11UNDERGROUND CABLES

Objective of the lesson:: This chapter provides the insight into the
basic requirements of any underground cable to survive the expected life
period and needs. The chapter also deals extensively with the different types of
cables in use in telecommunication networks and the parameters offered for
various utilities.
11.0Bro! constr"ction of n# teleco$$"niction cble
Core ::
All the insulated conductors compactly arranged in pairs, units
and super units constitute core of the cable
%oist"re Brrier :
As the presence of moisture deteriorate the quality of
insulation of the telecom cables, moisture barrier protects entry
moisture into the core of the cable.
&rotection ::
Telecom cables require Protection
o from probable mechanical damages
o from water and chemicals or soil conditions
o from nduction due to !lectrical lines
o from diggings by different agencies and individuals
o from damages while handling
11.0.1 'he clssifiction of "n!er(ro"n! cbles )ith re(r! to
!esi(n fet"res re ::
Place where it is used " #nderground $ overhead $ submarine
nsulation material used " Paper $ polythene cables
The filling compound " %ry core $ &elly filled cables
'echanical protection " Armoured $ unarmoured cables
Place of utili(ation " Primary $ %istribution $ )unction cable.
*ystem for which used " +o"axial $ P+'
Type of conductor " +opper cable $ ,ptical fibre cable
-auge of the conductor " ../. mm $ ..0. mm ..12 mm $ ..3.mm
Pressuri(ation of core " Pressuri(ed $ unpressurised cables
11.1DES*GN +EA'URES ::
4efore discussing the above classifications in a nutshell let us know
what are the purposes of the above %esign features in a underground cables.
11.,&UR&OSE O+ *NSULA'*ON UNDERGROUND
CABLES ::
567 The insulation is used to separate the conductors bunched in a unit to
prevent short circuit between two conductors in a pair or between
conductor of one pair with the conductor any other pair in the unit or core
in the cable.
1
st
-ir B
Li$b .
r!
-ir
A Li$b
,
n!
-ir
B Li$b 1
st
-ir A
li$b
nsulating
material
P8+ $
PAP!9
Annele!
Co--er
Con!"ctors


*heath
:*%
+ $ P8+
+

,

9

!
;illing
material %ry air $
)elly
'!+<A=+A:
P9,T!+T,=
> :A?!9* ,; -
*T9P*
5>7 The insulation is used as *<!AT< to separate the insulated conductors
from being corroded or eroded in soil.
527 The insulation is being used for marking $ identifying the pair or conductor
in the unit and in the cable as a whole for that matter.

5/7 The insulating material is used for preventing the grounding or earthing of
the conductors.
507 The insulating material is used for preventing the corrosion of armouring .
517 Transmission characteristics of the cable
n the primitive stage paper insulation chosen as it has good di"electric
properties and low specific inductive capacity which is about 6.0. ts physical
properties also enable large proportion of air as dielectric. The ideal dielectric for
telecom cable is air which has specific inductive capacity of 6... The thickness, width
and number of wraps per meter of insulating paper is selected to achieve the required
mutual capacitance of cables.
The Polythene insulation is easy to apply and have desired electrical
characteristic such as low dielectric constant, lo dissipation factor 5loss7 and
high dielectric strength. 'echanically it is tougher than paper and has abrasion
resistant with ample tensile strength and elongation.
The insulating resistance measurement shall be measured with a %+ voltage of
magnitude not less than 0..8 after steady electrification for one minute. The
insulation resistance values between each conductor in the cable and all the other
conductors connected together and to the screen and earth shall not be less than 0...
'ega ohms $ km at 9oom temperature.
5 +able length in @m x observed insulation in 'ega ohms 7.
11.,.1&irin( n! Overl# ::
Two insulated conductors shall be twisted together with uniform lay to form a
pair. The length of the lay of any pair shall be different from that of ad&acent pairs.
The lay of various pairs shall be so chosen as to satisfy the capacitance unbalance
requirements and cross"task requirement.
11.,.,Unit +or$tion ::
The pairs are then assembled into units with different length of unit twists
assigned to different units. These units are then assembled into a completed cable
core.
11.,..Core
wrappings are applied to the completed cable core to hold the units together
and provide high di"electric strength from core to shield and to protect the conductor
insulation from damage due to the heat of sheathing operation. n P); cables non"
hygroscopic and non"wicking polyester tape is used as core wrapping.
11.,./+illin( co$-o"n! ::
The cable should be filled with suitable water resistant compound which shall
be compatible with the insulation, binders and tapes used in the cable. t shall be
homogenous and uniformly mixed material containing an anti"oxidant. t shall not
contain dirt, metallic particles or other foreign matter.
Paper insulated cables :: %ry air only
Polythene insulated cables :: )elly compound.
11.,.0SCREEN ::
An aluminum tape coated with polythene $ copolymer on both sides shall be
applied over the cable core with a minimum overlap of 1 mm for all si(es of cables.
