of and commitment to the decision is at least as
important as the decision.
d. t is necessary for coalitions in or#ani)ations to see, a broad
constituency.
e. "his coalition expansion is to facilitate consensus buildin#
f. n political science theory, coalitions move the other way>they try to
minimi)e their si)e.
Another prediction relates to the de#ree of interdependence within the
or#ani)ation.
a. ?ore coalitions will li,ely be created where there is a #reat deal of tas,
and resource interdependence.
b. n contrast, there will be less interdependence amon# subunits and
less coalition formation activity where subunits are lar#ely self:
contained or resources are abundant.
3inally, coalition formation will be influenced by the actual tas,s that
wor,ers do.
a. "he more routine the tas, of a #roup, the #reater the li,elihood that
coalitions will form.
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Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Thirteen
b. "he more that the wor, that people do is routine, the #reater their
substitutability.
+exual @arassment: ;ne(ual Power in the 2or,place
1. mportance:

A 8entuc,y *ury awarded A! million to a Philip ?orris plant supervisor after

sufferin# throu#h more than a year of sexual harassment from the men she
supervised.
!. +exual @arassment Defined:

4Any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individuals

employment.4

"he ;.+. +upreme &ourt clarified the definition by addin# that the ,ey test
for determinin# if sexual harassment has occurred is whether comments or
behavior in a wor, environment <would reasonably be perceived, and is
perceived, as hostile or abusive.

"here continues to be disa#reement as to what specifically constitutes

sexual harassment:
a. 7vert forms of sexual harassment of female employees. "his includes
unwanted physical touchin#, recurrin# re(uests for dates when it is
made clear the woman is not interested, and coercive threats that a
woman will lose her *ob if she refuses a sexual proposition.
b. "he problem today>subtle forms of sexual harassment such as
unwanted loo,s or comments, off:color *o,es, sexual artifacts li,e nude
calendars in the wor,place, etc.

