ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
LAB MANUAL
OF

MICROWAVE & RADAR

ENGINERING
(EE-322-F)

FOR

3rd YEAR ELECTRONICS AND

COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY

CHECKED BY

Mr. Dharmender kumar

Mr. Jitendra kumar

MICROWAVE LAB
EE-322-F

Class work marks : 25

Theory marks
: 25
Total marks
: 50

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. To study wave guide Passive components.

2.To study the characteristics of the reflex klystron tube and determine
its electronic tuning range.
3.To measure frequency of microwave source and demonstrate
relationship among guide dimensions, free space wave length and guide
wavelength.
4. To determine the standing wave ratio and reflection coefficient.
5. To measure VSWR, insertion loss and attenuation of fixed and
variable attenuator.
6. To measure coupling factor and directivity of directional coupler.
7. To measure insertion loss, isolation of a three port circulator
8. Study of power division in a magic tee.
9. To study the V-I characteristics of Gunn diode.
10.To study the Polar pattern of wave- guide horn antenna

EXPERIMENT NO 1
Study of wave- guide components
Aim: To study the functioning of wave guide passive components
Theory:
Rectangular wave- guide
Wave-guide is a hollow metallic tube of uniform cross section for transmitting electromagnetic
waves by successive reflections from the inner walls of the tube.
Wave-guide sections of specified length can be supplied with flanges, painted outside and silver
or gold plated inside.

Fig 1. Rectangular wave-guide

Fixed attenuator wave- guide
Fixed attenuators are used for inserting a known attenuation in a waveguide system. These
consist of a lossy-vane inserted in a section of waveguide, flange on both ends. These are useful
for isolation of waveguide circuits.

Fig 2. Fixed attenuator

Variable attenuator waveguide
Variable attenuators provide continuous or step wise variable attenuation. These consist of a
movable lossy-vane inside a section of waveguide by means of a micrometer. The configuration
of lossy vane is so designed to obtain the low VSWR characteristics over the entire frequency
band.
3

These are meant for adjusting power levels and isolating a source and load.

Fig 3. Variable attenuator

Frequency meters:
(I) Micrometer type
These are made of tunable resonant cavity (having high Q) of particular size. This cavity is
connected to the source of energy through a section of waveguide. The cavity absorbs some
power at resonance, which is indicated as a dip in the output power. The tuning of the cavity is
achieved by means of a plunger connected to a micrometer. The reading of micrometer at
resonance gives frequency from the calibration-chart provided.

Fig 4. Micrometer type frequency meter

(II) Direct reading type
Direct reading frequency meter is used to give direct frequency on the dial provided. These are
recommended for use whenever quick determination of frequency and easy reading are desired
in laboratory and production testing.
4

Fig 5. Direct reading type frequency meter

Slotted section with probe carriage:
Slotted sections consists of a precision waveguide slotted line and the probe-carriage. The
waveguide slotted line, comprises of an accurately machined section of waveguide in which a
small longitudinal slot has been cut which is a basic means for monitoring wave-patterns inside
the waveguide system. For dominant mode traveling inside the waveguide, the slot does not
radiate any power. .
A precision built probe carriage has a centimeter-scale with a vernier reading of 0.1 mm least
count and a dial gauge can be mounted easily if precise readings are required.

Fig 6. Slotted section with probe carriage

Tunable probe
Tunable probes are used with slotted sections A small probe is inserted through the slot senses
the relative field strength of the standing wave pattern inside the waveguide. The depth of
penetration into a waveguide section is adjustable by the knob of the probe. The tip (central wire
projection of the probe) pickup the RF power from the line and this power is rectified by crystal
detector, which is then fed to the VSWR meter or indicating instrument.
5

Fig 7. Tunable probe

Three-port ferrite circulators
Circulators are matched three-port devices and these are meant for allowing microwave energy to
flow in clockwise direction with negligible loss but almost no transmission in the anti-clockwise
direction.

Fig 8. Three-port ferrite circulators

Ferrite-isolators
These are well-matched uni-directional devices offering low forward insertion loss and high
reverse isolation.

Fig 9. Ferrite isolator

6

Wave guide detector mount (tunable)

Wave- guide detector mount (tunable) is used for detecting microwave power through a suitable
detector. It consists of a detector crystal mounted in a section of waveguide and a shorting
plunger for matching purpose. The output from the crystal may be fed to an indicating
instrument.

Fig 10. Wave-guide detector mount (tunable)

Precision slide screw tuner

Slide screw tuner is used for matching purpose by changing the penetration and position of a
screw in the slot, provided in the centre of the waveguide. These consist of a section of
waveguide, flanged on both ends and a thin-slot is provided in the broad wall of the waveguide.
A carriage carrying the screw is provided over the slot. Precision Slide screw Tuner has a
micrometer driven screw and a vernier scale of least count 0.1 mm to control and read the depth
and position of the screw respectively.

