Early Christianity

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Early Christianity
General Essay on Early Christianity
Christianity arose some 2000 years ago among the J ewish communities in Palestine at a time when
Palestine was occupied by the Roman empire. The presence of the Roman empire on J ewish soil
represented yet another occupation of the J ewish homeland by a powerful foreign empire. The sufferings
of the J ews at the hands of foreign oppressors was assuaged by the belief that a Messiah, or saviour,
would arise and restore the J ewish nation to the glories it had enjoyed under King David.
Among the many Messianic groups that were thrown up at the time of the Roman occupation was one
led by J esus of Nazareth, a wonder-worker who attacked the J ewish authorities of his time. Put on trial
for sedition, he was executed by crucifixion.
J esus' death did not represent the end of the new movement. His disciples, believing that God had risen
J esus from the dead, proclaimed the resurrection and the beginning of a new age. The most important
early convert, Paul of Tarsus, carried the Christian message to various parts of the Roman empire. Paul
himself probably died in Rome in about the year 64, a victim of the persecution of Christians in Rome
instigated by the Emperor Nero.
The persecution of the Roman Christians represented the beginning of periods of persecution against the
church during which times many Christians would bear witness to their faith through martyrdom. This
persecution came to an end with the conversion to Christianity of Constantine, the ruler of the western
half of the empire, and the subsequent official recognition of Christianity as a legal religion. In 324
Constantine unified the whole empire under his leadership and in 330 moved the capital of the empire
from Rome to the site of ancient Byzantium. Constantine called his capital New Rome, but it came to be
known to posterity as Constantinople.
The reign of Constantine provides the focal point around which the chart is constructed. The vertical line
in the centre separates those movements that appeared before Constantine established his new capital and
those that appeared afterwards. The earliest of these, Gnosticism, is represented by a broken line to
indicate, firstly, the uncertainty of the date of its origins and, secondly, that not all Gnostics identified
themselves as Christians. The Marcionite movement, which emerged in the middle of the second
century, has sometimes been described as Gnostic. However, its relative similarity to mainstream
Christianity and its prominence in the early church justify it being located separately and treated as a
movement in its own right.
Montanism and Donatism represent attempts to create a pure church untarnished by compromise with
the world. Montanism arose in Asia Minor around the year 170 and was inspired by the belief that
Montanus and his followers were prophetic mouthpieces of the Holy Spirit. Donatism was a schismatic
church that emerged in North Africa in the 4th century, defined by its refusal to accept the ordination of
bishops who had abandoned their faith during the persecution of the Church under Diocletian (284-305).
Monarchianism and Arianism were theological movements which sought to explain the meaning of the
doctrine of the Trinity. Monarchianism, which was at its height during the 3rd century, put forward a
variety of interpretations that were designed to affirm the unity of the Godhead. Arianism also sought to
preserve the unity of the Godhead through the claim that the Son was a creature rather than co-equal
with the Father.
Constantine's reign coincided with the period of the Arian controversy. To resolve it Constantine set up a
council of bishops at Nicaea in 325. The Council of Nicaea affirmed the full divinity of the Son and
condemned Arianism. This was followed in 381 by the Council of Constantinople which affirmed the
Early Christianity
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full divinity of the Holy Spirit.
The establishment of these creedal formulas did not, however, bring peace to the church. During the 5th
century the church was shaken by disputes concerning how the relationship between the divine and
human aspects of Christ was to be understood. At the centre of the dispute was Nestorius, bishop of
Constantinople, who, according to his opponents, held that there were two persons in Christ. At the
Council of Ephesus of 431 Nestorius was condemned and deposed.
Those who supported Nestorius' position established an independent church which came to be known as
the Nestorian Church. From the Nestorian Church there emerged another group of churches known as
the St Thomas Christians. The St Thomas Christians, which are located on the Malabar coast of south-
west India, are believed to have been established through Nestorian missions.
The condemnation and deposition of Nestorius did not settle the christological conflict. A further council
was called at Chalcedon in 451. The Council of Chalcedon decreed that Christ was truly God and truly
man, two natures in one person. This decision was unacceptable to the churches in Egypt, Ethiopia,
Armenia and Syria who claimed that Christ had only a single divine nature expressed in a human form.
These churches broke away from the mainstream church and came to be known as monophysites, a term
deriving from the Greek word mono (one) and phusis (nature). In the 17th century some of the St
Thomas Christians associated themselves with the Syrian Orthodox Church, thus creating a fifth
monophysite group.
The Benedictines are the most important of the early monastic communities. They follow the rule of St.
Benedict of Nursia (c.480-552), which is based on the four principles of study, communal life, prayer
and obedience.
The horizontal line at the bottom indicates the great schism between eastern and western Christianity.
