GRAVITATIONAL WAVES

A thesis submitted for the degree of

B.Sc. (Hons.)
RUBAB AMJAD
0751-BH-PHY-10
Session 2010-2014
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
GOVERNMENT COLLEGE UNIVERSITY
LAHORE
RESEARCH COMPLETION CERTIFICATE
It is certified that research work contained in this thesis titled Gravitationa Wav!"#
has been carried out and co!leted b" R$%a% A&'a() #oll $o% 0751-BH-PHY-10&
under " su!er'ision durin( his B*S+ ,Hon"*- studies in the sub)ect of !h"sics%

*ate
S$.!rvi"or+ Dr* M$%a"/ara Ha&!!(
*e!artent of Ph"sics&
,- .ni'ersit"& /ahore%
S$%&itt!( t/ro$0/

Pro1* Dr* Ria2 A/&a( Contro!r o1 E3a&ination")
C/air.!r"on
*e!artent of Ph"sics ,- .ni'ersit"& /ahore
,- .ni'ersit"& /ahore%
DECLARATION
I& R$%a% A&'a(& #oll $o% 0751-BH-PHY-10& student of B%Sc 0Hons%1 in the sub)ect
of Ph"sics session 2010-2014& hereb" declare that the atter !rinted in the thesis
titled Gravitationa Wav!"# is " own work and has not been subitted in whole
or in !art for an" de(ree or di!loa at this or an" other uni'ersit"%
*ated+
222222222222222222 Si(nature of the *e!onent

444444444444444444

D!(i+at!( to

My Grandmother
Who
Love me from the depth
Of heart.


AC5NOWLEDGEMENTS
3" heart" and huble thanks to Allah Almighty, the Merciful and the Beneficent, who (a'e
e coura(e& stren(th and indfulness to enable e achie'e this (oal%
4his thesis a!!ears in its current for due to the assistance and (uidance of se'eral !eo!le% I
would therefore like to offer " sincere thanks to all of the%
I e5!ress " dee!est (ratitude to " su!er'isor Dr* M$%a"/ara /a&!!( for her s!ecial
attention& kind beha'ior& !atience and encoura(in( rearks& durin( the entire course of "
work and ade it !ossible for e to co!lete this%
I a (ratefull" obli(ed to Sir A"i& Ai Mai6 for his !recious su((estions and (uidance%
I a fore'er indebted to " .ar!nt" and &7 "i"t!r" M!/a6 an( Ri&"/a% I a thankful for
e'er"thin( the" ha'e done for e and a" 6//6H (i'e the all the best in return%
7inall"& I a also thankful to " all friends s!eciall" War(a Ma8%oo and A%!!ra A!!&
for their affection and su!!ort% 3a" 6//6H bless all these !eo!le with His bounties% 6een
R$%a% A&'a(
*e!artent of Ph"sics
,o'ernent -olle(e .ni'ersit"
/ahore& Pakistan

