H.

2 Dirac equation
This problem of negative probability is derived from Klein-Gordon equation is second-order
dierential equation regarding time, and includes time derivative /t as Eq. (h.5).
Dirac attempted to propose new equation which was rst order dierentiation in both
space and time. He took a dierential operator of time as:
1
c
2

2
t
2
=
2

(
mc

)
2
=
(

2
x
2
+

2
y
2
+

2
z
2

(
mc

)
2
)
2
=
(

x
+
2

y
+
3

z
+ i
mc

)
2
,
(h.10)
where
1
,
2
,
3
and are completely unknown variables.
The new operator Eq. (h.10) should satisfy Klein-Gordon equation. The right side of
Eq. (h.10) is expanded as:
(The right side of Eq. (h.10))
=
2
1

2
x
2
+
2
2

2
y
2
+
2
3

2
z
2

2
(
mc

)
2
+ (
1

2
+
2

1
)

x

y
+ (
2

3
+
3

2
)

y

z
+ (
3

1
+
1

3
)

z

x
+ i
mc

(
1
+
1
)

x
+ i
mc

(
2
+
2
)

y
+ i
mc

(
3
+
3
)

z
.
(h.11)
The relational expressions must be

2
i
= 1, (h.12)

j
+
j

i
= 0, (h.13)

i
+
i
= 0, (h.14)

2
= 1 (h.15)
to be satised Eq. (h.11) identically with Eq. (h.3). Eq.(h.12-h.13) can be unied as:

j
+
j

i
= 2
ij
. (h.16)
Eqs. (h.3) and (h.11) give the identity

1
c

t
=
(

x
+
2

y
+
3

z
+ i
mc

)
. (h.17)
Multiplying ic both sides of Eq. (h.17),
i

t
=
(
ic
(

x
+
2

y
+
3

z
)
+ mc
2
)
. (h.18)
Eq. (h.18) can be also rewritten as
i

t
=
(
c (
1
p
1
+
2
p
2
+
3
p
3
) + mc
2
)
(h.19)
83
by the quantization of momentum (Eq. (g.10) and Eq. (g.15)).
Again,
i
and are still unknown variable, they should be given concrete physical mean-
ing. If
i
and are scalars, relational expression Eqs. (h.12 - h.15) do not have solutions as
a matter of course. It was Diracs great breakthrough that he treated
i
and as matrices.
Dirac founds 4 4 matrices which satisfy Eqs. (h.12 - h.15) described in the followings:

1
=

0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0

=
[
0
2,2

1

1
0
2,2
]
, (h.20)

2
=

0 0 0 i
0 0 i 0
0 i 0 0
i 0 0 0

=
[
0
2,2

2

2
0
2,2
]
, (h.21)

3
=

0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0

=
[
0
2,2

3

3
0
2,2
]
, (h.22)
=

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

=
[
I
2
0
2,2
0
2,2
I
2
]
, (h.23)
where
1
,
2
and
3
are Pauli matrices,

1
=
[
0 1
1 0
]
,
2
=
[
0 i
i 0
]
,
3
=
[
1 0
0 1
]
, (h.24)
0
2,2
is a 2 2 zero matrix, I
2
is a 2 2 identity matrix, respectively.
Eq. (h.17) is rewritten as
32
:
(
ic
(

x
0
+
1

x
1
+
2

x
2
+
3

x
3
)
mc
2
)
= 0. (h.25)
Multiplying by Eq. (h.18) on the left,
(
i
(

x
0
+
1

x
1
+
2

x
2
+
3

x
3
)
mc
)
= 0 (h.26)
Eq. (h.26) takes the Einstein notation as:
(i

mc) = 0, (h.27)
Eq. (h.27) is said to be Dirac equation, which is the governing equation of relativistic
quantum mechanics.
32
x
0
= ct as Eq. (f.28), /t = c/x
0
.
84

is said to be gamma matrices,

=
{
( = 0)

( = 1, 2, 3)
. (h.28)
In detailed description,

0
=

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

=
[
I
2
0
2,2
0
2,2
I
2
]
, (h.29)

1
=

0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0

=
[
0
2,2

1

1
0
2,2
]
, (h.30)

2
=

0 0 0 i
0 0 i 0
0 i 0 0
i 0 0 0

=
[
0
2,2

2

2
0
2,2
]
, (h.31)