The nominal thickness of the aluminum tape shall be ..> mm and that of polythene $
copolymer coating on each side ...0 mm.
The aluminum tape shall be sealed at the overlap and bonded to the inner
surface of polythene sheath extruded over it. The tape shall be electrically continuous
throughout the length of cable.
11.,.1S2EA'2 ::
A moisture resistant , gas tight sheath must be applied to all the paper
insulated cable other wise relative humidity conditions throughout will increase and
insulation resistance will decrease. The sheath also protects the cable form damage
during installation and service.
The sheath shall be reasonably circular and free from pinholes and other
defects. The variation between maximum and the minimum diameter at any cross
section shall not exceed 0mm.
Paper insulated cables :: :ead sheath or Polythene sheath
Polythene insulated cables :: Polythene sheath only.
11.,.3CONDUC'OR::
!ach conductor is a solid round wire made of annealed high conductivity
copper of diameter ..2> mm, ../. mm, ..0.mm, ..12mm and ..3. mm.
11.,.4AR%OUR*NG ::
n the armoured cables bedding and armour are provided over the sheath to be
followed by &acket. Then the cables are called Armoured cables.
f this arrangement is not done then we call them as un armoured cables.
4!%%=-
two close helical lapping of polythene or polypropylene tape is applied over
the sheath to provide sufficient mechanical protection during armouring. !ach take is
applied with a minimum 0A overlap. The second tape will cover the overlap of the
first tape evenly.
=ominal thickness of the -alvanised steel Tape armouring
%iameter of
cable over Polythene
sheath
Thickness of *teel tape
#pto /. mm ..0 mm
Above /. mm ..B mm
Armouring is the application of two layers of galvani(ed steel tape both
applied helically in the same direction with a gap in the first tape of >0A C$" 6. A of
the nominal width of the tape, the second tape evenly covering the gap of the first
tape. The overlap of the second over the first shall not be les than 60A of the nominal
width of the tape on either side.
The standard armouring types are
Aerial tape armour
)ute protection
4urried tape armour
'odified tape armour
*teel armouring and poly&acketing
+orrugated steel armouring and &acketing.
11.,.56c7et ::
'ost cables serve their lives with a basic sheath but after armouring the
armouring is to be protected from getting rusty and corrosion and &acket is the
protection which does the &ob. t should be reasonably circular, free from pinholes and
other defects.
=ominal thickness of the )acket
%iameter of cable over
Polythene )acket
Thickness of Polythene )acket
#pto /1 mm 6./ mm
Above /1 mm up to 1/ mm 6.B mm
Above 1/ mm >.> mm
dentification and :ength markings on a +able
To enable proper identification of Telecom cables the following markings shall
be embossed, engraved or printed on the polythene &acket in case of armoured cable
and on the sheath for unarmoured cables. These markings are at an interval of one
meter throughout the length and are distinct and visible to the naked eye from a
distance of about 6 meter.
Telephone handset emblem
=ame of the 'anufacturer
?ear of 'anufacture
+apacity of the cable in pairs
*i(e of the conductor
:ength marking
Selin( of the En!s::
The cables will be sealed with thermo shrinkable end caps of adequate
thickness after completion of all tests in factory before dispatching to various stores
and workplaces directly.
&OL8'2ENE *NSULA'ED 6ELL8 +*LLED CABLES ::
These are popularly known as P); cables and consist of twisted pairs of
polyethylene insulated copper conductors.
Paper insulated cables 5:*%+, P+#T, P+DT, P+D: E P+D: 7 are the
primitive underground cables that are used in the Telecommunications network. These
cables are available up to 6B.. pairs. :ater on due to various factors like escalation in
the cost of :ead and more incidence of faults due to paper insulation the Polythene
insulated )elly filled cables 5 Popularly known as P); 7 are used extensively now a
days in the telecommunication networks. The P); cables are available up to 21..
pairs.
*ome constructional features of Paper insulated cables are dealt in )ob Aid F ,
for academic interest and as still a few number of these cables are still serving some
of the telecommunication networks.
The Pressuri(ation of dry core paper insulated cables is now a avoidable
feature as the replacement of paper"insulated cables with P); cables is nearing
completion. As the P); cables are filled with )elly as filling compound which takes
care of prevention of entry of moisture $ water into the core of the cable.
1,Cbinet9 &illr9 : D&
1,.0.1+orecst of tele-hone !e$n!
The first step in local network planning is forecasting of telephone demand for
0, 6., 60 and >. years for the area under study. This process has been explained in
detail in chapter G"A. The forecast values are obtained for smaller areas say of the
order of 6... sq. m. called as survey unit.
1,.0., N"$ber n! Loction of tele-hone e;chn(es
4ased on the forecast figures, the optimum number of exchanges required are
determined. Then ideal location of each exchange is worked out on the basis of
definite area demarcation for each exchange and exchange and available sites. The
complete procedure for this exercise is given in subsequent chapter.