The tensions between the Greek speaking eastern churches, based around Constantinople, and the Latin
speaking western churches base around Rome, culminated in the 11th century over the issue of the
relative importance of Rome and Constantinople within the Christian world. The church in Rome
claimed seniority over the church at Constantinople. The Constantinople church, however, refused to
acknowledge the authority of Rome, a decision that led both churches to excommunicate one another in
1054. This schism has never been healed.
Bibliography
Atiya, Aziz. A History of Early Christianity. London: Methuen and Co. Ltd., 1968.
Blackman, E.C. Marcion and His Influence. London: S.P.C.K., 1948.
Brown, Leslie. The Indian Christians of St. Thomas: An Account of the Ancient Syrian Church of Malabar. 2d ed.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
Butler, Cuthbert. Benedictine Monasticism: Studies in Benedictine Life and Rule. London: Longmans, Green and Co.,
1919.
Chadwick, Henry. The Penguin History of the Early Church. Harmondsworth, Essex: Penguin Books, 1967.
Conzelmann, Hans. History of Primitive Christianity. London: Darton, Longmann and Todd Ltd., 1973.
Danielou, J ean, S.J . Primitive Christian Symbols. Trans. a Carthusian monk. London: Burns and Oates Ltd., 1964.
Europa Publications Limited. The Europa World Year Book 1995, 2 vols. London: Europa Publications Limited, 1995.
Early Christianity
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Famighetti, Robert (ed.) The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1995. New J ersey: Funk and Wagnalls, 1994.
Frend W.H.C. The Donatist Church: A Movement of Protest in Roman North Africa. London: Oxford University Press,
1952.
Goehring, J ames E. and Birger A. Pearson. The Roots of Egyptian Christianity. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986.
Grant, Robert M. (ed.) Gnosticism: A Source Book of Heretical Writings from the Early Christian Period. New York:
Harper and Brothers, 1961.
Hanson, R.P.C. The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God.
Harnack, Adolf von. Marcion: Das Evangelium vom Fremden Gott: Eine Monographie zur Geschichteder
Grundlegung der Katholischen Kirche. Leipzig: J .L. Hinrich'sche Buchhandlung, 1921.
Holme, Henry. The Oldest Christian Church. London: Marshall Brothers, n.d.
Kelly, J .ND. Early Christian Doctrines. 5th rev. ed. London: Adams and Charles Black, 1977.
Neill, Stephen. A History of Christian Missions. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1964.
Petrement, Simone. A Separate God: The Christian Origins of Gnosticism. Trans. Carol Harrison. London: Darton,
Longman and Todd, 1991.
Rudolph, Kurt. Gnosis: the Nature and History of an Ancient Religion. Trans. P.W. Coxon, K.H. Kuhn and R.
McLachlen Wilson. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1977.
Vine, Aubrey R. The Nestorian Churches: A Concise History of Nestorian Christianity in Asia from the Persian
Schism to the Modern Assyrians. London: Independent Press Ltd., 1937.
Walker, Williston. A History of the Christian Church. 4the ed. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1986.
Wiles, Maurice. The Christian Fathers. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1966.
Williams, Rowan. Arius: Heresy and Tradition. London: Darton, Longman and Todd Ltd., 1987.
Early Christianity
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Early Christianity
Early Christianity
Doctrines The early Christian church was confronted with the challenge of explaining the
significance of the life, death and resurrection of J esus Christ. The first written
interpretation of the Christ event is found in the letters of the Apostle Paul which
were composed during the middle of the 1st century for the churches which he
founded. As a Pharisee Paul sought to present Christ's ministry as continuous with
J ewish religious traditions. This he did through depicting Christ as the new Adam
who brought salvation into the world as opposed to the old Adam who brought sin
into the world.
For Paul, Christ's death atoned for the sins of all humanity and his resurrection
enabled believers to acquire a new life free of sin, appropriated through faith and
repentance. Paul defended his theology through the example of Abraham, the
fatherof the J ewish nation, whose faith was equated with righteousness. The equation
of faith with righteousness meant that adherence to the J ewish law was not sufficient
for salvation. Instead the law served to make people aware of sin before Christ came.
History J esus was born in Behlehem in about 5 BCE and raised in Nazareth in Galilee. His
ministry began at about the age of thirty when he was baptised in the river J ordan.
After gathering a group of twelve disciples he travelled through Galilee proclaiming
the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God. His acceptance of those who were
socially and religiously outcast, his denunciation of the dry legalism that permeated
contemporary religious life, and his attacks on the temple earned him the hostility of
the J ewish religious authorities. Accused of blasphemy and inciting sedition, J esus
was tried and put to death by crucifixion.
Fearing for their own lives, J esus' disciples fled to their homes, but soon were
reunited in J erusalem convinced that God had risen J esus from the dead.
Emboldened by the resurrection and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit on the day of
the J ewish feast of Pentecost, the disciples publicly professed their belief in the
inauguration of the new age promised by J esus. Persecution forced many in the
movement to flee J erusalem for Antioch in Syria where the term "Christian" (derived
from the Greek word christos meaning "messiah") was used for the first time. This
designation, combined with Paul's prescription that the faith be available to non-J ews
as well as J ews, reflected the beginnings of Christianity's withdrawal from its J ewish
roots.