Fig 11. Precision slide screw tuner

Cross directional couplers
Directional couplers are flanged, built in waveguide assemblies which can sample a small
amount of microwave power for measurement purposes. Cross Directional coupler consists of
two sections of waveguide joined together at right angles. The coupling is provided by star slots
7

made in broad wall of wave-guide. It is used in monitoring signal frequency, power etc. in a
microwave system.

Fig 12. Cross directional coupler

Matched termination
Matched terminations are useful for VSWR measurement of various wave-guide components.
These are also employed as dummy and as a precise reference loads with Tee junctions,
directional Couplers and other similar dividing devices. These consist of a small and high
dissipative taper flap mounted inside the center of a section of wave-guide.

Fig 13. Matched termination

E H Tee or Magic Tee
Magic Tee consists of a section of waveguide with both series and shunt waveguide arms,
mounted at the exact mid-point of main arm. Both ends of the section of waveguide and both
arms are flanged on their ends. These Tees are employed in balanced mixers, automatic
frequency control circuits and impedance measurement circuits etc. This becomes a four
terminal device where one terminal is isolated from the input terminal.

Fig 14. Magic Tee

8

Movable short
Movable short consists of a section of a waveguide, flanged on one end and terminated with a
movable shorting plunger on the other end. By means of this non-contacting type plunger a
reflection co-efficient of almost unity may be obtained.

Fig 15. Movable short

Comments and discussions:

EXPERIMENT NO 2
To study the characteristics of the reflex klystron tube and determine its electronic tuning range.
Aim: To study the following characteristics of reflex klystron
Carrier wave operation
Square wave operation
Mode curves
Apparatus: Klystron power supply, klystron tube with klystron mount, isolator, frequency
meter, variable attenuator, detector mount, wave guide stand, VSWR meter, multi-meter,
oscilloscope, BNC cable
Theory:
The reflex klystron makes the use of velocity modulation to transform a continuous electron
beam into microwave power. Electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated and passed
through the positive resonator towards negative reflector, which retards and, finally, reflects the
electrons and the electrons turn back through the resonator. Suppose an rf-field exists between
the resonators, the electrons traveling forward will be accelerated or retarded, as the voltage at
the resonator changes in amplitude. The accelerated electrons leave the resonator at an increased
velocity and the retarded electrons leave at the reduced velocity. The electrons leaving the
resonator will need different time to return, due to change in velocities. As a result, returning
electrons group together in bunches. As the electron bunches pass through resonator, they
interact with voltage at resonator grids. If the bunches pass the grid at such a time that the
electrons are slowed down by the voltage then energy will be delivered to the resonator, and
klystron will oscillate. fig. 1 shows the schematic of a typical klystron Tube. fig. 2 shows the
relationship between output power, frequency and reflector voltage
The frequency is primarily determined by the dimensions of resonant cavity. Hence, by
changing the volume of resonator, mechanical tuning of klystron is possible. Also, a small
frequency change can be obtained by adjusting the reflector voltage. This is called Electronic
Tuning.
The experimental setup for study of klystron tube is shown in fig. 3
Square wave modulation of klystron tube is shown in fig.4

10

Fig.3 Experimental set up for study of klystron tube

Fig.4 Square
wave
modulation of
klystron

Procedure :

(I) Carrier wave operation

1. Connect the components and equipments as shown in the fig. 3
11

2
3

Set the variable attenuator at the minimum position (zero micrometer reading).
Set the mod-switch of klystron power supply at CW position, beam voltage control knob to
fully anti-clock wise and reflector voltage control knob to fully clockwise and the meter
switch to off position.
4 Rotate the knob of frequency meter at one side fully.
5 Connect the detector mount output (BNC cable) to multi-meter
6 Put the multi-meter in DC micrometer range of 250 microampere.
7 Switch ON the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan for the klystron tube.
8 Put the meter switch to the beam voltage position and rotate the beam voltage knob
clockwise slowly up-to 300 V meter reading. Observe beam current on the meter by changing
the meter switch to beam current position. The beam current should not increase more than
30mA.
9 Change the reflector voltage slowly and watch current on the micrometer .Set the reflector
voltage for maximum deflection in the meter. If no deflection is obtained, change the switch
position to 50 microampere and change the variable attenuator position of micrometer
reading 0 to 10mm.
10 Tune the plunger of klystron mount for the maximum output.
11 Rotate the knob of frequency meter slowly and stop at that position, where there is lower
output current on multi-meter. Read directly the frequency meter between two horizontal
line and vertical marker. If micrometer type frequency meter is used, read the micrometer
reading and find the frequency from its calibration chart.
12 Change the reflector voltage and read the current and frequency for each reflector voltage
and plot the graph as shown in fig 2
(II) Square wave operation
1. Connect the equipments and components as shown in the fig. 1.
2. Set micrometer of variable attenuator around some Position.
3. Set the range switch of VSWR meter at 40-db position, input selector switch to crystal
impedance position, meter switch to normal position.
4. Set mod-selector switch to AM-mod position, beam voltage control knob to fully
anticlockwise position, reflector voltage control knob to maximum clockwise position and
meter switch to OFF position.
5. Switch ON the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan.
6. Change the meter switch of klystron power supply to beam voltage position, and rotate the
beam voltage knob clockwise up to 300 V.
7. Keep the AM-mod amplitude knob and AM-Fre knob at the mid-position. Connect the
Detector Mount output to VSWR Meter.
8. Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR meter.
9. Rotate the AM-mod amplitude knob to get the maximum output in VSWR meter.
10. Maximize the deflection with frequency control knob of AM-mod to get the maximum output
in VSWR meter.
11. If necessary, change the range switch of VSWR meter 30 db to 50 db if the deflection in
VSWR meter is out of scale or less than normal scale respectively. Further the output can be
also reduced by variable attenuator for setting the output for any particular position.
12. Find the oscillation frequency by frequency meter as described in the earlier set up.
13. Observe the square wave modulation of the klystron on the CRO as shown in fig-4
(III) Mode study
1. Set up the components and equipments as shown in fig. 1.
2. Keep position of variable attenuator at min attenuation position.
12