Abstract
,ra'itational wa'es are 8ri!!les in s!ace-tie%8 9ust like a boat sailin( throu(h the
ocean !roduces wa'es in the water& o'in( asses like stars or black holes !roduce
(ra'itational wa'es in the fabric of s!ace-tie% 6 ore assi'e o'in( ob)ect will
!roduce ore !owerful wa'es& and ob)ects that o'e 'er" :uickl" will !roduce ore
wa'es o'er a certain tie !eriod% ,ra'itational wa'es are usuall" !roduced in an
interaction between two or ore co!act asses% Such interactions include the
binar" orbit of two black holes& a er(er of two (ala5ies& or two neutron star orbitin(
each other% 6s the black holes& stars& or (ala5ies orbit each other& the" send out wa'es
of 8(ra'itational radiation8 that reach the ;arth& Howe'er& once the wa'es do (et to
the ;arth& the" are e5treel" weak% 4his is because (ra'itational wa'es& like water
wa'es& decrease in stren(th as the" o'e awa" fro the source% ,ra'itational wa'es
carr" not onl" ener(" but also inforation about how the" were !roduced and !ro'ide
us with inforation that li(ht cannot (i'e%
-ha!ter1% INTRODUCTION
9*9: Co"&oo07
-osolo(" is the stud" of the ori(in& e'olution& and e'entual fate of the uni'erse also
the stud" of the .ni'erse in its totalit"%
9*;: R!ativit7
4he theor" of relati'it"& or si!l" relati'it" in !h"sics& usuall"
enco!asses two theories b" 6lbert ;instein+
S!ecial relati'it" and (eneral relati'it"
S!ecial relati'it" is a theor" of the structure of s!acetie% S!ecial relati'it" is based
on two !ostulates+
1% 4he laws of !h"sics are the sae for all obser'ers in unifor otion relati'e
to one another 0!rinci!le of relati'it"1%
2% 4he s!eed of li(ht in a 'acuu is the sae for all obser'ers& re(ardless of their
relati'e otion or of the otion of the li(ht source%
,eneral relati'it" is a theor" of (ra'itation de'elo!ed b" ;instein in the "ears
1<07=1<15% 4he de'elo!ent of (eneral relati'it" be(an with the e:ui'alence
!rinci!le& under which the states of accelerated otion and bein( at rest in
a (ra'itational field 0for e5a!le when standin( on the surface of the ;arth1 are
!h"sicall" identical% 4he u!shot of this is that free fall is inertial otion+ an ob)ect
in free fall is fallin( because that is how ob)ects o'e when there is
no force bein( e5erted on the& instead of this bein( due to the force of (ra'it" as
is the case in classical echanics% 4his is inco!atible with classical echanics
and s!ecial relati'it" because in those theories inertiall" o'in( ob)ects cannot
accelerate with res!ect to each other& but ob)ects in free fall do so% 4o resol'e this
difficult" ;instein first !ro!osed that s!acetie is cur'ed%
In 1<15& he de'ised the ;instein field e:uations which relate the cur'ature of
s!acetie with the ass& ener("& and oentu within it%
4echnicall"& (eneral relati'it" is a theor" of (ra'itation whose definin( feature is
its use of the ;instein field e:uations% 4he solutions of the field e:uations
are etric tensors which define the to!olo(" of the s!acetie and how ob)ects
o'e inertiall"%
9*<: C$rvat$r! in ".a+!ti&!
In 1<1>& 6lbert ;instein !ublished his faous 4heor" of ,eneral #elati'it"% His
theor" describes how s!ace-tie is affected b" ass% ?e can think of s!ace-tie as a
fabric that bends or cur'es when we !lace an ob)ect on it% 4he 2-diensional fabric
analo(" is )ust a odel we use to re!resent what is actuall" 4-diensional s!ace-tie
0the noral three diensions of s!ace& !lus a fourth diension of tie1%
Ia(ine !ullin( a sheet taut and !lacin( a bowlin( ball in the center of it@ "ou will
notice that the ball !roduces a cur'e in the sheet% 4he cur'e is weak far awa" fro the
ball& and stee!er near the ball% In fact& the sheet is a bit stretched in that area near the
ball& as well% 4his situation describes the cur'ature of s!ace-tie& and how it is
affected b" ass% $ear a ass& s!ace-tie cur'es ore drasticall" and stretches% $ear
a 'er" lar(e ass& the AdentA in s!ace-tie is 'er" dee!& and the stretches are near the
breakin( !oint% 4his eans that since s!ace-tie stretches near a ass& not onl" is
s!ace stretched out& but so is tie%
7i(ure 1%1+ Illustration showin( the effect the ass of the Sun has on s!ace-tie%
9*=: 0!o(!"i+
?e know that li(ht alwa"s takes the shortest !ath between two !oints& which we
usuall" think of as a strai(ht line% Howe'er& a strai(ht line is onl" the shortest distance
between two !oints on a flat surface% Bn a cur'ed surface& the shortest distance
between two !oints is actuall" a cur'e& technicall" known as a (eodesic%
7i(ure 1%2+ 6 (eodesic in a cur'ed s!acetie
9*>: S.a+!?ti&!
".a+!ti&! is an" atheatical odel that cobines s!ace and tie into a sin(le
interwo'en continuu% 4he s!acetie of our uni'erse is usuall" inter!reted fro
a ;uclidean s!ace !ers!ecti'e& which re(ards s!ace as consistin( of three diensions&
and tie as consistin( of one diension& the Afourth diensionA%
7i(ure 1%C+ fabric of s!acetie
-ha!ter2%
GRAVITY AS A MENIFESTATION OF SPACETIME
CURVATURE
6ccordin( to $ewtonian theor"& (ra'it" is relati'el" stron( when ob)ects are near
each other& but weakens with distance and the bi((er the bodies& the ore their force
of utual attraction% 4his is known as Din'erse-s:uare lawE%
7i(ure 2%1+ $ewtonFs law of uni'ersal (ra'itation
;*9: Fi!( E8$ation o1 N!@tonian Gravit7
;lectroa(netis is de'elo!ed b" considerin( the electroa(netic C-force on a
char(ed !article% So discussion of (ra'it" starts fro the descri!tion of (ra'itational
force in classical& non relati'istic@ theor" of $ewton% In $ewtonian theor"& the
(ra'itational force f on a 0test1 !article of (ra'itational ass m
,
at soe !osition is