Such change was also apparent in the emergence of distinctive Christian writings.
During its early years the Christian movement had relied solely on the Hebrew
scriptures interpreted by the apostles and their successors. But at the end of the
apostolic age the church began to use distinctively Christian writings, such as the
letters of Paul, which came to acquire the same authority as the Hebrew scriptures.
By the end of the 2nd century a recognised corpus of Christian writings had
developed. These consisted of four Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke and J ohn); the
Acts of the Apostles; the thirteen letters attributed to Paul; seven further letters; and
the Book of Revelation.
Symbols The New Testament is full of symbolic images, many of which were used in the
Early Christianity
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writings of early Christian apologists. One of the best known comes from the Gospel
of J ohn in which J esus describes himself as a vine and his followers as the branches.
The church has understood this passage to mean that J esus is identifying himself as
the true Israel and the Christians as the community which grows from J esus.
The catacombs of Rome contain the earliest surviving Christian art, which dates to
middle of the third century. Common images are of boats and fishes. The boat image
played an important role in both the Old and New Testaments: Moses was adopted
by an Egyptian princess who discovered him floating in the Nile in a boat-crib, Noah
and his family were saved from the deluge by building an ark, and J esus preached
from a boat in lake Galilee. Very early on the boat became a symbol of the church
bearing the faithful to salvation.
The fish was also a common theme of both Old and New Testaments. The Old
Testament contains the story of J onah who was swallowed by a whale, a story that
J esus used as an image of his own death and resurrection. Some of J esus' followers
were fishermen, fish was consumed by the crowds following J esus, and after his
resurrection J esus gave his disciples fish and bread to eat. The church soon
discovered that the letters of the Greek word for fish - I Ch Th U S - Provided the
initials of J esus Christ son of God Saviour. Consequently, the fish became a
powerful symbol of Christ's presence in the church.
As a result of persecution the church frequently had to disguise its portrayal of
Christ. One way in which this was done was through the chi-rho monogram; that is,
the union of the first two letters of the Greek word for Christ. Another image was to
disguise the cross in the form of another image such as an anchor, an axe or a
plough.
Adherents Christianity remained a minority religion within the Roman empire until Theodosius
made it the official religion of the empire in 380.
Headquarters/
Main Centre
The sacred city for Christians is J erusalem, but the most important centre for the
early church was Rome.
Early Christianity Flowchart
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Gnosticism
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Gnosticism
Doctrines At the heart of Gnostic teaching is the belief that there is a divine spark in humanity
that has fallen from the realm of light into the realm of matter or darkness. Christian
Gnosticism termed the realm of darkness "the Void" and the realm of light "the
Fulness". Each realm has its own God-figure: the God of the Void is the Lord God
of the J ewish scriptures; the God of the Fulness is described as Mind. It is to the
Fulness that Gnostic Christians will return. Ordinary Christians will dwell with the
God of the Void. Non-Christians are destined for destruction.
The person of J esus Christ is also conceived in dualistic terms. There are two
Christs: the "psychic" Christ, the Messiah predicted in the J ewish scriptures, and the
true saviour who descended upon J esus during his baptism. In this scheme of things
J esus' teachings are interpreted as pointing to the Fulness and can only be properly
understood by Gnostics.
History The origins of Gnosticism are unknown. It is uncertain whether it antedated
Christianity or emerged from within Christianity. Drawing upon diverse sources such
as non-Christian mythology, astrology, Greek philosophy and Hellenistic J udaism,
Gnosticism consisted of various groups whose teaching was deemed to be accessible
only to a select few.
The most famous Gnostic schools were those of Basilides and Valentinus, which
emerged in the first half of the 2nd century. These schools and their followers set
about interpreting the New Testament texts according to Gnostic principles, and
established their own works such as the Apocryphon of J ohn and the Gospel of
Truth.
Gnostic ideas stirred up considerable opposition from mainstream Christian
apologists, and by the early 3rd century Gnostic influence had seriously declined. A
form of semi-Gnosticism continued through the teachings of the Persian prophet
Mani and his supporters, who came to be known as Manichaeans. Manichaeanism at
first spread quickly throughout the Roman empire but, like Gnosticism, was
successfully attacked by Christian apologists. By the fifth century Gnosticism and
Manichaeanism had all but disappeared.
The only group today which could claim any succession from Gnosticism are the
Mandaeans. Like Gnosticism, Mandeism is dualistic, based on the belief in a realm
of darkness and a realm of light. Mandean communities are to be found in south-
western Iran and southern Iraq.