1,.0.. Cble ro"tin( sche$e.
After the location of each exchange is finali(ed and the area to be served by
this exchange demarcated, the forecast figures for each block at the end of the
economic planning periods 5i.e. >. years7 are as curtained. -enerally two stage
flexibility scheme is being adopted in our department. The determination of the cable
routing as well as the cable si(e involves the following main steps:"
a. 'arking of general layout of an exchange area.
b. :ocation of %istribution Points and %emarcation of %P area.
c. :ocation of Pillars and %emarcation of pillar area.
d. :ocation of cabinets and %emarcation of cabinet area.
e. %etermination of economical and feasible cable route.
'arking of general layout of an exchange area.
1,.0...1*. Bsic Lo! n! <rible lo! :=
Any unit of the network " either a cabinet area, a pillar area, or a %P area may
be expected to contain a certain minimum number of working lines at any future time.
This minimum number below which the working circuits will not fall is termed the
basic load for the unit. The range between the basic load and the maximum
provision., within which the total number of working circuits in the unit would very,
constitutes the variable load.
!ach stage of cable reduction helps to reduce only the portion of the pairs
required to meet the variable load but that required to serve the basic load remains
unaltered. therefore, the effective flexibility at a cable reduction point is in no way
reduced by not terminating the pairs corresponding to the basic load. The pairs which
are not terminated are said to be through " connected. The arrangement with through "
connected pairs is generally refered to as a partial flexibility generally implies that the
through"connected pairs correspond at the most to the basic load. <ence, in spite of
the work HpartialI the effective flexibility would be as much as is necessary a practice.
The basic load for a pillar is comparatively large. Adoption of partial
flexibility at a cabinet will therefore, result in substantial savings on +T boxes and
will enable a smaller si(e of cabinet shelf to be provided for a given si(e of the
cabinet area without either reducing the utility of the cabinet or introduce with any
extra complications.
1,.0...,ii. *nner n! o"ter >ones :=
<aving defined the existing exchange area boundaries each existing exchange
area has to be divided into inner and outer (ones. n the first instance this can be done
approximately. The inner Jone boundary will be about 0.. meters from the exchange.
t must be drawn such that the cable feed to the inner (one is made independent with
the least amount of cable re"arrangement and wastage.
Kithin an inner (one around the exchange in which %Ps can be reached by
cables shorter than 0.. meters, provision of flexibility is uneconomical and pillars are
not installed. n this case the cabling from %ps is terminated directly on the '%; and
the full over"provision is allowed as of cabling.
The inner (one limit of 0.. meters mentioned above is based on average
conditions and applicable to normal areas. n areas where the anticipated rate of
future telephone growth is very high or very low, the inner (one limit may be reduced
or increased to suit the individual cases.
,utside the inner (one, the provisions of pillars is &ustified and the
distribution is generally arranged through pillars. n larger network it is also
advantageous to group together pillar areas having common cable routes from the
exchange into cabinet areas and provide a second stage of flexibility. -enerally
speaking the usefulness of the cabinet increases as its distance from the exchange
increases, number of pillars to be controlled by it increase and the forecasts become
uncertain.
%istribution +able

1,.0....Generl l#o"t of n e;chn(e re :=
The general layout of an exchange area will, therefore be as follows :"
The exchange area will be divided into two distinct (ones " the inner (one and
the outer (one.
The inner (one will be made up of %P areas which will be independent units
with no flexibility between then. 4ut some times in large systems where demand is
high inner (one is also fed from a pillar called L,M pillar directly connected to
exchange.
The outer (one is primarily made up of a number of pillar areas. The pillar
areas may be either independent units or may be controlled from the cabinet. !ach
pillar area comprises of %P areas with the pillar providing the flexibility between the
%ps. The cabinet areas are always independent units with no flexibility between them.
A pillar will be provided in each pillar area and a cabinet will be provided in
each cabinet area. The cabinet will be located in the area nearest the exchange, i.e.
the one through which the cable feed to other pillars controlled by the cabinet passes,
so that back " feeding is avoided in the secondary network. This particular pillar area
will therefore, have both the pillar and the cabinet.
1,.0.../Sh-e of res serve! b# cbles :=
The most economical shape for an area served by cables is a long and narrow
rectangle with the main cable route passing across it through the mid points of the
longer sides of the rectangle as shown in fig. /.6 4y keeping the shape long and
narrow instead of round or square, the length of the cables in the network is made a
minimum. The shape of the exchange areas in mullet " exchange systems, cabinet
divisions and %P areas are like wise to be made long and narrow.
The longer side of the cabinet area should be parallel to the shorter side of the
exchange area and similarly the longer side of the %P area should be parallel to the
shorter side of the cabinet areas.
'ain
+able
+i( : 11.1
1,.0...0 Loction of D& n! De$rction of D& re:=
i. Service Loo-.
The subscriber loop consists of connection from %P to subscriber premises.