3. Set mode selector switch to FM-mod position. FM amplitude and FM frequency knob at mid
position, keep beam voltage knob fully anticlockwise and reflector voltage knob to fully
clockwise with meter switch to Off position.
4. Keep the time/division scale of oscilloscope around 100 Hz frequency measurement and
volt/div to lower scale.
5. Switch ON the klystron power supply and oscilloscope Connect the detector mount output
to oscilloscope.
6. Change the meter switch of klystron power supply to beam voltage position and set beam
voltage to 300 V by beam voltage control knob.
7. Keep amplitude knob of FM modulator to maximum position and rotate the reflector voltage
anticlockwise to get modes as shown in fig. 2 on the oscilloscope. The horizontal axis
represents reflector voltage axis and vertical represents output power.
8. By changing the reflector voltage and amplitude of FM modulation, any mode of klystron
tube can be seen on oscilloscope.
Comments and discussions:

Precautions:
1. All connections should be tight.
2. Before Switching on the klystron power supply, set the beam voltage control knob to fully
anticlockwise, reflector voltage control knob to fully clockwise and meter switch to off
position.
3. Set the beam voltage to 300V and observe the beam current. The beam current should not
increase more than 30mA

EXPERIMENT NO 3
To measure frequency of microwave source and demonstrate relationship among guide
dimensions, free space wavelength, guide wavelength and cut-off wavelength.
Aim: Measurement of frequency and wavelength of microwave source (reflex klystron) in
rectangular waveguide working in TE10 mode.

13

Apparatus: Klystron power supply, klystron tube with klystron mount, isolator, frequency
meter, variable attenuator, slotted line section, tunable probe, VSWR meter, wave-guide stand,
and movable short/matched termination
Theory:
For dominant TE10 mode rectangular waveguide o, g and c are related as below:
1
1
1
=
+
o 2
g2
c2
Where o is free space wavelength
g is guide wavelength
c is cutoff wavelength
For TE10 mode c = 2a
where a is broad dimension of waveguide.
The following relationship can be proved
c=f
Where c is velocity of light and f is frequency
Experimental set up for frequency & wavelength measurement is shown in fig 1
Klystron
Power Supply

Klystron Tube

Tunable
Probe

VSWR
Meter

Klystron
Mount
Isolator

Frequency
Meter

Variable
Attenuator

Slotted Line

Movable
Short
Fig-1 Set for frequency & wave length measurement
Procedure:
1.
Set up the components and equipments as shown in fig. 1
2.
Set the variable attenuator at minimum attenuation position,
3.
Keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as below:
Range
50 db
Input Switch
Crystal low impedance
Meter Switch
Normal position
Gain (coarse & fine) Mid position
14

Termination

4.

18.

Keep the control knobs of klystron power supply as below

Meter switch
OFF
Mod switch
AM
Beam voltage knob Fully anticlockwise
Reflector voltage
Fully clockwise
AM-amplitude knob Around fully clockwise
AM-frequency knob Around mid position
Switch ON the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan switch.
Turn the meter switch of power supply to beam voltage position and set beam voltage at
300 V with the help of beam voltage knob.
Adjust the reflector voltage to get some deflection in VSWR meter.
Maximize the deflection with AM amplitude and frequency control knob of power
supply.
Tune the plunger of klystron mount for maximum deflection.
Tune the reflector voltage knob for maximum deflection.
Tune the probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
Tune the frequency meter knob to get a dip on the VSWR scale and note down the
frequency directly fro frequency meter.
Replace the termination with movable short, and detune the frequency meter.
Move the probe along the slotted line. The deflection in VSWR meter will vary. Move
the probe to a minimum deflection position, to get accurate reading, it is necessary
increase the VSWR meter range db switch to higher position. Note and record the probe
position.
Move the probe to next minimum position and record the probe position again.
Calculate the guide wavelength as twice the distance between two successive minimum
positions obtained as above.
Measure the waveguide inner broad dimension, a which will be around 22.86 mm for
X-band.
Calculate the frequency by following equation.