Symbols Gnostic symbolism reflects the syncretic character of Gnostic belief. God is
symbolised by light; the material world by darkness. The connection between these
two realms is depicted in the form of a serpent biting its own tail; one half of the
serpent is black; the other half is white. The number 7 represents the seven angels
who created the world and who in turn represent fate. The symbol of the Mother
reflects the dualistic nature of Gnostic belief. There are two mothers: the Supreme
Mother who is the Holy Spirit and the second, inferior Mother who gives birth to the
God of the Void. The water of baptism enables the believer to be united with Christ
as Christ was united with the Holy Spirit through his baptism. In Mandeism the
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baptismal ceremony enables the baptised person to be free of sin and to enter into the
world of light.
Adherents There are some 20,000 Mandaeans in Iraq and a very small community in Iran
(Europa Publications Limited 1995, 1:1569).
Headquarters/
Main Centre
Mandaean groups survive in Nasiriyah, Iraq.
The Marcionite Movement
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The Marcionite Movement
Doctrines Marcion and his followers believed that there were two Gods: the God of wrath and
vengefulness of the Hebrew scriptures and the God of love and mercy revealed
through J esus Christ. It was the God of the Hebrew scriptures who created the
material universe, which is evil and is destined for destruction. The God of love is
revealed through J esus. Because J esus could have nothing in common with the evil
material world his human body was apparent, not real. Marcion's followers were
required to avoid as far as possible contamination with the material world. This took
the form of abstaining from sexual intercourse and from eating meat.
History Marcion, a wealthy Christian ship owner, came to Rome in about 139 and brought
with him a controversial interpretation of the J ewish scriptures. He argued that there
were moral contradictions between the J ewish scriptures and Christian belief. The
religion based in retributive law of the Old Testament could have no similarity to the
religion of love of the New Testament.
Marcion identified these differences in a work called Antitheses which juxtaposed
contradictory statements made about the God of the Hebrew scriptures and the
Christian God. More importantly, he put forward a canon of Christian works which
consisted of Paul's letters (except 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy and Titus) and an edited
version of the Gospel of Luke. In 144 he was excommunicated from the Christian
Church in Rome and established a separate church.
Following its establishment in Rome, the Marcionite sect spread quickly, establishing
communities in throughout Europe, Asia and Africa. Such was its strength during the
2nd century that it was seen as a serious rival to the mainstream church. However,
the movement fell into rapid decline during the 3rd and 4th centuries, and by the 5th
century had largely disappeared in the west. In the east, particularly Syria, the church
continued to flourish, surviving until the 10th century.
Symbols Like other Christian groups the Marcionites commemorated Christ's last supper.
However, unlike mainstream Christians they used water instead of wine.
Adherents No contemporary adherents.
Headquarters/
Main Centre
Rome.
Montanism
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Montanism
Doctrines Montanism shared the essential doctrines of mainstream Christianity. Its difference
lay in its understanding of prophecy. The leaders of the movement claimed to be
mouthpieces of the Holy Spirit proclaiming the end of the world.
History Montanus was a convert to Christianity who lived in Phrygia in Asia Minor during
the 2nd half of the second century. He and two followers, Priscilla and Maximilla,
began prophesying as though the Holy Spirit were speaking directly through them.
They claimed that J esus was going to return and establish the New J erusalem in
Perpuza in J erusalem. Montanism spread through Asia Minor and as far as Africa but
did not receive recognition from the established church. Over time the expectation of
Christ's return diminished, the prophetic element withered, and the movement's
internal energies dissipated. From the 4th century all that was left was of Montanism
was a small sect increasingly subjected to ecclesiastical and civil oppression. There
is no evidence that Montanism survived in the west beyond the 5th century.
However, the movement continued in Asia Minor up until the early Middle Ages.
Symbols Montanist churches generally employed the same symbols as other Christian groups.
Some Montanist sects baptised themselves daily; others rejected baptism. According
to some sources cheese was used in the eucharist. This practice was possibly inspired
by the vision of a woman called Perpetua who was one of twelve believers martyred
in Carthage in 180. In her vision Perpetua found herself in a garden where she saw a
man with white hair, dressed as a shepherd, milking his sheep. The shepherd gave
her a morsel of cheese which she received with folded hands, and when she ate it the
saints around them exclaimed "Amen".
Adherents There are no contemporary adherents.
Headquarters/
Main Centre
Perpezua in Phrygia.
Monarchianism
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Monarchianism
Doctrines Monarchianism derives from the Greek word monarchia meaning "uniqueness of
first principle". The term monarchia was used by Christians who were concerned that
certain interpretations of the doctrine of the Trinity were inconsistent with true
monotheism. They sought to explain the person of J esus in such a way that it
preserved the unity of God.
History Monarchianism emerged in Asia Minor and came to Rome in about 190. The first
group, sometimes described as adoptionist monarchians, was led by Theodotus of
Byzantium. They claimed that Christ was a man, born of the Virgin Mary and the
Holy Spirit, who was adopted by God at his baptism and deified after his
resurrection. The second group, led by Noetus of Smyrna, claimed that there was no
difference between the Father and the Son. It was God the Father who was born of
the Virgin Mary and suffered on the cross. This position later came to be known by
its critics as "Patripassianism".