f =m
G
g=m
G

02%11
where
g
is (ra'itational field fro (ra'itational !otential

at that !osition%
,ra'itational !otential is deterined b" PoissonFs e:uation+

2
=4G
02%21

is the (ra'itational atter densit" and G is $ewtonFs (ra'itational constant% 4his

is the field e:uation of $ewtonian (ra'it"%
;*;: In+o&.ati%iit7 o1 N!@tonian 0ravit7 @it/ S.!+ia r!ativit7
$ewton had assued that the force of (ra'it" acts instantaneousl"& and ;instein had
alread" shown that nothin( can tra'el at infinite s!eed& not e'en (ra'it"& bein( liited
b" the uni'ersal s!eed liit of the s!eed of li(ht% 7urtherore& $ewton had assued
that the force of (ra'it" was !urel" (enerated b" ass& whereas ;instein had shown
that all fors of ener(" had effecti'e ass and ust therefore also be sources
of (ra'it"%
$ewtonian (ra'it" consistent with s!ecial relati'it" as there is no e5!licit tie
de!endence& which eans !otential

res!onds instantaneousl" to a disturbance in

the atter densit"

@ as si(nals cannot !ro!a(ate faster than c 0s!eed of li(ht1% ?e

a" reed" this !roble b" notin( that /a!lacian o!erator
2
in 01%11 is
e:ui'alent to inus the dF6lebertian o!erator in the liit c

& and thus

odified field e:uation

=4
G,

02%C1
Howe'er& this does not "ield a consistent relati'istic theor"% 4his is still not /orentH
co'ariant& the atter densit"

does not transfor like /orentH scalar%

Second fundaental difference between electroa(netic and (ra'itational forces& is
the e:uation of otion of !article of inertial ass m
1
in a (ra'itational field is (i'en
b"

d
2
x
d t
2
=
m
G
m
1

02%41
#atio
m
G
m
1
a!!earin( in the e:uation is sae for all the !articles% In contrast& the
e:uation of otion of a char(ed !article is

d
d
=
q
m

F. u
02%51

is the 4-oentu and

u
is the 4-'ilocit"% 4he ratio q/m

in e:uation of
otion of a char(ed !article in an electroa(netic field is not sae for all !articles%
;*<: W!a6 Gravitationa Fi!(" an( N!@tonian Li&it
*escri!tion of (ra'it" in ters of s!acetie cur'ature reduces to s!ecial relati'it" in
local inertial fraes% 4his descri!tion also reduces to $ewtonian (ra'it" b" a!!l"in(
a!!ro!riate liits% ?eak (ra'itational field corres!onds to a re(ion of s!acetie that
is onl" Isli(htl"F cur'ed% In which the etric takes the for
g

+h

Here&
|
h

|
JJ 1 02%>1
6ssue that in coordinate s"ste 01%51 etric is stationar"& eans all deri'ati'es

0
g

are Hero%
4he worldline of the !article freel" fallin( under (ra'it" is (i'en in (eneral b"
(eodesic e:uation%
d
2
x

