Thermodynamics

Consider a very hot mug of coffee on the countertop of your kitchen. For discussion purposes,
we will say that the cup of coffee has a temperature of 80C and that the surroundings
(countertop, air in the kitchen, etc.) has a temperature of 26C. What do you suppose will happen
in this situation? I suspect that you know that the cup of coffee will gradually cool down over
time. At 80C, you wouldn't dare drink the coffee. Even the coffee mug will likely be too hot to
touch. But over time, both the coffee mug and the coffee will cool down. Soon it will be at a
drinkable temperature. And if you resist the temptation to drink the coffee, it will eventually
reach room temperature. The coffee cools from 80C to about 26C. So what is happening over
the course of time to cause the coffee to cool down? The answer to this question can be both
macroscopic and particulate in nature.
On the macroscopic level, we would say that the coffee and the mug are transferring heat to the
surroundings. This transfer of heat occurs from the hot coffee and hot mug to the surrounding air.
The fact that the coffee lowers its temperature is a sign that the average kinetic energy of its
particles is decreasing. The coffee is losing energy. The mug is also lowering its temperature; the
average kinetic energy of its particles is also decreasing. The mug is also losing energy. The
energy that is lost by the coffee and the mug is being transferred to the colder surroundings. We
refer to this transfer of energy from the coffee and the mug to the surrounding air and countertop
as heat. In this sense, heat is simply the transfer of energy from a hot object to a colder object.
Heat
Heat is a form of energy that flows from hotter substance to colder one. We mean by hotter and
colder substance, substance
having high temperature and
low temperature with respect to
a reference matter. There must
be a difference in temperatures
of the substance to have heat or
energy transfer. Heat is related
to the quantity of matter also. If the object has big mass it also has big thermal energy and
consequently amount of transferred energy increases. Since it is a type of energy we use Joule or
Calories as unit of heat.
Differences between Heat and Temperature
In daily life most of us use these terms interchangeably. In this section we
learn differences between them.
1. Heat is a type of energy, but temperature is not energy.
2. Heat depends on mass of the substance, however; temperature does not depend on the
quantity of matter. For example, temperature of one glass of boiling water and one teapot
of boiling water are equal to each other; on the contrary they have different heat since
they have different masses.
3. You can measure temperature directly with a device called thermometer but heat cannot
be measured with a device directly. You should know the mass, temperature and specific
heat capacity of that matter.
4. If you give heat to a matter, you increase its temperature or change its phase.

Definition:
Heat is energy that is transferred
from one body to another as the result
of a difference in temperature.
Temperature is a measure of hotness or
coldness expressed in terms of any of several
arbitrary scales like Celsius and Fahrenheit.
Symbol: Q T
Unit: Joules Kelvin, Celsius or Fahrenheit


Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the area of science that includes the relationship between heat and other
kinds of energy.
What is thermal equilibrium?
Two bodies brought in thermal contact will change their temperature until they are at the same
temperature. In the process of reaching thermal equilibrium, heat is transferred from one body
to the other.
Suppose we have a system of interest at temperature TS surrounded by an environment with
temperature TE. If TS >TE heat flows from the system to the environment. If TS <TE heat
flows from the environment into the system. Heat, presented by the symbol Q and unit Joule, is
chosen to be positive when heat flows into the system, and negative if heat flows out of the
system (see Figure 17.1). Heat flow is a results of a temperature difference between two bodies,
and the flow of heat is zero if TS =TE.
Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity
When heat is added to an object, its temperature increases. The change in the
temperature is proportional to the amount of heat added

The constant C is called the heat capacity of the object. The unit of heat capacity is [K
-1

The heat capacity of an object depends on its mass and the type of material of which it is made.
The heat capacity of an object is proportional to its mass, and the heat capacity per unit mass,
S, is commonly used. In that case
S =
C
m

Where m is the mass of the object. The heat capacity per unit mass is also called specific heat
capacity. The unit of heat capacity is [Kg
-1
K
-1
. The specific heat of water is 4200[Kg
-1
K
-1
.
This means that 4200 J of heat is required to raise the temperature of 1 Kg of water through 1
degree Kelvin (or, 1
0
C)
Example: How much energy does it take to raise the temperature of 50 g of copper by 10
degree Kelvin? Given that specific heat capacity of copper is 385]Kg
-1
K
-1
.
Ans:
Heat necessary = moss I S
=(501000) 10385=192.5 J
State functions and state variables
In thermodynamics, a state function, function of state, state quantity, or state variable is a
property of a system that depends only on the current state of the system, not on the way in
which the system acquired that state.
A thermodynamic system is described by a number of thermodynamic parameters (e.g.
temperature, volume, pressure) which are not necessarily independent.
Thermodynamics laws
Thermodynamics can be broken down into four laws. Although added to the laws of
thermodynamics after the other three laws, the zeroth law is usually discussed first.
Zeroth law states that if two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then they are
in thermal equilibrium with each other. In other words, if two systems are the same temperature
as a third system, then all three are the same temperatures. For example, if object A is in thermal
equilibrium with object B, and object B is in thermal equilibrium with object C, then object C is
also in thermal equilibrium with object A. This law allows us to build thermometers.


First law of thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics states that the total energy is always conserved; it cannot be
created or destroyed. In essence, energy can be converted from one form into another. A simple
example can be of water stored in a dam. This water has a potential energy due to its height.
Now when this water falls down, this potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. This
kinetic energy then rotates the turbines and electricity is produced. So the potential energy gets
converted to kinetic energy which in turn helps us to produce electricity and thereby the total
energy remains constant.
Internal Energy:
The internal energy (U) is the sum of all forms of energy (E
i
) intrinsic to a thermodynamic
system:

It is the energy needed to create the system. It may be divided into potential energy (U
pot
) and
kinetic energy (U
kin
) components:

Or, the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the molecules of a body is called internal
energy.
Let us suppose that UA be the energy of a system in its state A and UB be the energy of a system
in its state B. Frequently it is convenient to focus on changes in the assumed internal energy (U)
and to regard them as due to a combination of heat (q) added to the system while undergoing
change from state A to state B and work done by the system equal to w. The absorption of heat
by the system tends to raise the energy of the system. The performance of work by the system,
on the other hand, tends to lower the energy of the system because performance of work requires
expenditure of energy. Therefore the change in internal energy U, of a system is equal to the
head added to the system minus the work done by the system:
U = change in internal energy = q w
Or, q= U+ w,
Or, dq= dU+ dw
Where dq=the small amount of heat absorbed
dw=the external work done
dU=the small change in internal energy
i) dq is positive when heat is taken by the system and is negative when heat is given out by the
system
ii) If the work is done by the system dw is positive, and if the work is done on the system (energy
is added to the system) dw is negative.
Work done by gas:
Let us consider a gas contained in a cylinder of cross sectional area A fitted with a movable
piston. Let the pressure of the gas be P.
The amount of work done by the gas, dw=p dv
Where dv is the change in volume.
So, dq= du+ p dv