'ay consist of open wire lines or drop wires or buried served wires. ,pen wire lines
are generally metallic iron wires 5bare or nsulated7 erected on insulators and
terminated on pot heads at subscriber windows as well as on the %Ps. ;rom the pot
head terminationMs the connections are made through P8+ wires.
The drop wire consists of insulated cadmium copper or copper coated steel
wire insulated by P8+ coating, these wires are directly terminated in the %P as well
as to the subscriber window.
n +ase of buried service wire, the connection from %P to subscriber premises
is through buried service wire and thus overhead line is entirely eliminated.
n our department we are using open wire lines or drop wires only. The buried
service wires are not being used.
ii. Distrib"tion &oints :=
%P area is the smallest territory in the cable system. As there is an element of
uncertainty in forecasting. The actual incidence of telephone demand may vary from
the forecast by different deters. There is always a greater percentage of error in
forecasting a smaller area than a larger one. The %P area is the victim of such
variations. The only way to made good uncertainty of the forecast is to over"provide
cable pairs to the %Ps to the !xtent of maximum variations. t is desired to allow 2.A
extra provision over and above !conomic Planning Period demand forecast.
The number of distribution points is a compromise between two opposing
factors :"
. The larger the number of distribution points, the smaller will be the
length of the aerial lines from the distribution point facilitating rapid
installation of telephone connections.
b. *maller the number of distribution points, the lower is the total cost of
the cable terminals and all the spare distribution cable pairs terminated
there in.
+onsidering above, it is desirable that the number of distribution points should
be large and the capacity as small as possible.
There are four si(es of %Ps which are provided depending upon the
requirements :"
,o &ir D-s : These %Ps are generally used in case of overhead lines feeding
long areas and lowly populated areas.
10 &ir D-s := These %Ps are generally suitable for drop wire type
subs loops where the telephone density is high.
0&ir D-s:= *uch %Ps are normally provided where number of
telephones in a building or contiguous building is small.
, &ir D-s := These are normally provided in subscribers premises
where requirement may not be exceeded more than two
telephones.
*ince the length of subscribers loop is directly proportional to the si(e of %P
and accordingly fault liability, it is preferable to provide smaller si(e of %ps. n our
department at present mainly 6. Pair and >. %Ps are being used.
ii. Loction of !istrib"tion -oint :=
To meet the >. years requirements, %ps will have to be provided after
consulting the telephone requirement details in each street of a particular block. some
of the %Ps will have to be opened immediately to meet first three years requirements .
The %Ps should be located at one end of %P area in the direction looking towards the
cabinet. t might even be situated opposite the area it is expected to serve. n large
buildings, which require over 6. pairs. All the pairs that are taken into the building,
must be terminated at a convenient point preferably on the ground floor, before they
branch off for internal distribution frame if the number of pairs required is large.
iii. De$rction of D& re :=
%epending upon the si(e of %P decided for each location, the area to be served
by each %P should also be demarcated as far as possible on the basis of demand
forecast say first 2 to 0 years requirements. *ome times practical difficulties may be
encountered for exact demarcation of %P area for external %Ps. n such a case, it must
be ensured that kriss crossing of the connections is avoided .
Thus in this step the %Ps for each block are marked on the basis of >. years
forecast. Then on the basis of the existing development stage of the area as well as
future time schedules, the %Ps which are to be opened immediately are identified. ;or
example, if the area is not developed at all, then there is no need to open any %P at
this stage. n case the area is scantily developed then the planner has to decide
whether all %Ps marked in that area should be opened right now or some should be
opened . As far as possible locations should not be altered. n this way a scientific
exercise will have to be done to decide the number of %Ps to be opened immediately
and the number %Ps to be opened later on.
1,.0...1Loction of -illrs n! !e$rction of -illr re.
i. &illr re:=
The provision of flexibility between %Ps by means of cross connection
requires the cable pairs from the exchange and %P sides to be terminated at the cable
terminal point 5+T 4ox7 suitably mounted on frames inside steel casing or shell.
,uter (one of each exchange has to be divided into portions which are already
developed and built up and portions where most of the development has yet to take
place and no cable feed exists at present.
The developed portions are again sub"divided into a group of smaller survey
blocks of territory such that in course of time, the distribution to each block can be
conveniently made independent to feed the ad&oining blocks. *uch groups of these
blocks will be the pillar areas. There will be a number of points in the existing cable
network where a pillar can be introduced with an advantage. ;or instance the points
where a number of distribution cables meet are generally suitable for locating the
pillars. t will be convenient to first fix these points and mark out the areas to be
served be more pillars as well as the pillars already installed.
The areas of each block has to be such that the !conomic Planning Period
forecast of telephone development may be catered by a particular si(e of pillar
planned to be installed in the area. n fast developing network, !conomic Planning
Period and telephone development is very difficult to assess. n such networks, the
ultimate capacity of the exchanges planned have to be kept into view. n the cases of
new developing areas the requirement arising due to shifting of the telephones to
these areas which get priority over all types of the new connections have to be taken
into consideration. The location of pillars should be so planned that it serves the
number of blocks, some of which can be taken out from this pillar in case the
telephone development reaches to a point which can not be met by the pillar installed
to meet the anticipated demand in the area.