A more developed form of monarchianism was taught by Sabellius, a Christian who
lived in Rome in the early part of the 3rd century. According to Sabellius the terms
"Father", "Son" and "Spirit" did not represent distinct realities but three modes in
which God reveals himself. This view of the Godhead has come to be known as
"modalistic monarchianism".
The claims of the monarchians were addressed by the church councils of the 4th
century which affirmed the distinctness of the persons of the Trinity.
Symbols The monarchians had no distinctive symbol system.
Adherents No contemporary adherents.
Headquarters/
Main Centre
None.
Church of Armenia
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Church of Armenia
Doctrines The Church of Armenia is one of the five so-called monophysite churches,
characterised by their rejection of the doctrines of the Council of Chalcedon (451). In
contrast to Chalcedon's doctrine that Christ is one person existing in two natures, the
Church of Armenia affirms that Christ's humanity cannot be separated from his
divinity. After the incarnation the thoughts and actions of J esus were those of a
single unitary being. This doctrine has sometimes been described as monophysitism
because it ascribes to Christ one nature.
History According to legend, Christianity was brought to Armenia by Thaddaeus and
Bartholomew. However, the earliest reliable sources providing evidence of a
Christian presence in Armenia date from the middle of the third century. In about the
year 300 the Armenian king, Tiridates III, was converted to Christianity by Gregory
the Illuminator, a missionary from Cappadocia in Asia Minor, who would later
become chief bishop of the Armenian church. The conversion of King Tiridates made
Armenia the first nation to officially adopt Christianity.
In 363 the nation came under Persian rule, exposing the Armenian church to Syrian
Christian influence. In 506 the Armenian church separated itself from the mainstream
church, rejecting the Council of Chalcedon which it regarded as Nestorian.
Recent church history has been an unhappy tale of schism and persecution. In the
19th century the occupying Ottoman empire recognised an Armenian Catholic
church within the Roman communion, thus splitting the Armenian church. During
world war one 500,000 Armenians were massacred by the Turks. For much of the
present century the church has been subject to the political constraints exercised over
it by the Soviet Union. This has come to an end with the break up of the Soviet
Union. But the political vacuum created by this has led to other problems,
particularly violent conflict between the Armenians and the neighbouring Muslims
of Azerbaijian.
Symbols The Armenian church has made very significant contributions to Christian art and
iconography. Illustrated manuscripts were at the centre of Armenian church art.
These were elaborately decorated with biblical scenes such as the Annunciation of
the Virgin Mary or Christ's baptism.
A unique feature of the Armenian tradition is the khatchkhar. The khatchkhar is an
upright stone slab, fixed on a rectangular base, with a cross in the middle and
religious images such as the Virgin Mary or the saints around the cross. The cross
has been a powerful political, as well as religious symbol, for the Armenians. During
the Arab occupations the cross and resurrection came to represent the country's
struggle for liberation from Arab domination.
Adherents The Armenian church has some 4 million members world-wide (Harris et al. 1994,
25). In Armenia it has 3,30,680 members (Europa Publications Limited 1995 1: 405)
and there are small Armenian communities in Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Russia and
the U.S.A.
Church of Armenia
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Headquarters/
Main Centre
Echmiadzin, Armenia.
Donatism
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Donatism
Doctrines Donatist belief is grounded in the view that only those who morally pure can be
members of the church. The Donatists regarded catholic church as compromised
because some of its bishops had betrayed their faith during persecution and because
it had accepted the support of the Roman authorities.
History The Donatist schism has its origins in the Diocletian persecution of the church at the
beginning of the 4th century. The emperor Diocletian sought to rid the Roman
empire of Christianity by forcing Christians to offer sacrifices to pagan deities or
suffer imprisonment or martyrdom. With the end of the persecution the church was
confronted with the question whether to readmit those who had abandoned their faith
during the Diocletian persecutions. This issue came to a head in Carthage in the
province of Africa. It was alleged that Bishop Caecilian of Carthage had been
consecrated by a bishop who had renounced his faith and, therefore, Caecilian's
ordination was invalid. A schismatic movement broke away from the Catholic
church under the leadership of Donatus, who was elected a rival to Caecilian.
During the 4th century the Donatist church strengthened, becoming the largest group
among North African Christians. But during the 5th century the Donatists were
treated as heretics and subjected to severely repressive laws. On 30 J anuary 412 an
edict was passed which called for the confiscation of Donatist property and the exile
of Donatist leaders. The measures were successful: the Donatist church went into
decline, and after the end of the 6th century nothing more was heard of the
movement.
Symbols As in the Catholic church the symbol of water played a central role in Donatist
theology. The Donatists believed that the Holy Spirit was actually present in the
baptismal waters. This meant that a baptism administered by an apostate priest could
not be valid. Anyone entering the Donatist church had to be rebaptised.
An important symbol that the Donatists used to identify themselves was Noah's ark.
Those inside the ark represented the true church, those who were saved. The
drowning multitudes outside the ark represented the lost world. Sometimes the ark
was depicted with a dove hovering above it, symbolising the protective presence of
the Holy Spirit.