19.
20.

F = c/ =
c (1/g 2 + 1/ c 2 )
Where c= 3x10 8 meter/sec (velocity of light)
Verify with frequency obtained by frequency meter.
Above experiment can be verified at different frequencies.

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

15.
16.
17.

Comments and discussions:

15

Precautions:
1.
All connections should be tight.
2.
Before Switching on the klystron power supply, set the beam voltage control knob to
fully anticlockwise, reflector voltage control knob to fully clockwise and meter switch to
off position.
3.
Set the beam voltage to 300V and observe the beam current. The beam current should
not increase more than 30mA

16

EXPERIMENT NO 4
To determine the standing wave ratio and reflection coefficient
Aim: To measure VSWR and reflection coefficient by standing wave and double minimum
methods
Apparatus: Klystron tube klystron power supply, VSWR meter, klystron mount, isolator;
frequency meter, variable attenuator slotted line, tunable probe, waveguide stand, movable
short/termination or any unknown load, BNC cable and S-S tuner
Theory:
The electromagnetic field at any point of transmission line, may be considered as sum of two
traveling waves : the incident wave which propagates from the source to the load and the
reflected wave which propagates towards the generator. The reflected wave is set up by
reflection of incident wave from a discontinuity in the line or from the load impedance. The
superposition of the two traveling waves gives rise to a standing wave along the line. The
maximum field strength is found where the waves are in phase and minimum where the two
waves add in opposite phase. The distance between two successive minimum (or maximum) is
half the guide wavelength on the line. The ratio of electrical field strength of reflected and
incident wave is called reflection co-efficient.
The voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) is defined as ratio between maximum and minimum
field strength along the line
Hence VSWR denoted by S is as follows
S

Emax / Emin

=
=

I Ei l + I Er l
I Ei l- I Er l

Reflection coefficient, p is
p

Er
ZL - ZO
Ei
=
ZL + Zo
Where ZL is the load impedance Zo is characteristics impedance.
The above equation gives following equation
|p|
=
(S-1)/( S + 1)
The setup for VSWR measurement is shown in fig.1

17

Ei = Incident Voltage
Er = Reflected voltage

VSWR Meter
.

Tunable
Probe

Microwave
Source

Isolator

Frequency
Meter

Variable
Attenuator

Slotted
Line

S S Tuner

Matched
Termination

Fig-1 Set up for VSWR measurement

Fig.2 Standing wave

Fig.3 Double minima method

18

Procedure:
1.
2.

3.

4.

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
(I)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Set up the equipment as shown in fig. 1

Keep variable attenuator in the minimum attenuation position.

Keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as below:

Range db
=
40 db/50db
Input switch
=
Low impedance
Meter switch
=
Normal
Gain (coarse fine)
=
Mid position approx.
Keep the control knobs of klystron power supply as below:
Meter switch
=
Off
Mod switch
=
AM
Beam voltage knob
=
Fully anticlockwise
Reflector voltage knob
=
Fully clockwise
AM-amplitude knob
=
Around fully clockwise
AM-frequency
=
Mid position
& amplitude knob
Switch ON the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan.
Turn the meter switch of klystron power supply to beam voltage position and set the
beam voltage at 300 V.
Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflector in VSWR meter.
Tune the output by turning the reflector voltage, amplitude and frequency of AM
modulation.
Tune plunger of klystron mount and probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.
If required, change the range db-switch, variable attenuator position and gain control
knob to get deflection in the scale of VSWR meter.
As you move probe along the slotted line, the deflection will change.
Measurement of low and medium VSWR
Move the probe along the slotted line to get maximum deflection in VSWR meter. fig2.
Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob or variable attenuator until the meter indicates
1.0 on normal VSWR scale.
Keep all the control knobs as it is, move the probe to net minimum position. Read the
VSWR on the scale and record it.
Repeat the above step for change of S.S. tuner probe depth and record the corresponding
VSWR.
If the VSWR is between 3.2 and 10, change the range dB switch to next higher position
and read the VSWR on second VSWR scale of 3 to 10.

19

(II)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Measurement of high VSWR (Double minimum method)

Set the depth of S.S. tuner slightly more for maximum VSWR.
Move the probe along-with slotted line until a minimum is indicated.
Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob and variable attenuator to obtain a reading of
3 db in the normal db scale (0 to 10 db) of VSWR meter.
Move the probe to the left on slotted line until full-scale deflection is obtained, i.e. 0db on
0-10 db scale. Note and record the probe position on slotted line let it be d1 fig3.
Repeat the step 3 and 4 and then move the probe right along the slotted line until full
scale deflection is obtained on 0-10 db normal db scale. Let it be d2.
Replace the S.S. tuner and termination by movable short.
Measure the distance between two successive minima positions of the probe. Twice this
distance is guide wave length g.
Compute SWR from the following equation.
SWR =

g
(d1 d2)

Comments and discussions:

Precautions:
1.
All connections should be tight.
2.
Before Switching on the klystron power supply, set the beam voltage control knob to
fully anticlockwise, reflector voltage control knob to fully clockwise and meter switch to
off position.
3.
Set the beam voltage to 300V and observe the beam current. The beam current should
not increase more than 30mA

20

EXPERIMENT NO. 5
To measure VSWR, insertion loss and attenuation of fixed and variable attenuator.
Aim: To study the following characteristics of attenuators (fixed and variable): Input VSWR,
insertion loss (in case of variable attenuators) and frequency sensitivity
Apparatus: Microwave source (a) Gunn oscillator, or (b) klystron tube, isolator, frequency
meter, variable attenuator, slotted line, tunable probe, detector mount, matched
termination, VSWR meter, test attenuator, (a) fixed, (b) variable, Gunn power supply
PIN modulator/klystron power supply + klystron mount, cooling fan and accessories.
Theory:
The attenuator is a two port bi-directional device which attenuates some power when inserted
into the transmission line.
Attenuation A (db) = 10 log P1 / P2
Where P1 = Power detected by the load without the attenuator in the line.
P = Power detected by the load with the attenuator in the line.
The attenuators consist of a rectangular waveguide with a resistive vane inside the it to absorb
microwave power according to its position with respect to sidewall of the waveguide. An
electric field is maximum at center in TE10 mode, the attenuation will be maximum if the vane is
placed at centre of the waveguide. Moving from centre towards the sidewall, attenuation
decreases. In the fixed attenuator, the vane position is fixed where as in variable attenuator, its
position can be changed by the help of micrometer or by other methods.
Following characteristics of attenuators can be studied: Input VSWR, insertion loss (in case of
variable attenuator), frequency sensitivity i.e. variation of attenuation with change in frequency
at any fixed position of vane.
Setup for VSWR measurement of attenuator is shown in fig.1
Setup for insertion loss and attenuation measurement of attenuator is shown in fig.2

21

Microwave
Source

Tunable
Probe

Isolator

Frequency
Meter

VSWR Meter

Slotted Line

Variable
Attenuator

Attenuator

Attenuator

Matched
Load

Fig.1 Set up for measurement of VSWR of attenuator

Microwave
Source

VSWR Meter

Isolator
Frequency
Meter

Variable

___ Attenuator

____

Detector
Mount

Detector
Mount

Slotted
Line

Attenuator

Fig-2 Set -up for measurement of insertion loss & attenuation for attenuator
22

Procedure:
(I)

Input VSWR measurement

1.

Connect the equipments as shown in the fig.1

Energize the microwave source for maximum power at any frequency of operation.
2. Measure the VSWR with the help of tunable probe, slotted line and VSWR meter as
described in the experiment of measurement of low and medium VSWR.
3. Measure the VSWR with the help of tunable probe, slotted line and VSWR meter as
described in the experiment of measurement of low and medium VSWR.
4. Repeat the above step for other frequencies if required.
(II)
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

6.
7.

Insertion loss/attenuation measurement

Remove the tunable probe, attenuator and matched termination from the slotted section in
the above set up.
Connect the detector mount to the slotted line, and tune the detector mount also for
maximum deflection on VSWR meter (detector mounts output should be connected to
VSWR meter)
Set any reference level on the VSWR meter with the help of variable attenuator (not
test attenuator) and gain control knob of VSWR meter. Let it be P1.
Carefully disconnect the detector mount from the slotted line with out disturbing any
position on the setup. Place the test variable attenuator to the slotted line and detector
mount to other port of test variable attenuator. Keep the micrometer reading of text
variable attenuator to zero and record the reading of VSWR meter. Let it be P 2. Then the
insertion loss of test attenuator will be P1 P2 db.
For measurement of attenuation of fixed and variable attenuator, after step 4 of the above
measurement, carefully disconnect the detector mount from the slotted line without
disturbing any position obtained up-to step 3. Place the test attenuator to the slotted line
and detector mount at the other port of test attenuator. Record the reading of VSWR
meter. Let it be P3 then the attenuation value of the fixed attenuator or attenuation value
of variable attenuator for particular position of micrometer reading will be P1 P3 db.
In case the variable attenuator change the micrometer reading and record the VSWR
meter reading. Find out attenuation value for different position of Micrometer reading
and plot a graph.
Now change the operating frequency and whole step should be repeated for finding
frequency sensitivity of fixed and variable attenuator.

23

Comments and discussions:

Precautions:
1.
All connections should be tight.
2.
Before Switching on the klystron power supply, set the beam voltage control knob to
fully anticlockwise, reflector voltage control knob to fully clockwise and meter switch to
off position.
3.
Set the beam voltage to 300V and observe the beam current. The beam current should
not increase more than 30mA
4.
For measuring frequency sensitivity of variable attenuator the position of micrometer
reading of the variable attenuator should be same for all frequencies of operation.