3
=

0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0

=
[
0
2,2

3

3
0
2,2
]
. (h.32)
Relativistically, the wave function is a four-vector.
The conservation of probability is described as:

t
+ j = 0, (h.33)
where
=

, (h.34)
and
j = c

= c
[

]
(h.35)
respectively
33
. is described as:
=
[

4
]

=
4

i=1
|
i
|
2
> 0, (h.36)
which can be treated as the probability density.
33

means Hermitian conjugate of , i.e. = (a

ij
)

= ( a
ji
).
85
H.3 The plane wave solution of Dirac equation
We consider the plane wave solution of Dirac equation:
= wexp
[
i

(p x Et)
]
. (h.37)
The vector w is four-vector as:
w =

w
1
w
2
w
3
w
4

, (h.38)
which is said to be Dirac spinor. the physical characteristics of Dirac spinor is described
later.
Substituting Eq. (h.37) into Eq. (h.27), we calculate the summation term i

concretely.
When = 0,
i
0

0
= i
(

E
c
)

0
=

E/c 0 0 0
0 E/c 0 0
0 0 E/c 0
0 0 0 E/c

. (h.39)
When = 1,
i
1

1
= i
(
i

p
1
)

1
=

0 0 0 p
1
0 0 p
1
0
0 p
1
0 0
p
1
0 0 0

. (h.40)
When = 2,
i
2

2
= i
(
i

p
2
)

2
=

0 0 0 ip
2
0 0 ip
2
0
0 ip
2
0 0
ip
2
0 0 0

. (h.41)
When = 3,
i
3

3
= i
(
i

p
3
)

3
=

0 0 p
3
0
0 0 0 p
3
p
3
0 0 0
0 p
3
0 0

. (h.42)
Summing up Eqs.(h.39-h.42), we can get
34
i

mc =

E/c mc 0 p
3
p
1
+ ip
2
0 E/c mc p
1
ip
2
p
3
p
3
p
1
ip
2
E/c mc 0
p
1
+ ip
2
p
3
0 E/c mc

. (h.43)
34
mc = mcI =

mc 0 0 0
0 mc 0 0
0 0 mc 0
0 0 0 mc

86
Substituting Eqs. (h.37) and (h.43) into Eq. (h.27), we can get system of equations

E/c mc 0 p
3
p
1
+ ip
2
0 E/c mc p
1
ip
2
p
3
p
3
p
1
ip
2
E/c mc 0
p
1
+ ip
2
p
3
0 E/c mc

w
1
w
2
w
3
w
4

= 0. (h.44)
We set the coecient matrix of Eq.(h.44) as:
A =

E/c mc 0 p
3
p
1
+ ip
2
0 E/c mc p
1
ip
2
p
3
p
3
p
1
ip
2
E/c mc 0
p
1
+ ip
2
p
3
0 E/c mc

. (h.45)
When the det A = 0, that is, the inverse matrix of A exists, the solutions of Eq. (h.44) are
trivial as: w
1
= w
2
= w
3
= w
4
= 0. Then, we consider the condition that det A = 0 is
satised.
det A =
(E
2
c
2
(m
2
c
2
+ (p
1
)
2
+ (p
2
)
2
+ (p
3
)
2
))
2
c
4
, (h.46)
and so,
det A = 0 E
2
= m
2
c
4
+ c
2
p
2
. (h.47)
Eq. (h.47) is mass-energy equivalence in special relativity itself.
It should be noted that the solutions of w
1
, w
2
, w
3
and w
4
are indeterminate, because
detA = 0. The rank of A is 2, that is, two variables are indeterminate.
Eq. (h.44) have two solutions for positive energy E =

m
2
c
4
+ c
2
p
2
as:
w
3
=
cp
3
w
1
+ c(p
1
ip
2
)w
2
E + mc
2
(h.48)
and
w
4
=
c(p
1
+ ip
2
)w
1
cp
3
w
2
E + mc
2
. (h.49)
If we set (w
1
, w
2
) = (1, 0), then
w = N