d
2
+

d x

d
d x

d
=0
02%71
?e assue& howe'er the !article is o'in( slowl" so@
d x
i
d

d x
0
d
?e can i(nore C- 'elocit" ters and (et
d
2
x

d
2
+
00

c
2
(
dt
d
)
2
=0
02%K1
?e ha'e etric stationar"& so we ha'e

00
0
=0
00
i
=
1
2

ij

j
h
00

Insertin( the 'alues of coefficients in 01%K1 (i'es

d
2
t
d
2
=0
this shows
dt
d
Lconstant

d
2
x
d
2
=
1
2
c
2
(
dt
d
)
2

h
00
(2.9)
$ow& b" cobinin( the two e:uations we ha'e followin( e:uation of otion of the
!article+
02%101
If we co!are this with usual $ewtonian e:uation of otion in 01%51 we see these two
are sae b" identif"in( that
h
00
=
2
c
2
Hence for slowl" o'in( !article the descri!tion of (ra'it" as s!acetie cur'ature
tends to $ewtonian theor" if the etric is such that& in the liit of weak (ra'itational
field&
g
00
=
(
1+
2
c
2
) 02%111
7ro 01%111& the obser'ant reader will ha'e noticed that the descri!tion of (ra'it" in
ters of s!acetie cur'ature has another iediate conse:uence& nael" that the
tie coordinate t does not& in (eneral& easure !ro!er tie% If we consider a clock at
rest at soe !oint in our coordinate s"ste 0i%e%
dx
i
dt
=0
1& the !ro!er tie inter'al
d
between two IclicksF of the clock is (i'en b"+
c
2
d
2
=g

dx

dx

=g
00
c
2
dt
2
7ro which we find that
d=(1+
2
c
2
)
1
2
dt
d
2
x
d
2
=

1
2
c
2

h
00
4his (i'es the inter'al of !ro!er
d
corres!ondin( to an inter'al dt of coordinate
tie for a stationar" obser'er near a assi'e ob)ect& in a re(ion where the
(ra'itational !otential is

% Since

is ne(ati'e& this !ro!er tie inter'al is

shorter than the corres!ondin( inter'al for a stationar" obser'er at a lar(e distance
fro the ob)ect& where

M0 and so
d=dt
% 4hus& as a bonus& our anal"sis has
also "ielded the forula for time dilation in a weak (ra'itational field%
;*=: E!+tro&a0n!ti"& in a +$rv!( ".a+!ti&!

;lectroa(netic field tensor F defined on a cur'ed s!acetie (i'es rise to a 4-force
f L :F N u& which acts on a !article of char(e : with 4-'elocit" u% 4hus the e:uation
of otion of a char(ed !article o'in( under the influence of an electroa(netic field
in a cur'ed s!acetie has the sae for as that in 3inkowski s!acetie& i%e.
d
d
=
q
m

F. u
02%121
?here
0
the rest ass of the !article% In this case& howe'er& because of the cur'ature
of s!acetie the !article is o'in( under the influence of both electroa(netic forces
and (ra'it"% In soe arbitrar" coordinate s"ste& the !articleFs worldline is a(ain
(i'en b"

02%1C1
Bb'iousl"& in the absence of an electroa(netic field 0or for an unchar(ed !article1&
the ri(ht-hand side is Hero and we reco'er the e:uation of a (eodesic%
?e ust reeber& howe'er& that the ener(" and oentu of the electroa(netic
field will itself induce a cur'ature of s!acetie& so the etric in this case is
deterined not onl" b" the atter distribution but also b" the radiation%
;*>: T/! C$rvat$r! T!n"or
d
2
x

d
2
+

d x

d
d x

d
L
q
m
0
F

d x

d
?e can easure the cur'ature of a anifold at an" !oint b" considerin( chan(in( the
order of co'ariant differentiation% -o'ariant differentiation is (eneraliHation of !artial
differentiation& it atters in which order co'ariant differentiation is !erfored%
-han(in( the order& chan(es the results%
7i(ure 2%2+ a 'ector o'ed fro !oint 6 back to
itself alon( the cur'e indicated in the dia(ra& the
'ector does not return to itself% 4his ha!!ens because the
s!here is cur'ed%
7or a scalar field& co'ariant deri'ati'e is
si!l" the !artial deri'ati'e& but for soe arbitrar" 'ector field defined on a
anifold& with co'ariant co!onents

a
% 4he co'ariant deri'ati'e of this is (i'en
b"+

a
=

a
d

d
6 second differentiation then "ields

a
=
c
(

a
)
ac
!

c
!

a
(
c

a
d
)
d

ad
d

ac
!
(

!
d

d
)
c
!
(
!

a!
d

d
)
?hich follows since

a
is itself a rank-2 tensor% Swa!!in( the indices b and c to
obtain a corres!ondin( e5!ression for

a
and then subtractin( (i'es

a
="
ac
d

d

?here&
"
ac
d
#

ac
d

a
d
+
ac
!

!
d

a
!