Adherents No contemporary adherents.
Headquarters/
Main Centre
Carthage.
Arianism
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Arianism
Doctrines Arianism is the doctrine put forward by the Alexandrian priest Arius (c. 250-336)
who emphasised the uniqueness of God the Father and denied the divinity of the
Son. The Son was a creature created out of nothing rather than begotten from the
Father.
History Arius was deposed and excommunicated by a synod of bishops in Alexandria in 321.
His views were condemned at the Council of Nicaea in 325 and Arius was banished
to Illyricum. The condemnation of Arianism did not lead to its immediate demise. It
was only due to the efforts of the emperors Theodosius in the East (379-95) and
Valentinian II in the West that Arianism was suppressed in the Roman empire.
Missionary work continued outside the empire, particularly among the Germanic
nations. Arianist tendencies would re-emerge during the Protestant reformation of
the 16th century, leading to the formation of the Unitarian church.
Symbols The Arians shared the symbolism used by the rest of the church. However, in the
context of Arian theology such symbolism acquired a different meaning. The cross,
for example, symbolised J esus' obedience and therefore subordination to God.
Adherents Arianism in the form espoused by Arius and his followers has no contemporary
adherents. However, Arian tendencies can be found in certain post-Reformation
groups. (Especially Unitarians and J ehovah's Witnesses.)
Headquarters/
Main Centre
None.
The Nestorian Church
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The Nestorian Church
Doctrines The Nestorian Church (also known as the East Syrian or Assyrian Church) takes its
name form Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople (d.c.451). Nestorius is believed to
have asserted that Christ was composed of two persons, God the Son and the man
J esus and that it was only the man J esus who was born of the Virgin Mary and who
died on the cross. Accordingly, Nestorius claimed that it was wrong to describe the
Virgin Mary as theotokos (mother of God); instead she should be referred to as
christotokos (mother of Christ). This contradicted the orthodox understanding of
Christ as one Person who embodied two natures, divine and human.
History In 430 Celestine, bishop of Rome, condemned Nestorius on account of his heretical
christology, and a year later Nestorius was anathematised at the Council of Ephesus.
In 436 Nestorius was deposed and then exiled to Egypt where he spent the rest of his
life. Nestorian churches were established in those territories to the east of the
Byzantine empire where Iraq, Iran and south-eastern Turkey are now located. These
churches constituted themselves as independent, with a theological school at Edessa
and a patriarch at Seleucia-Ctesiphon on the Tigris river. In 498, at the Council of
Seleucia, the Nestorian Church completely severed itself from the rest of the
Christian church.
This period saw the beginning of missionary expansion throughout Asia. By 635
Nestorian Christianity had reached the heart of China. Missions had reduced as a
result of the Muslim conquest of Iraq in the 7th century. The church was further
weakened as a result of the Mongol invasions of the 14th century and schisms in the
16th century which led many Nestorian Christians to join the Roman Catholic
Church. Subject to persecution during the first world war, the remaining church was
dispersed throughout the Middle East. A small community also lives in the United
States.
Symbols The Nestorian church rejects the use of icons and images. Simple crosses are located
at the entrance of churches. The church does, however, treasure the relics of saints.
Adherents It is estimated that there are about 550,000 Nestorians world wide Nestorian
communities exist in Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria and the USA (Europa Publications
Limited 1995 1:1569).
Headquarters/
Main Centre
Historically the Nestorian Church has been based in the mountains of northern
Kurdistan. Persecution at the beginning of the 20th century forced many to emigrate
to Syria, Lebanon and the U.S.A. The present leader of the Nestor ian church is the
Catholicos Patriarch, His Holiness Mar Dinkha IV.
St. Thomas Christians
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St. Thomas Christians
Doctrines In the course of their history the St Thomas Christians have split into various
subgroups and have adopted different theologies. The two principal groups are the
Malabar Catholics, who adhere to Roman Catholic doctrine while maintaining their
own distinctive liturgy, and the J acobite community who are under the jurisdiction of
the Syrian Orthodox Church and, therefore, have a monophysite theology.
History The St Thomas Christians derive their name from the apostle Thomas who,
according to legend, was the founder of their community. Oral tradition asserts that
in the year 345 four hundred Christians led by Thomas Cara acquired permission
from the King of Malabar to settle in his country. In the 5th century the Malabar
Christians were in contact with the Nestorian churches of Iraq. Their theology
remained Nestorian until the 16th century when the Portuguese colonialists brought
them under the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. However, the attempt by
the Portuguese to Latinise the Malabar Christians led to them breaking with Rome in
1653. It was only when a Syrian bishop was enthroned in 1661 did most of the
schismatic Malabarese return to the Catholic Church. Those who did not return
affiliated with the Syrian Orthodox Church.
Symbols The cross is greatly venerated by the St Thomas Christians. Huge stone crosses are to
be found in all church yards. The clergy bless the congregation using a cross attached
to a silk handkerchief.