!ach pillar area is distinct which comprises of one or more complete blocks
serving the %Ps located within its area but not the %Ps located in any other pillar area
to avoid criss crossing of distribution cables. !ach pillar must have a separate
distribution network originating from the pillar and there should be no need of teeing
in any of the section.
The total terminating capacity of pillar may vary from /.. pairs to >... pairs.
They are available in the si(es of /.., B.., 6..., 61.. and >... pairs. The
terminations on distribution side are more than the terminations on the secondary side.
ii. Loction of &illr.
The pillar should be located taking into account the following considerations :"
a. The function of the pillar is to provide flexibility. #nless there are 0 to
1 %Ps in a block, a separate pillar for the block may not be &ustified .
nstead the %Ps can be served from the pillar in an ad&oining or near
block. n such cases, the entire block must be included in ad&oining
pillar area.
b. Although the telephone load in a block may not &ustify a pillar, it is
necessary to provide a pillar irrespective of telephone load in the
blocks where cabinets are installed. This will avoid back feeding of
distribution cables from other pillar areas to meet the demand of the
particular block.
c. The Pillar areas should be so demarcated that no ma&or road crossings
are encountered while laying distribution cables to feed the %Ps of the
area.
d. Primary and *econdary cables being ducted are safer as compared to
the distribution cables which are a weakest element in the system.
Therefore, the distribution cables length from pillar to the last %P
should be minimum possible be keeping the pillar nearest to the
anticipated load centre of the area to achieve better reliability,
minimum fault liability and economy in material and labour.
iii. L# o"t of Distrib"tion cbles :=
The distribution cables are generally provided taking into account economic
planning period requirements. After plotting the %Ps, cable of suitable si(e to feed a
group of %Ps in a particular direction survey blocks are planned.
The economic planning period for the secondary cable is 6. years. Thus after
working out the pillar area and pillar locations on the basis of >. years forecast, the
developed stage of the area as well as future plans of the area for the next 0 years have
to be seen. ,n this basis it is decided which pillars have to be installed later on. n the
initial stage, a pillar area comprises more than one block can be easily taken over by a
new pillar when it is installed. The distribution cables from the pillar installed in the
first stage to this block must be so chosen that they must not taper upto the probable
load centre of this block where a future pillar may come up. This cable may be used
as *econdary cable for the future pillar. The secondary cables are provided >.A more
than the economic planning period requirement of the secondary cables to take care of
the uncertainty of the forecast for the larger area.
1,.0...3Loction of cbinets n! !e$rction of cbinet re.
i. Cbinet Are :=
The provision of flexibility between pillars by means of cross"connection
points requires the cable pairs from the exchange and pillar to be terminated on a shell
called as cabinet.
A number of blocks which &ustify a pillar on long terms basis are grouped
together to form a cabinet area. The blocks to be included in cabinet area should have
common cable route from the exchange. Thus the points where a number of
secondary cables meet are generally suitable for locating cabinets. t will be
convenient to fix these points and mark out the areas to be served by these cabinets as
well as cabinets already installed. The location of cabinets should be so planned that
it serves about 2 to 1 pillars and it should be possible to take out some of the pillars in
case the telephone development reaches to a point which can not be met by the
cabinet installed to meet the anticipated demand in the area or the area is to be shifted
to other cabinet$exchange.
The bigger block of territory gives greater reliability of forecast and lower
economic planning period. The cable to exchange side can be planned with
increasing certainty and economic planning period demand.
The total terminating capacity of the cabinet may vary from 6... pairs to
>... pairs. They are generally available in the si(e of 6... pairs, 61.. pairs and
>... pairs. The terminating capacity for secondary cables is more than the primary
cables.
As already indicated now a days the planning and installing of a +abinet is not
an economical affair. The Pillar and +abinet are similar in physical and structural
details its point of utility only matters while calling it as pillar and +abinet.
ii. Loction of Cbinets :=
The cabinet should be located taking into account the following
considerations:
a. A cabinet should serve 2 to 1 pillars. n no case, the number of
pillars should be less than 2.
b. The best point for location of cabinets is on the primary cable route
after it enters the cabinet area.
c. t should not be at the &unction of two main roads.
d. There should be sufficient space near the cabinets to accommodate
number of &oints which may be made in the near future. consider
construction of manhole for all &oints located at the cabinet.
e. There must be space to install the PT8s near by. 5Pressure Test 8alve
in case of Pressurised Paper insulated cables7.
f. The cabinet should not be target for the vehicular traffic.
g. t should be away from the verb stone i.e. ad&acent and parallel to the
wall.