?ost studies confirm that the concept of power is central to understandin#

sexual harassment.
Politics: Power in Action
1. Definition: those activities that are not re(uired as part of ones formal role in
the or#ani)ation, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of
advanta#es and disadvanta#es within the or#ani)ation.
!. "his definition encompasses ,ey elements.
a. Political behavior is outside ones specified *ob re(uirements.
b. t encompasses efforts to influence the #oals, criteria, or processes
used for decision:ma,in#.
c. t includes such varied political behaviors as withholdin# ,ey
information from decision ma,ers, whistle blowin#, spreadin# rumors,
lea,in# confidential information, etc.
/. "he <'e#itimate:lle#itimate= Dimension
'e#itimate political behavior refers to normal everyday politics>
complainin# to your supervisor, bypassin# the chain of command, formin#
coalitions, etc.
lle#itimate political behaviors that violate the implied rules of the #ame,
such as sabota#e, whistle blowin#, and symbolic protests, etc.
"he vast ma*ority of all or#ani)ational political actions are le#itimate. "he
extreme ille#itimate forms of political behavior pose a very real ris, of loss
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Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Thirteen
of or#ani)ational membership or extreme sanction.
A. The Reality of !olitics
1. Politics is a fact of life in or#ani)ations.
!. 7r#ani)ations are made up of individuals and #roups with different values,
#oals, and interests. "his sets up the potential for conflict over resources.
/. 1esources in or#ani)ations are also limited, which often turns potential conflict
into real conflict. Because resources are limited, not everyones interests can
be provided for causin# the conflict.
9ains by one individual or #roup are often perceived as bein# at the
expense of others.
"hese forces create a competition.
0. "he most important factor leadin# to politics within or#ani)ations is the
reali)ation that most of the <facts= that are used to allocate the limited
resources are open to interpretation.
a. 2hat is #ood performance6
b. 2hats an ade(uate improvement6
B. ?ost mana#erial decisions ta,e place in the lar#e and ambi#uous middle
#round of or#ani)ational life.
C. Because most decisions have to be made in a climate of ambi#uity, people
within or#ani)ations will use whatever influence they can to taint the facts to
support their #oals and interests. "hese are activities we call politic,in#.
D. t is possible for an or#ani)ation to be politics free, if all members of that
or#ani)ation hold the same #oals and interests, however, that is not the
or#ani)ation most people wor, in.
3actors &ontributin# to Political Behavior
1. $ndividual factors:
1esearchers have identified certain personality traits, needs, and other
factors that are li,ely to be related to political behavior.
a. 5mployees who are hi#h self:monitors, possess an internal locus of
control, and have a hi#h need for power are more li,ely to en#a#e in
political behavior.
b. "he hi#h self:monitor is more sensitive to social cues and is more li,ely
to be s,illed in political behavior than the low self:monitor.
c. ndividuals with an internal locus of control are more prone to ta,e a
proactive stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their favor.
d. "he ?achiavellian personality is comfortable usin# politics as a means
to further his.her self:interest.
An individuals investment in the or#ani)ation, perceived alternatives, and
expectations of success will influence the tendency to pursue ille#itimate
means of political action.
a. "he more that a person has invested and the more a person has to
lose, the less li,ely he.she is to use ille#itimate means.
b. "he more alternative *ob opportunities an individual has, a prominent
reputation, or influential contacts outside the or#ani)ation, the more
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Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Thirteen
li,ely he.she will ris, ille#itimate political actions.
c. A low expectation of success in usin# ille#itimate means diminishes the
probability of its use.
,. Organizational factors:
Political activity is probably more a function of the or#ani)ations
characteristics than of individual difference variables.
2hen an or#ani)ations resources are declinin#, when the existin# pattern
of resources is chan#in#, and when there is opportunity for promotions,
politics is more li,ely to surface.
a. &ultures characteri)ed by low trust, role ambi#uity, unclear
performance evaluation systems, )ero:sum reward allocation
practices, democratic decision:ma,in#, hi#h pressures for
performance, and self:servin# senior mana#ers will create breedin#
#rounds for politic,in#.
b. 2hen or#ani)ations downsi)e to improve efficiency, people may
en#a#e in political actions to safe#uard what they have.
c. Promotion decisions have consistently been found to be one of the
most political in or#ani)ations.
d. "he less trust there is within the or#ani)ation, the hi#her the level of
political behavior and the more li,ely it will be ille#itimate.
e. 1ole ambi#uity means that the prescribed behaviors of the employee
are not clear.
"here are fewer limits to the scope and functions of the
employees political actions.
"he #reater the role ambi#uity, the more one can en#a#e in
political activity with little chance of it bein# visible.
f. +ub*ective criteria in the appraisal process:
+ub*ective performance criteria create ambi#uity.
+in#le outcome measures encoura#e doin# whatever is necessary
to <loo, #ood.=