Adherents The Malabar Catholics, who use a Latinised version of the East Syrian liturgy, now
number around 1.5 million. Those affiliated with the Syrian Orthodox Church use
the Antiochene liturgy and number about 500,000 (Harris et al. 1994, 239).
Headquarters/
Main Centre
Mar Thoma Sabha office, Poolatheen, Tiruvalla 689 101, Kerala.
Coptic Orthodox Church
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Coptic Orthodox Church
Doctrines The Coptic Orthodox Church is one of the five so-called monophysite churches,
characterised by their acceptance of the first three ecumenical councils and rejection
of the Council of Chalcedon (451). In contrast to Chalcedon's doctrine that Christ is
one person existing in two natures the Coptic Church affirms that Christ's humanity
cannot be separated from his divinity. After the incarnation, the thoughts and actions
of J esus were those of a single unitary being. This doctrine has sometimes been
described as monophysitism because it ascribes to Christ one nature.
History The Coptic Church is the ancient church of Egypt. According to tradition its founder
was Mark the Evangelist. The church became separated from mainstream
Christianity after the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Because of their rejection of
Chalcedon the Copts were subjected to a wave of persecution by the Byzantine
empire. In response to this persecution the Copts elected their own national patriarch.
The Islamic conquest of Egypt in 641 relieved the church from Greek persecution
but led gradually to the assimilation of most Egyptians into the Islamic faith. During
the 18th and 19th centuries the Russian Orthodox Church and the Anglican Church
sought unsuccessfully to merge with the Copts. Since 1954 the Coptic Church has
been active in the World Council of Churches.
Symbols Ostrich eggs hang from the vault of Coptic churches to symbolise steadfast
watchfulness. They bring to mind the way the ostrich buries her eggs in the sand and
keeps her eyes fixed on the spot.
The bread of the eucharist consists of small round cakes with a cross stamped in the
middle surrounded by twelve smaller crosses. The eucharistic wine is unfermented
grape juice. The main utensil of the eucharistic celebration is the ark, a cubical box
with paintings of the Last Supper, the Virgin Mary, an angel and the patron saint of
the church. The vestments used by the priests are always white, symbolising purity
and chastity.
Adherents There is considerable controversy surrounding the size of the membership of the
Coptic church. According to government figures there are 2 million Copts in Egypt.
According to Coptic sources there are some 7 million members in Egypt.
There are about 10 million Copts world-wide with followers in Egypt, the Sudan,
other African countries, the U.S.A. (115,000), Canada, Europe and the Middle East
(Europa Publications Limited 1995, 1:1073, 2:3289).
Headquarters/
Main Centre
St Mark Cathedral, POB 9035, Ana Ruess, 222 Ramses St, Abbasiya, Cairo.
The Syrian Orthodox Church
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The Syrian Orthodox Church
Doctrines The Syrian Orthodox Church is one of the five so-called monophysite churches,
characterised by their rejection of the Council of Chalcedon. In contrast to
Chalcedon's doctrine that Christ is one person existing in two natures the Syrian
Orthodox Church affirms that Christ's humanity cannot be separated from his
divinity. After the incarnation the thoughts and actions of J esus were those of a
unitary being. This doctrine has sometimes been described as monophysitism
because it ascribes to Christ one nature.
History The church's history dates back to the earliest period of Christianity. It was to
Antioch in Syria that the apostles fled in the face of persecution by the J ewish
religious authorities. In the 4th and 5th centuries relations between the church in
Syria and the Byzantine church deteriorated in the face of growing Byzantine
domination. Tensions erupted over the two nature christology promulgated at the
Council of Chalcedon (451). The Chalcedonian formula was rejected by the Patriarch
of Antioch, leading to the persecution of the non-Chalcedonian Syrian church.
The Arab conquest of Syria provided an environment tolerant towards the church,
enabling it to flourish and expand. By the 12th century the church had 103 bishops
and millions of adherents in Syria and Mesopotamia.
Recent history, however, has witnessed the serious decline of the church. Confronted
with Kurdish persecution in the 19th century, Turkish persecution at the beginning of
the 20th century, and the rise of Islamic fundamentalism, the church has had to
struggle to survive.
Symbols The Syrian Orthodox Church is very sparing in its use of icons. During church
services the priest sprinkles water on the congregation with an olive branch. The
olive branch symbolises peace and the water symbolises the gift of the Holy Spirit.
Adherents The Syrian Orthodox Church has an estimated 3 million adherents throughout the
world (Europa Publications Limited 1995 2:2940).
Headquarters/
Main Centre
BP 914, Bab Touma, Damascus.
Ethiopian Orthodox Church
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Ethiopian Orthodox Church
Doctrines The Ethiopian Orthodox Church is one of the five so-called monophysite churches,
characterised by their rejection of the Council of Chalcedon (451). In contrast to
Chalcedon's doctrine that Christ is one person existing in two natures the Ethiopian
Orthodox Church affirms that Christ's humanity cannot be separated from his
divinity. After the incarnation the thoughts and actions of J esus were those of a
single unitary being.