;urther a cabinet should be so chosen that the primary cable length is greater
than secondary cable length. *imilarly pillar should be so chosen that the secondary
cable length is always greater then the distribution cable length except for the first
pillar.
1.+AUL'S LOCAL*SA'*ON
,b&ective of the :esson :: The chapter deals with the necessary information
regarding the types of faults and the causes of faults occur in underground cables. t
also deals with the detection, locali(ation and rectification of the faults
1..0CABLE +AUL'S = DE'EC'*ON : LOCAL*SA'*ON
,n analysis it has been found that about G.A of the external faults are noted
as under cable faults so the efficiency of the maintenance of external plants largely
depends on the proper planning, execution, constructional practices and maintenance
of cable network i.e. the primary, secondary and distribution cables, cabinets, pillars,
%Ps etc. 'oreover one cable fault normally effects a large number of circuits even
upto 21.. circuits. *o proper care and vigilance on the cable network is of utmost
importance.
1..1 '2E GENERAL '8&ES O+ CABLE +AUL'S:=
5A7 Erth f"lt :: Khen the insulation between the earth
and the conductor in the cable becomes very low.
5b7 Lo) ins"ltion f"lt.:: Khen the insulation between conductors
in the cable or between the pairs or between pair and earth falls below a prescribed
limit 5normally ..0 meg ohm7 This may be due to entry of moisture or due to failure
of wire insulation.
5c7 Disconnection +"lt :: Khen the +onductor is cut then the fault
is called break fault or is called <igh 9esistance fault when <igh 9esistance is
introduced in the circuit.
5d7 Short Circ"it +"lt :: Khen the resistance between the wires or
between the conductors becomes very low even without any loop in the circuit on the
pairs. This is also called contact fault.
5 e7 +orei(n -otentil :: The existence of potential, even when
the circuit is idle or isolated from the potential of exchange and subscriber premises
equipment is foreign potential or contact of the conductor with other circuit having
potential.
'2E ABO<E +AUL'S OCCUR DUE 'O :=
567 Corrosion :" +hemical and electro chemical action,
which damages the outer
sheath and the conductor of the cable.
5>7 *nter=cr#stlline frct"re :" *heath is effected due to
mechanical stresses
longitudinal, transverse, tensional oscillation or periodical
variation of temperature or repeated overheating of the sheath.
527 ;aulty materials in manufacturing of the +able
5/7 4ad constructional practices like in"efficient, nonstandard and
careless work"man ship, specially during the time of laying E
&ointing of cable.
507 =atural causes and accidents :" %ue to termites, rodents borers
etc., E due to earth quack, floods, penetration by tree roots,
contact with power lines etc.
517 %igging operation by other public utility authorities and
individual public.
5G7 +auses unknown and untraceable.
1./ 'a&ority of the above reasons can be avoided during the time of
laying and &ointing of the cable. As for example all the dry core cables
are supplied in a pressuri(ed condition with a *chrader valve fitted at a
free end of the cable drum. 4efore laying the cable pressure inside the
cable should invariably be checked. =o pressure in the cable signifies the
sheath fault in the cable and hence the whole cable drum should be sent
back to the manufacturer. Proper laying can prevent a large number of
the aforesaid reasons. )oint is the weakest portion in the length of the
cables. *o proper and utmost care should be taken at the time of &ointing
by using standard type and quantity of &ointing material and employing
efficient workmen.
Any how cable faults cannot be totally avoided and any of the
above faults or a number of faults together may crop up due to any
reason. The effect of the fault is either disconnection of communication
or impairment or transmitted signals.
1..,DE'EC'*ON AND LOCAL*SA'*ON O+ CABLE
+AUL'
The detection and locali(ation of cable fault is the ma&or time consuming
factor in the regular maintenance aspect due to various reasons. %etection is the first
step in reaching a developing cable fault early. A timely detection E locali(ation of
cable fault will help to avoid and lessen the interruption period. Khich ultimately
give better satisfaction to the customer.
The procedures used for fault detection, diagnosis and location on subscriber
lines are
*elf supervision F is a permanent feature and fault is noticed physically also.
Performance monitoring F -ives the indication of the quality of the service.
9outine testing F ndicate the faults that are not noticed physically in normal
course.
%emand testing F After detecting the side effect of fault.
,nce the fault is reported by any aNof the above means The steps to follow are
8erifying the fault
Pinpointing the fault
%etermining the cause of fault.
9ectification of fault with standard methods.
'2E BAS*C RE?U*RE%EN'S +OR DE'EC'*ON AND
LOCAL*ASA'*ON O+ CABLE +AUL'S ARE :=
6. Thorough idea about the cable network.
>. Availability of up"dated cable records vi(., cable diagram, cable
plans, %P cards and cable route and &oints indicators etc.
2. Availability of proper type of testing instruments in god working
condition and skilled staff.
GENERALL8 '2E +OLLO@*NG ARE '2E %ED*A '2ROUG2
@2*C2 CABLE +AUL'S ARE DE'EC'ED
6. +omplaints from the subscriber, testing of the circuits from test desk or
,'+.