"he more time that elapses between an action and its appraisal,
the more unli,ely that the employee will be held accountable for
his.her political behaviors.
#. "he )ero:sum approach treats the reward <pie= as fixed so that any
#ain one person or #roup achieves has to come at the expense of
another person or #roup. f win, you must loseE
"his encoura#es ma,in# others loo, bad and increasin# the
visibility of what you do.
h. ?a,in# or#ani)ations less autocratic by as,in# mana#ers to behave
more democratically is not necessarily embraced by all individual
mana#ers.
+harin# their power with others runs directly a#ainst some
mana#ers desires.
"he result is that mana#ers, especially those who be#an their
careers in the 1FBGs and 1FCGs, may use the re(uired
committees, conferences, and #roup meetin#s in a superficial way
as arenas for maneuverin# and manipulatin#.
i. "he more pressure that employees feel to perform well, the more li,ely
they are to en#a#e in politic,in#.
f a person perceives that his or her entire career is ridin# on the
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Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Thirteen
next <whatever,= there is motivation to do whatever is necessary to
ma,e sure the outcome is favorable.
*. 2hen employees see top mana#ement successfully en#a#in# in
political behavior, a climate is created that supports politic,in#.
A. .o" /o !eople Respond to Organizational !olitics0 1see %&hibit )*+2-
1. "here is very stron# evidence indicatin# that perceptions of or#ani)ational
politics are ne#atively related to *ob satisfaction.
!. "he perception of politics leads to anxiety or stress. 2hen it #et too much to
handle, employees (uit.
/. t is a de:motivatin# force and performance may suffer as a result.
2. "he effect of politics is moderated by the ,nowled#e the individual has of the
decision ma,in# system and his.her political s,ills:
@i#h political s,ills individuals often have improved performance.
'ow political s,ills individuals often respond with defensive behaviors>
reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, chan#e, or blame. $see
%&hibit )*+3%
B. 1eaction to or#ani)ational politics is also moderated by culture. n countries
that are more unstable politically, wor,ers will tolerate hi#her levels of
politic,in# that more politically stable counties.
B. $mpression 4anagement
1. "he process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form
of them $see %&hibit )*+5%
2e ,now that people have an on#oin# interest in how others perceive and
evaluate them.
Bein# perceived positively by others should have benefits for people in
or#ani)ations.
!. 2ho en#a#es in ?>the hi#h self:monitor
'ow self:monitors tend to present ima#es of themselves that are consistent
with their personalities, re#ardless of the beneficial or detrimental effects
for them.
@i#h self:monitors are #ood at readin# situations and moldin# their
appearances and behavior to fit each situation.
/. ? does not imply that the impressions people convey are necessarily false.
5xcuses and acclaimin#, for instance, may be offered with sincerity.
Hou can actually believe that ads contribute little to sales in your re#ion or
that you are the ,ey to the triplin# of your divisions sales.
0. ?isrepresentation can have a hi#h cost. f the ima#e claimed is false, you may
be discredited.
B. +ituations that are characteri)ed by hi#h uncertainty or ambi#uity that provide
relatively little information for challen#in# a fraudulent claim increase the
li,elihood of individuals misrepresentin# themselves.
C. +tudies have been underta,en to test the effectiveness of ? techni(ues.
"hese have been essentially limited to *ob interview success.
"he evidence is that ? behavior wor,s.
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Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Thirteen
D. n one study, interviewers felt that those applicants for a position as a customer
service representative who used ? techni(ues performed better in the
interview and the interviewers seemed somewhat more inclined to hire these
people. 2hen the applicants credentials were also considered, it was
apparent that the ? techni(ues alone that influenced the interviewers.
I. Another employment interview study loo,ed at which ? techni(ues wor,ed
best.
"he researchers compared ? techni(ues that focused the conversation
on themselves $called a controllin# style% with techni(ues that focused on
the interviewer $referred to as a submissive style%.
"hose applicants who used the controllin# style were rated hi#her by
interviewers on factors such as motivation, enthusiasm, and even technical
s,ills and they received more *ob offers.
A more recent study confirmed the value of a controllin# style.
C. The %thics of Behaving !olitically
1. "hree ethical decision criteria are utilitarianism, ri#hts, and *ustice. +ee 5xhibit
1/:I for an illustration of a decision tree to #uide ethical actions.
!. "he first (uestion you need to answer addresses self:interest versus
or#ani)ational #oals. 5thical actions are consistent with the or#ani)ations
#oals.
/. "he second (uestion concerns the ri#hts of other parties.
0. "he final (uestion that needs to be addressed relates to whether or not the
political activity conforms to standards of e(uity and *ustice.
B. ;nfortunately, the answers to these (uestions are often ar#ued in ways to
ma,e unethical practices seem ethical. Powerful people can become very #ood
at explainin# self:servin# behaviors. "hey can persuasively ar#ue that unfair
actions are really fair and *ust.
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