!c
d
02%141
"
ac
d
are co!onents of soe rank-4 tensor R. 4his tensor is called the -ur'ature
tensor or #ieann tensor% In flat re(ion coordinates

c
a
and its deri'ati'e are Hero&
and hence+
"
ac
d
02%151

at e'er" !oint in the re(ion%
-ur'ature tensor easures the cur'ature in cur'ed anifold% 4he 'anishin( of
cur'ature tensor is necessar" and sufficient condition for a re(ion of a anifold to be
flat%
;*A: Pro.!rti!" o1 t/! +$rvat$r! t!n"or:
4he cur'ature tensor 02%141 !ossesses a nuber of s"etries and satisfies certain
identities& which we now discuss% 4he s"etries of the cur'ature tensor are ost
easil" deri'ed in ters of its co'ariant co!onents
"
acd
=g
a!
"
cd
!
7or co!leteness& we note that in an arbitrar" coordinate s"ste an e5!licit for for
these co!onents is found& after considerable al(ebra& to be
"
acd
=
1
2
(

a
g
c

g
ac
+
c

g
ad

a
g
d
)
g
!f
(
!ac

fd

!ad

fc
)
Bne can use this e5!ression strai(htforwardl" to deri'e the s"etr" !ro!erties of the
cur'ature tensor& but we take the o!!ortunit" here to illustrate a (eneral atheatical
de'ice that is often useful in reducin( the al(ebraic burden of tensor ani!ulations%
/et us choose soe arbitrar" !oint in the anifold and at !oint the connection
'anishes&
$

c
a

1 L0& so& the cur'ature tensor takes the for@

"
acd
=
1
2
(

a
g
c

g
ac
+
c

g
ad

a
g
d
)
P
7ro this e5!ression one a" iediatel" establish the followin( s"etr"
!ro!erties at +
"
acd
="
acd
"
acd
="
adc

"
acd
="
cda
4he first two !ro!erties show that the cur'ature tensor is antis"etric with res!ect
to swa!!in( the order of either the first two indices or the second two indices% 4he
third !ro!ert" shows that it is s"etric with res!ect to swa!!in( the first !air of
indices with the second !air of indices% 3oreo'er& we a" also easil" deduce the
cyclic identity
"
acd
+"
acd
+"
adc
=0
4he cur'ature tensor also satisfies a differential identit"& which a" be deri'ed as
follows% /et us once a(ain ado!t a (eodesic coordinate s"ste about soe arbitrar"
!oint P% In this coordinate s"ste& differentiatin( and then e'aluatin( the result at
(i'es
(
!
"
acd
)
$
=(
!
"
acd
)
$
=(
!

ad

ac
)
$
-"clicall" !erutin( c, d and e to obtain two further analo(ous relations and addin(&
one finds that at

!
"
acd
+
c
"
ad!
+
d
"
a!c
=0

4his is& howe'er& a tensor relation and thus holds in all coordinate s"stes@ oreo'er&
since P is arbitrar" the relationshi! holds e'er"where% 4his result is known as the
!ianchi identity%
;*B: T/! Ri++i t!n"or an( +$rvat$r! "+aar:
It follows fro the s"etr" !ro!erties of the cur'ature tensor that it !ossesses onl"
two inde!endent contractions% ?e a" find these b" contractin( either on the first two
indices or on the first and last indices res!ecti'el"% #aisin( the inde5 a and then
contractin( on the first two indices (i'es
"
acd
a
=0
-ontractin( on the first and last indices (i'es in (eneral a non-Hero result and this
leads to a new tensor& the "icci tensor% ?e denote its co!onents b"+
"
a
#"
ac
c
6 further contraction (i'es the curvature scalar 0or "icci scalar1

"#g
a
"
a
="
a
a
02%1>1
4his is a scalar :uantit" defined at each !oint of the anifold%
;*C: T/! Ein"t!in t!n"or:
4he co'ariant deri'ati'es of the #icci tensor and the cur'ature scalar obe" a
!articularl" i!ortant relation& which will be central to our de'elo!ent of the field
e:uations of (eneral relati'it"% #aisin( a in the Bianchi identit" and contractin( with
d (i'es
g
ad
(
!
"
acd
+
c
"
ad!
+
d
"
a!c
)=0

!
"
c
+
c
"
a!
a
+
d
"
!c
a
=0
.sin( the antis"etr" !ro!ert" in the second ter& (i'es