>. 9outine testing from test"desk or ,'+.
2. =on availability of pair at the time of putting through a new
connection.
/. Alarm from the control panel of the pressuri(ation system.
:ocation of a fault in working cable caused due to the digging of
any agency can be easily identified $ detected by cable route patrol or
through informationMs from local people. These types of faults and
breakdowns are immediately brought to notice or identified by the
complaints given by the effected subscribers.
;ailure of weak and imperfect &oint due to entry of moisture is a
common phenomenon in this country. Presently usage of polythene
insulated &elly filled cable has made this type of &oint failure a rare
phenomenon and detection an easy affair. f there is any damage in the
sheath, the entry of the moisture will be avoided due to the presence of
&elly. <owever even the entry of moisture can not create any fault as
polythene insulation remaining unaffected by moisture or water.
The following is an example of the detection of &oint failure 5low
insulation and earth fault7 :"
Con!itions :=
6. +able used is &elly filled
>. +able diagram is very much up"to"date
The above diagram is a part of the cable diagram of a pillar. ;or
example the telephones of %P nos. 6 and > are reported to be faulty. =ow
consulting the pillar diagram it can immediately be referred that &oint " >
is faulty. =o necessity of locali(ation testing is required. =ow by
consulting the cable plan and with the help of route and &oint indicator
the faulty &oint " > can be physically locali(ed.
;or paper insulation cable, this type of locali(ation is not possible
because fault may arise any where in the body of the cable between &oint
" 6 and &oint " > due the entry of moisture through sheath puncture.
<ence the locali(ation of this type of fault by proper instrument is
unavoidable.
Locli>tion of +"lt b# instr"$ents
The following instruments are generally in use for the
locali(ation of cable fault.
%"lti$eter or A.<.O. $eter: These instruments are used for finding
out"
5a7 9esistance of wire or of a pair 5loop7
5b7 continuity of a wire between two points
5c7 =umbering of the pairs, if there is reversal at any
intermediate point.
BR*DGE %EGGAR : This instrument is extensively used in all the
cable maintenance sections. This works on Khetstone 4ridge principle
and is used generally for the following purposes ::
5a7 Accurate measurement of loop and wire
resistances
5b7 'easurement of cross insulation between the
wires of the same pair or between the pairs of a cable.
5c7 !arth insulation between a wire or pair and earth.
5d7 :ocali(ation off dead"earth fault 5when resistance
between the faulty wire and earth is very low7.
5e7 8ery rough locali(ation of L%isc.M fault 5principle
of condenser discharge7.
EAR'2 +AUL' LOCAL*SA'*ON B8 BR*DGE %EAGER
'2E +OLLO@*NG COND*'*ONS %US' BE
SA'*S+*ED :=
6. The fault must be dead F earth
>. ,ne good wire must be available between the testing station and
the point from where test is given at the looping end. the length and
gauge of the good wire is not required to be the same as that the faulty
wire. The good wire may have a separate route than the faulty wire.
2. =o presence of foreign battery.
/. #seful for locali(ing four faults
5a7 +ondition of the fault 5whether dead earth or not7
5b7 !arth insulation of the good wire
5c7 9esistance of the faulty wire and good wire
looped at the distant end
5d7 8alley loop test. Fused for locali(ing earth or contact
faults.
5 constant arm radio 4ridge 7
5e7 'urray test " used for locali(ing earth or contact faults
on short lines.
5variable arm radio bridge7
The procedure for connections, testing and formula for
manipulating the test"data to find out the distance of the fault from the
testing end are available with each instrument.
&ULSE EC2O 'ES'ER OR EC2O %E'ER
This is the modern method and reliable method for measurement of
cables of any type.
This instrument provides reasonably an accurate distance
measurement.
This instrument works on the pulse reflection principle. The
pulses 5sin> form 7 which are created by a generator and which are
suitable for the location or places of error are transmitted through cable,
the part of the pulse power is reflected at the fault according to
magnitude of power. This is observed on the +9T screen. t makes use of
characteristic impedance of the conductor pair whose deviation from the
nominal characteristic impedance determines the intensity of reflection
or the reflection co"efficient
The pulse echo test method provides quantitative as well as
qualitative information on any transmission cable " impedance loss, 9ise
time, electrical length and discontinuities in a single measurement.
Pre"requisite :" while using this instrument for locali(ation of
fault, the gauge of the conductor and type of insulation of the cable
under test must be known.
This instrument can detect and locali(e various types of faults in
open wire and under -round cable provided the impedance irregularity
on the pair at the fault"point is large enough to cause a distinctly visible
reflection of the screen. The type of the faults those can be locali(ed by
this instrument are:"
5a7 ,pen circuit$disc 5b7 *hort
circuits
5b7 <igh resistance point 5d7 Partial
contacts
5e7 :ow insulation fault 5f7 *plit pairs
5g7 Kater logged section in P! insulated air core cable
5h7 %ent in outer conductor of coaxial cables etc.
n some situations it can also locali(e the multiple faults in a
circuit. t can also display the condition of impendence irregularities i.e.
the quality of a newly made &oint.