24

EXPERIMENT NO 6
To measure coupling factor and directivity of directional coupler.
Aim: To study the function of cross directional coupler by measuring the following parameters:
Coupling factor, insertion loss, isolation and directivity of the coupler, by using source
reflex klystron
Apparatus: Microwave source (reflex klystron), isolator, frequency meter, variable attenuator,
slotted line, tunable probe, detector mount, matched termination, cross directional
coupler, waveguide stand, cables and accessories, VSWR meter.
Theory:
A directional coupler is a device with which it is possible to measure the incident and reflected
wave separately. It consists of two transmission lines, the main arm and auxiliary arm, electromagnetically coupled to each other, refer to the fig.1. The power entering the port 1 in the main
arm divides between port 2 and port 3 and almost no power comes out in port 4. Power entering
port 2 is divided between 1 and 4.
The coupling factor is defined as:
Coupling (db) = 10 log10 [P1 / P3] where port 2 is terminated
Isolation (db) = 10 log10 [P2 / P3] where P1 is matched.
Power is entering at Port 1.
The directivity of the directional coupler is a measure of separation between incident wave and
the reflected wave. It is measured as the ratio of two power outputs from the auxiliary line when
a given amount of power is successively applied to each terminal of the main line with the port
terminated by material loads.
Directivity (db) = isolation coupling = 10 log10 [ P2 / P1 ]
Main line insertion loss is the attenuation introduced in the transmission line by insertion of
coupler, it is defined as:
Insertion Loss (db)
= 10 log10 [P1 / P2] when the power is entering at port 1.
fig.1 shows a cross directional coupler
fig.2 shows the setup for measurement of insertion loss, coupling and directivity.
port 3

port 1

port 2

port 4
Fig.1 Cross directional coupler
25

Microwave
Source

Isolator

Variable
Attenuator
Matched
Termination
1

Frequency
Meter

Directional
Coupler

Detector
Mount

Detector
Mount

V.S.W.R. Meter

Matched
Termination

2
Directional
Coupler

Directional
Coupler

Detector
Mount

Detector
Mount

3
Matched
Termination
Fig.2 Setup for measurement of insertion loss, coupling & directivity
Procedure:
1. Set up the components and equipments as shown in the fig2.
2. Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation of frequency.
3. Connect the detector mount of the frequency meter. Tune the detector for the maximum
output.
4. Set any reference level of power on VSWR meter with the help of variable attenuator, gain
control knob of VSWR meter, and note down the reading (reference level let X).

26

5. Insert the directional coupler with detector to the auxiliary port 3 and matched termination to
port 2, without changing the position of variable attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR
meter.
6. Note down the reading on VSWR meter on the scale with the help of range-db switch if
required. Let it be Y.
7. Calculate coupling factor, which will be X-Y in db.
8. Now carefully disconnect the detector from the auxiliary port 3 and match termination from
port 2 without disturbing the set-up.
9. Connect the matched termination to the auxiliary port 3 and detector to port 2 and measure
the reading on VSWR meter. Suppose it is Z.
10. Compute insertion loss X-Z in db.
11. Repeat the steps from 1 to 4.
12. Connect the directional coupler in the reverse direction, i.e. port 2 to frequency meter side.
Matched termination to port 1 and detector mount to port 3 without disturbing the position of
the variable attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter.
13. Measure and note down the reading on VSWR meter let it be Yd.
14. Compute the directivity as Y Yd
15. Repeat the same for other frequencies.

Comments and discussions:

Precautions:
1. All connections should be tight.
2. Before Switching on the klystron power supply, set the beam voltage control knob to fully
anticlockwise, reflector voltage control knob to fully clockwise and meter switch to off
position.
3. Set the beam voltage to 300V and observe the beam current. The beam current should not
increase more than 30mA

27

EXPERIMENT NO 7
To measure insertion loss, isolation of a three port circulator
Aim: To study the function of three port circulator by measuring the following parameters:
Insertion loss and isolation, by using source reflex klystron
Apparatus: Microwave source (reflex klystron), isolator, 3 port test circulator, frequency meter,
variable attenuator, slotted line, tunable probe, detector mount, matched termination,
wave guide stand, cables and accessories, VSWR meter.
Theory:
Circulator
Circulator is defined as device with ports arranged such that energy entering a port is coupled to
an adjacent port but not coupled to the other ports. This is depicted in fig. 1 circulator can have
any number of ports.
Port 2

Port 3

Port 1
Fig. 1 Circulator

The important circulator parameters are:

Insertion Loss
Insertion Loss is the ratio of power supplied by a source to the input port to the power detected
by a detector in the coupling port i.e output port with other ports terminated in the matched load.
It is expressed in decibels.
Isolation
Isolation is the ratio of power fed to input port and the power detected at not coupled port
with other port terminated in the matched load. This ratio is expressed in db.
Set up for measurement of insertion loss and isolation of circulator is shown in fig2