1
0
cp
3
E + mc
2
c(p
1
+ ip
2
)
E + mc
2

. (h.50)
If we set (w
1
, w
2
) = (0, 1), then
w = N

0
1
c(p
1
ip
2
)
E + mc
2
cp
3
E + mc
2

. (h.51)
87
Similarly, Eq. (h.44) have two solutions for negative energy E =

m
2
c
4
+ c
2
p
2
as:
w
1
=
cp
3
w
3
+ c(p
1
ip
2
)w
4
E mc
2
(h.52)
and
w
2
=
c(p
1
+ ip
2
)w
3
cp
3
w
4
E mc
2
. (h.53)
If we set (w
3
, w
4
) = (1, 0), then
w = N

cp
3
E mc
2
c(p
1
+ ip
2
)
E mc
2
1
0

. (h.54)
If we set (w
3
, w
4
) = (0, 1), then
w = N

c(p
1
ip
2
)
E mc
2
cp
3
E mc
2
0
1

. (h.55)
The normalization factor N is determined to satisfy the norm of the spinor

w
2
1
+ w
2
2
+ w
2
3
+ w
2
4
=
1, that is,
1
N
=

1
2
+ 0
2
+
c
2
(p
3
)
2
(E + mc
2
)
2
+
c
2
(p
3
)
2
(E + mc
2
)
2
. (h.56)
We can get N as
35
:
N =
(
1 +
c
2
p
2
E + mc
2
)

1
2
. (h.57)
The Dirac spinor w is sometimes described as:
w =
[

]
, (h.58)
where
=
[
w
1
w
2
]
, =
[
w
3
w
4
]
. (h.59)
The two spinors
1
=
[
1
0
]
and
2
=
[
0
1
]
correspond to positive energy. The two spinors

1
=
[
1
0
]
and
2
=
[
0
1
]
correspond to negative energy.
35
We can derive |p
1
+ ip
2
|
2
= (p
1
)
2
+ (p
2
)
2
from the Pythagorean theorem.
88
Dirac claimed that the negative energy eigenvalue is explained by existence of antipar-
ticles. Today, it is known that particles and antiparticles have the same mass and opposite
charge. The pair of a electrons and positrons is typical example of a pair of particles and
antiparticles
36
.
H.4 The relativistic quantum mechanics on decay
Beta decay is a physical phenomenon which cannot be interpreted in non-relativistic quantum
mechanics. We should understand decay based on the interpretation of relativistic quantum
mechanics. We discuss that in this section.
At rst, we discuss decay for comparison of dierence with decay. Alpha decay is a
process a nucleus emits
4
2
He, that is. two neutrons and two protons. The mass number of
a nuclide decreases by four, the atomic number of a nuclide decreases by two. We should
notice that the number of the massive
37
particle is conserved. Recall Schr odinger equation, it
says the conservation of the probability density. That is, non-relativistic quantum mechanics
claims that particles never appear or disappear. Indeed, decay satises the requirement of
non-relativistic quantum mechanics.
By contrast, decay does not satisfy obviously the claim of non-relativistic quantum
mechanics, which is particles never appear or disappear. One neutron disappears, and
three particles (a proton, an electron, and an electron antineutrino) appears at the same
time. Here. we consider decay of a free neutron
38
.
E
n
= E
p
+ E
e
+ E

(h.60)
is satised strictly, where E
n
is the energy of a neutron, E
p
is the energy of a proton, E
e
is the
energy of an electron, and E

is the energy of an electron antineutrino, respectively. It should

be noted that E
n
, E
p
, E
e
, and E

include the rest mass energy. This energy conservation is

derived from mass-energy equivalence. Relativistic quantum mechanics introduces the ap-
pearance and disappearance of particles naturally from mass-energy equivalence. Beta decay
is a physical phenomenon which should be understood by relativistic quantum mechanics.
A vacuum is not an empty space. A vacuum is lled with a particle and its antiparticle
(Dirac sea). Annihilation and pair production is occurring constantly in a vacuum. For
example, an electron e

and a positron e
+
(antiparticle of e

) occur the annihilation with

ray emission as:
e

+ e
+
+ . (h.61)
H.5 The requirement of wave functions of quanta on decay
We enumerate the requirement of wave functions of a neutron, a proton, an electron and an
electron antineutrino on decay.
The existence probability of a proton, an electron and an electron antineutrino is equal
as:

p
|
p
=
e
|
e
=

. (h.62)
36
At rst, Dirac guessed that antiparticles of electrons are protons. Although his rst idea is denied today,
his great achievement is not sullied at all of course.
37
Here, the meaning of massive is an antonym of massless.
38
A neutron in a nucleus needs other consideration. It is discussed in appendix.I.
89