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church closely follows the precepts of the Old Testament.
Church members are expected to be circumcised, to follow the dietary practices set
out in the Old Testament, and observe Saturday as the Sabbath.
History Christianity in Ethiopia dates back to the 4th century. It was brought to the region by
a Christian captive, Frumentius, who later became Ethiopia's first bishop. Frumentius
was consecrated by Athanasius the Great in Alexandria, an act which placed the
Ethiopian church under the jurisdiction of the Coptic Church of Egypt. Monasticism
was introduced towards the end of the 5th century by nine monks from Syria who are
believed to have translated the Bible into the local language, Ge'ez. From the 7th
century Ethiopia was cut off from the rest of the Christian world by the Islamic
conquest of North Africa. Chronic skirmishes between Christians and Muslims led to
the outbreak of civil war in the 16th century and the sacking of monasteries and the
burning of churches. In the 17th century the conversion of the emperor to Roman
Catholicism and the attempt to impose his faith on his subjects produced fierce
resistance and the martyrdom of many thousands of Christians. In 1959 the
Ethiopian church became independent from Egypt when an Ethiopian patriarch was
elected.
Symbols The finest examples of Ethiopian symbolism and iconography are to be found at the
Cathedral of Axum, the site of the oldest church in Ethiopia. The cathedral is
lavishly decorated with paintings of scenes such as the coming of the Ark of the
Covenant, the Virgin and Infant, and the nine saints. The most treasured icon is what
the church believes to be the Ark of the Covenant which according to tradition was
removed was removed from the Queen of Sheba's retinue in the time of King
Solomon. The ark has never been described by Christian sources since it is forbidden
to see it. However, Muslim chroniclers relate that it is a large white stone inlaid with
gold.
Adherents The church is estimated to have 22 million adherents in Ethiopia. The church also
has members in America and Trinidad (Europa Publications Limited 1995, 1:1135).
Headquarters/
Main Centre
The Cathedral of Axum. The church can be contacted at the following address: POB
1238, Addis Ababa.
Benedictines
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Benedictines
Doctrines The Benedictines follow the rule of Benedict of Nursia, the founder of western
monasticism. The rule of Benedict requires monks to give up all personal
possessions, to be celibate, to remain in the same monastery for life, and to offer
complete obedience to the abbot, the head of the monastery.
History The movement was founded by Benedict of Nursia (ca. 480-ca. 550). At the age of
fifteen Benedict adopted the life of a hermit, living in a cave in the wilderness of
Subiaco, some forty miles from Rome. Such was Benedict's reputation for saintliness
that a community of followers grew around him. This community provided the basis
of a monastic order that established itself at Monte Cassino, which is located
between Rome and Naples.
The community at Monte Cassino continued until 581 when the monastery was
destroyed by the Lombards and the monks forced to migrate to Rome. In the 7th
century the Benedictine rule was introduced into France, England and Ireland. The
following century Monte Cassino was rebuilt and a new community organised
around the monastery.
From the 10th century a reform movement set in around the monastery of Cluny in
France which was designed to enable monks and nuns to be free from manual work
and to have more time to worship and to intercede for society. Between the 10th and
11th centuries so many Benedictine houses adopted the Cluniac reforms that Cluny
became the centre of Christian monastic life in Europe. This period coincided with
the emergence of the feudal system, which placed monasteries under the power of an
outside authority such as a king or secular lord to whom the monks owed military
service. The subsequent spiritual decline in monastic life led certain groups to found
new orders, such as the Cistercians and Carmelites, with the intention of revivifying
monasticism. During the Reformation the monasteries in England and Scandinavia
were dissolved, and the wars of religion destroyed many monasteries in France and
southern Germany.
The 17th century saw the restoration of Benedictine congregations in England and
France. However, the anti-religious trends of the 18th century once again threatened
European monasticism. The French revolution of 1789, the re-emergence of the
Napoleon empire, and the rule of J oseph II of Austria led to the secularisation or
destruction of Benedictine houses. Since then the order has gradually recovered, with
new Benedictine communities established in England and the United States.
Symbols Benedictine churches and monasteries contain devotional pictures of St Bernard
wearing the black habit of the Benedictines. He holds an asperse, or rod to sprinkle
holy water, symbolising the purity by which he conquered the temptations of the
devil and the world. Some pictures depict Benedict's sister, St Scholastica.
Sometimes she is standing alone holding a lily to symbolise her purity. At other
times she is standing with a dove at her feet or held to her breast as a sign of her
gentleness.
Adherents Today there are twenty-one Benedictine congregations. There are 9,500 Benedictine
Benedictines
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monks and 20,000 nuns (Guardian newspaper 7 October 1995, 11).
Headquarters/
Main Centre
The principal Benedictine monastery is located at Monte Cassino which is located
between Rome and Naples.