28

Microwave
Source

Frequency
Meter

Isolator

Variable
Attenuator

VSWR
Meter

Slotted
Lines

Detector
Mount

Isolator

Circulator

Detector
Mount

Detector
Mount

Fig-3 Set up for measurement of insertion loss and isolation of circulator

Procedure:
1.
Setup the components and equipments as shown in fig.3.
2.
Energize the microwave source for maximum output for a particular frequency of
operation. Tune the detector mount for maximum output in the VSWR Meter.
3.
Set any reference level of power in VSWR meter with the help of variable attenuator and
gain control knob of VSWR Meter, Let it be P1.
4.
Carefully remove the detector mount without disturbing the position of the set up. Insert
the circulator between slotted line and detector mount. Keep input port to slotted line and
detector to its output port. A matched termination should be placed at third port
5. Record the reading in the VSWR meter, if necessary, change range (db) switch to high or
lower position, and taking 10 db change for one step change of switch position. Let it be
P2.
6. Compute insertion loss given as P1 P2 in db.
7. For measurement of isolation, the circulator has to be connected in reverse i.e. output port to
slotted line and detector to input port with other port terminated by matched termination
after setting a reference level without circulator in the set up described in insertion loss
measurement .Let same P1 level is set.
29

8.
9.
10.
11.

Record the reading of VSWR meter after and let it be P3.

Compute isolation as P1 P3 in db.
Repeat the experiment for other ports of circulator.
Repeat the above experiment for other frequency if needed.

Comments and discussions:

Precautions:
1.
All connections should be tight.
2.
Before Switching on the klystron power supply, set the beam voltage control knob to
fully anticlockwise, reflector voltage control knob to fully clockwise and meter switch to
off position.
3.
Set the beam voltage to 300V and observe the beam current. The beam current should
not increase more than 30mA

30

EXPERIMENT NO 8
Study of power division in a magic tee
Aim: To measure the isolation and coupling coefficient of magic tee using reflex klystron.
Apparatus: Microwave source (reflex klystron), isolator, variable attenuator, frequency meter,
slotted line, tunable probe, magic tee, matched terminations, waveguide stand, detector mount,
VSWR meter and accessories.
Theory:
The device magic tee is a combination of the E and H plane tee (in fig1). Arm. 3 (side horizontal
arm) is the H-arm and arm 4 (vertical arm) is the E-arm. If the power is fed, into arm 3 (H-arm)
the electric field divides equally between arm 1 and 2 with the same phase, and no electric field
exits in arm 4. If power is fed in arm 4 (E-arm), it divides equally in to arm 1 and 2 but out of
phase with no power to arm 3, further, if the power is fed in arm 1 and 2 simultaneously it is
added in arm 3 (H-arm) and it is subtracted in E-arm i.e. arm 4.
The basic parameters to be measured for magic Tee are defined below.
Isolation:
The isolation between E and H arms is defined as the ratio of the power supplied by the
generator connected to the E-arm (port 4) to the power detected at H-arm (port 3) when side
arms 1 and 2 terminated in matched load.
Hence Isolation (db) = 10 log10 [P4 / P3 ]
Similarly, Isolation between other ports may also be defined.
Coupling Factor:
It is defined as Cij = 10 - /20
Where is attenuation / isolation in dB when i is input arm and j is output arm.
Thus = 10 log10 [ Pi / Pj]
Where Pi is the power delivered to arm i and Pj is power detected at j arm.

Fig-1

MagicTee

31

Microwave
Source

Isolator

Frequency
Meter

Variable
Attenuator

1
Slotted
Line

Detector
Mount

Magic Tee

VSWR
Meter

Matched Load

Detector
Mount

Matched Load

Fig-2 Set up for study of magic tee

Procedure:
1.
Setup the components and equipments as shown in fig.2
2.
Connect the detector mount to slotted line.
3.
Energize the microwave source for particular frequency of operation and tune the
detector mount for maximum output.
4.
With the help of variable attenuator and gain control knob of VSWR meter, set any power
level in the VSWR meter and note down. Let it be P3.
5.
Without disturbing the position of variable attenuator and gain control knob, carefully
place the magic Tee after slotted line keeping H-arm connected to slotted line, detector to
E-arm and matched termination to arm 1 and 2. Note down the reading of VSWR meter.
Let it be P4.
6.
Drafting the isolation between port 3 and 4 as P3 P4 in db.
7.
Determine the coupling coefficient from equation given in the theory part.
8.
Repeat the same experiment for other ports also.
9.
Repeat the above experiment for other frequencies.
Comments and discussions:
Precautions:
1.
All connections should be tight.
2.
Before Switching on the klystron power supply, set the beam voltage control knob to fully
anticlockwise, reflector voltage control knob to fully clockwise and meter switch to of
position.
3.
Set the beam voltage to 300V and observe the beam current. The beam current should not
increase more than 30mA

32

EXPERIMENT NO 9
To study the V-I characteristics of Gunn diode
Aim : To plot V-I curve of Gunn oscillator
Apparatus: Gunn oscillator, Gunn power supply, isolator, frequency meter, matched
termination,
Theory:
The Gunn Oscillator is based on negative differential conductivity effect in bulk semiconductors
which has two conduction bands separated by an energy gap (greater than thermal energies). A
disturbance at the cathode gives rise to high field region, which travels towards the anode. When
this field domain reaches the anode, it disappears and another domain is formed at the cathode
and starts moving towards anode and so on. The time required for domain to travel from cathode
to anode (transit time) gives oscillation frequency.
In a Gunn Oscillator, the Gunn diode is placed in a resonant cavity.
determine the Oscillator frequency.