This instrument can be very efficiently used for checking up the
length of the cable in the drum before laying .
,peration of this instrument takes a very little time in some cases
a few seconds only. ,ne commercial brand of this instrument is of 4rand
and is known as A&LAB cble f"lt loctor= .0.5 manufactured in
our country having the facility of direct digital distance reach out display
of the distance.
%uring the time of &ointing the cable, or terminating the cable at
terminal points like '%;, +abinet, pillar, %P etc. a good number of
wires become break or looped due to bad workmanship. The
disconnection E loop faults may arise due to various other reasons. The
locali(ation of disc and loop fault simple with the help of the above
meter.
..1 +UNC'*ON O+ CON'ROLS AND *ND*CA'ORS ::
+9T intensity control :: +ontrols intensity or brightness on the screen.
6. +9T focus control :: ;or focus or sharpness of
,scilloscope display.
>. +9T screen :: 8iewing transmitted pulse and
reflection from fault.
2. <ori(ontal position :: ;or controlling right E left
movement of pulses
/. 8ertical position :: ;or controlling right E left
movement of pulses
0. <ori(ontal expansion :: !xpanding pulse in order to obtain
accurate display.
G. 8ertical -ain :: +ontrols vertical amplification of the pulse
reflection on the oscilloscope screen
B. 8elocity selector :: ;or selecting one half the velocity of propagation
value for the cable under test.
4attery charge :ow 4attery level :: To indicate the sufficient level of battery
when :!% requirement of recharging when :!% is on.
%istance readout :: ;ive :!% type digits to display distance in
meter.
Power on $ off :: To switch power on $ off for the instrument.
6/. 9ange selector :: To select ranges of distances expected to be
fault for providing progressively wide pulses required for."..2km, 2 km, ."6.km
ranges respectively.
60. Alternate trace selection :: Khen pressed +9T shows complete trace of the
cable under test and allows the reflection to be shifted towards the transmitted pulse
as controlled by Trace shift control. Khen not pressed only one trace is displayed.
61. *hift $ measure selector :: n depressed 5*!T7 position, the trance shift
control can be used to pinpoint a reflection. Khen pressed 59!A%7 allows digital
readout of the distance to the selected pulse reflection.
6G. 9eference pair selector :: Khen pressed allows reference pair connected
to :> to be shown on alternate trace for comparison to faulty pair connected to :6.
6B. Trace shift :: A 6. turn control allows alignment of reflected
pulse with the leading edge of the transmitted pulse to obtain the distance
measurement.
63. !xternal %+ power :: )ack for external 6> to 60 8 %+ "ve ground
source.
>.. +hassis ground :: )ack for chassis ground for user safety.
>6. *un shied :: To operate the test set in bright sunlight.
.., &ROCEDURE 'O 'ES' ::
a. +heck 4attery level before taking to the place of testing.
4attery charge :!% should be off on the panel.
b. There should be no voltage on the pair to be tested.
c. *et the 8$> value for the cable using velocity selector switch 5
one half the velocity of propagation value for the cable under
test.
d. Ad&ust the vertical gain sensitivity control to obtain pulse
height of two divisions height.
e. Ad&ust the hori(ontal position control so that the foot of pulse
is aligned with vertical line.
f. +onnect the meter to the pair to be tested at :6 and reference
pair at :>
g. Ad&ust the hori(ontal expansion control to show the reflected
pulse on the right side of the screen.
h. %epress the %epress the alternate trace selector switch. Ad&ust
the trace shift control, so that the foot of the transmitted pulse
is observed as below.
i. %epress the *!T $ 9!A% switch. 9ead the distance in
display. *ubtract the length of the test leads to obtain the
actual distance.
... O&ERA'*NG CONS*DERA'*ONS ::
6. A good cable with a matched termination displays a flat
trace with no reflection.
T
'
AR
>. f the measured fault location is near a splice, or if near a
construction site where recent digging has been done, it is
quite probable the fault is located there.
2. Kater existing in a splice case or in a &elly filled cable
may produce a very small reflection due to the confined
area of water. Kater reflections can be seen on the 'odel
2.23 long before actual deterioration of the cable
insulation occurs as the water changes the velocity factor
of the cable, making the measured distance to the wet
section sub&ect to error.
A cable pair may have more than one fault, so the first
fault can easily mask a more remote fault. Then locate the closest
fault then locate and repair the more distant faults.
/.. *ND*CA'*ON O+ '8&*CAL +AUL'S :: Khen the fault is with in few
meters from the testing point it is difficult to get an accurate reading. This can be
overcome by connecting a dummy 0. to 6.. meter length of cable between meter and
pair to be tested. The final actual measurement is got by substracting the length from
reading shown in the meter