!
"
c
+
c
"
!
+
d
"
!c
a
=0
$ow b" raisin( b and contractin( with e& we find

!
"
c

+
c
"+
d
"
c
a
=0
02%171
$ow a(ain usin( the !ro!erties we a" write the third ter as

a
"
c
a
=
a
"
c
a
=
a
"
c
a
=

"
c

So fro 01%171 we obtain

2

"
c

c
"=

( 2"
c

")=0
7inall" raisin( the inde5 c& we (et

(
"
c

1
2
g
c
"
)
=0
4he ter in !arentheses is called the ;instein tensor

G
a
#"
a

1
2
g
a
"

02%1K1
It is clearl" s"etric and thus !ossesses onl" one inde!endent di'er(ence

G
a
&
which 'anishes and it is this tensor that describes the cur'ature of s!acetie in the
field e:uations of (eneral relati'it"%
;*D: T/! Gravitationa 1i!( E8$ation"
;insteinFs su((estion that (ra'it" is a anifestation of s!acetie cur'ature was
induced b" the !resence of atter% ?e ust therefore obtain a set of e:uations that
describe :uantitati'el" how the cur'ature of s!acetie at an" e'ent is related to the
atter distribution at that e'ent% 4hese will be the gravitational field equations& or
#instein equations& in the sae wa" that the 3a5well e:uations are the field e:uations
of electroa(netis% 3a5wellFs e:uations relate the electroa(netic field F at an"
e'ent to its source& the 4-current densit" at that e'ent% Siilarl"& ;insteinFs e:uations
relate s!acetie cur'ature to its source& the ener("=oentu of atter%
;*9E: T/! En!r07FMo&!nt$& T!n"or
4o construct the (ra'itational field e:uations& we ust first find a !ro!erl" relati'istic
0or covariant1 wa" of e5!ressin( the source term% In other words& we ust identif" a
tensor that describes the atter distribution at each e'ent in s!acetie% /et us
consider soe (eneral tie-de!endent distribution of 0electricall" neutral1 non$
interacting !articles& each of rest ass
0
% 4his is coonl" called dust in the
literature% 6t each e'ent P in s!acetie we can characteriHe the distribution
co!letel" b" (i'in( the atter densit"

and C-'elocit" u as easured in soe

inertial frae%
7or si!licit"& let us consider the fluid in its instantaneous rest frame S at P& in which
u L E% In this frae& the 0!ro!er1 densit" is (i'en b"

0
L
0
n
0
& where
0
is the rest
ass of each !article and n
0
is the nuber of !articles in a unit 'olue% In soe other
frae O& o'in( with s!eed v relati'e to S& the 'olue containin( a fi5ed nuber of
!articles is /orentH contracted alon( the direction of otion% Hence& in O the nuber
densit" of !articles is PL
%
&
'
0
% ?e now ha'e an additional effect& howe'er& since
the ass of each !article in O is Q L
%
&
m
0
% 4hus& the atter densit" in SQ is

(=%
&
2

0
02%1<1
?e a" conclude that the atter densit" is not a scalar but does transfor as the 00
co!onent of a ran%$& tensor% 4his su((ests that the source ter in the (ra'itational
field e:uations should be a rank-2 tensor% 6t each !oint in s!acetie& the ob'ious
choice is
) ( x)=
0
( x) u(x)

u(x)
02%201
?here

0
(x)
is the !ro!er densit" of the fluid& i%e% that easured b" an obser'er
coo'in( with the local flow& and u051 is its 4-'elocit"% 4he tensor !051 is called the
energy'momentum tensor 0or the stress'energy tensor1 of the atter distribution%
(ote that from no) on )e )ill denote the proper density simply by

& i.e. )ithout

the *ero subscript%
In soe arbitrar" coordinate s"ste
x

& in which the 4-'elocit" of the fluid is

u

& the contra'ariant co!onents of 02%21 are (i'en si!l" b"

)

= u

02%211
4hese are the co!onents of ener("-oentu tensor%
4o (i'e a !h"sical inter!retation of the co!onents of the ener("=oentu tensor&
it is con'enient to consider a local -artesian inertial frae at in which the set of
co!onents of the 4-'elocit" of the fluid is
[ u