Cavity dimensions

Set for the study of V-I characteristics of GUNN Oscillator is shown in fig 1
Matched
Termination

Gunn Power
Supply

Gunn
Oscillator

Isolator

Fig-1 Set for the study of V-I characteristics of GUNN Oscillator

THRESHOLD VOLTAGE

V
Fig- 2 V-I characteristics of GUNN oscillator
33

Frequency
Meter

Procedure:
1.
2.

3.
4.
5
6.
7.

Set the components as shown in the fig. 1.

Keep the control knobs of Gunn Power Supply as below:
Meter switch
- Volt
Gunn bias knob
- Fully anticlockwise
PIN bias knob
- Fully anticlockwise
PIN Mode frequency - Any position
Switch no 4
- INT
Set the micrometer of Gunn Oscillator for required frequency of operation.
Switch ON the Gunn Power Supply
Measure the Gunn diode current corresponding to the various Gunn bias voltages through
the digital panel meter and meter switch. Do not exceed the bias voltage above 10 volts.
Plot the voltage and current readings on the graph as shown in fig. 2.
Measure the threshold voltage, which corresponds to maximum current.

1.
Comments and discussions:

Precautions:
1. All connections should be tight.
2
Do not exceed the Gunn bias voltage above 10V.
3.
Do not keep Gunn bias knob position at threshold position for more than 10-15 seconds
Reading should be obtained as fast as possible, otherwise due to excessive heating
GUNN Diode may burn.

34

EXPERIMENT NO. 10
Polar pattern of wave- guide horn antenna
Aim: To draw the polar pattern and determine the beam width of a wave guide horn antenna
Apparatus: Gunn power supply, Gunn Oscillator, PIN modulator, Frequency meter, Isolator,
Variable attenuator, Detector mount, Two-horn antenna, Turntable, VSWR meter and
Accessories.
Theory:
If a transmission line propagating energy is left open at one end, there will be radiation from this
end .In case of rectangular waveguide this antenna presents a mismatch of about 2 :1 and it
radiates in many directions. The match will improve if the open waveguide is a horn shape.
The Radiation pattern of an antenna is a plot of field strength or more often the power intensity
as a function of the aspect angle at a constant distance from the radiating antenna. An antenna
pattern is of course three- dimensional but for practical reasons it is normally presented as a twodimensional pattern in one or several planes. An antenna pattern consists of several lobes, the
main lobe, side lobes and the back lobe. The major power is concentrated in the main lobe and it
is required to keep the power in the side lobe and back lobe as low as possible. The power
intensity is maximum in the main lobe compared to the power intensity achieved from an
imaginary omni directional antenna (radiating equally in all directions) with the same power fed
to the antenna is defined as gain of the antenna. Fig 1a and 1b shows the antenna radiation
pattern. Fig 2 shows the experimental set up.

Fig 1a Polar pattern

35

Fig1b Linear plot

Gunn Power
Supply

Gunn
Oscillator

Isolator

PIN Modulator

Variable
Attenuator

Frequency
Meter

Horn
Antenna
Fig-2 Setup for the Antenna
Pattern Measurement

Detector
Mount

VSWR Meter
Procedure:
1.
Set up the equipments as shown in the fig. 2 Keeping the axis of both antennas in same
line.
36

2.
3.
4.
5
6.
7.
8.

Energize the Gunn oscillator for maximum output at desired frequency with square wave
modulator by tuning square wave amplitude and frequency of modulating signal of Gunn
power supply and tuning the detector.
Also tune the S S tuner in the line for maximum output (if S S Tuner is in the set up)
Obtain full-scale deflection (0db) on normal db scale (o-10db) at any convenient range
switch position of the VSWR meter by gain control knob of VSWR Meter by gain control
knob of VSWR meter or by variable attenuator.
Turn the receiving horn to the left in 2 0 or 50 steps up to 400 500 and note the
corresponding VSWR reading in normal db range. When necessary, change the range
switch to next higher range and add 10 db to the observed value.
Repeat the above step but this time turn the receiving horn to the right and note down the
reading.
Plot a relative power pattern i.e. out put Vs angle.
From diagram determine 3 db width (beam width) of the horn antenna.

Comments and discussions:

Precautions:
1. All connections should be tight.
2. Do not exceed the Gunn bias voltage above 10V.
3. Do not keep Gunn bias knob position at threshold position for more than 10-15 seconds
Reading should be obtained as fast as possible, otherwise due to excessive heating
GUNN Diode may burn.

37