]=%

(c* u)
in this frae& writin( out
the co!onents in full we ha'e
)
00
=u
0
u
0
=%
u
2
c
2
)
0i
=)
i 0
=u
0
u
i
=%
u
2
cu
i
)
ij
=u
i
u
j
=%
u
2
u
i
u
j
4hus the !h"sical eanin(s of these co!onents in this frae are as follows+
)
00
is the ener(" densit" of the !articles@
)
0i
is the ener(" flu5
+c
1
in the i-direction@
)
i 0
is the oentu densit"
+c
in the i-direction@
)
ij
is the rate of flow of the i-co!onent of oentu !er unit area in the +-
direction%
It is because of these identifications that the tensor , is known as the !n!r07F
&o&!nt$& or "tr!""F!n!r07 t!n"or*
;*99: T/! !n!r07?&o&!nt$& t!n"or or a .!r1!+t 1$i(:
4he !h"sical eanin(s of the co!onents of the ener("=oentu tensor ! (i'e us
an insi(ht into how to (eneraliHe its for to include these !ro!erties of real fluids% /et
us consider ! at soe e'ent and work in a local -artesian inertial frae - that is the
I#7 of the fluid at % 7or dust& the onl" non-Hero co!onent is 4
00
% Howe'er& let us
consider the co!onents of ! in the IRF for a real fluid%

)
00
Is the total ener(" densit"& includin( an" !otential ener(" contributions
fro forces between the !articles and kinetic ener(" fro their rando
theral otions%

)
0i
+ 6lthou(h there is no bulk otion& ener(" i(ht be transitted b" heat
conduction& so this is basicall" a heat conduction ter in the I#7%

)
i 0
+ 6(ain& althou(h the !articles ha'e no bulk otion& if heat is bein(
conducted then the ener(" will carr" oentu%

)
ij
+ 4he rando theral otions of the !articles will (i'e rise to
oentu flow& so that
)
ii
is the isotro!ic !ressure in the i-direction and
the
)
ij
0with
i , j
1 are the 'iscous stresses in the fluid%
4hese identifications are 'alid for a (eneral fluid% 6 perfect fluid is defined as one for
which there are no forces between the !articles& and no heat conduction or 'iscosit" in
the I#7% 4hus& in the I#7 the co!onents of ! for a !erfect fluid are (i'en b"

)

=
(
+
-
c
2
)
u

02%221
?e can obtain an e5!ression that is 'alid in an arbitrar" coordinate s"ste si!l" b"
re!lacin(

with the etric functions

g

in the arbitrar" s"ste% 4hus& we

arri'e at a full" co'ariant e5!ression for the co!onents of the ener("=oentu
tensor of a !erfect fluid+

)

=
(
+
-
c
2
)
u

02%2C1
)

is s"etric and is ade u! fro the two scalar fields

and p and the

'ector field u that characteriHe the !erfect fluid% ?e also see that in the liit pM0 a
!erfect fluid becoes dust%

;*9;: T/! Ein"t!in !8$ation"
$ow we deduce the for of the (ra'itational field e:uations !ro!osed b" ;instein%
/et us be(in b" recallin( soe of our !re'ious results%
4he field e:uation of $ewtonian (ra'it" is

2
=4G
7or a weak (ra'itational field& in coordinates such that
g

+h

with
and in which the etric is static& then

g
00
=
(
1+
2
c
2
) 02%241
4he correct relati'istic descri!tion of atter is !ro'ided b" the ener("=
oentu tensor and& for a !erfect fluid or dust& in the I#7 we ha'e
)
00
=c
2
-obinin( these obser'ations su((ests that& for a weak static (ra'itational field in the
low-'elocit" liit&

2
g
00
=
8 G
c
4
)
00
4he cur'ature of s!acetie at an" e'ent is related to the atter content at that e'ent%
4he abo'e considerations thus su((est that the (ra'itational field e:uations should be
of the for

.

=/)

02%251
where
.

is a rank-2 tensor related to the cur'ature of s!acetie and we ha'e set

/=
8G
c
4
% Since the cur'ature of s!acetie is e5!ressed b" the cur'ature tensor
"

& the tensor

.

should ha'e the followin( !ro!erties+ 0i1 the $ewtonian

liit su((ests that
.

should contain ters no hi(her than linear in the second-

order deri'ati'es of the etric tensor@ and 0ii1 since
)

is s"etric then
.

should also be s"etric% 4he cur'ature tensor

"

is alread" linear in the

second deri'ati'es of the etric& and so the ost (eneral for for
.

that
satisfies 0i1 and 0ii1 is+

.

=a"

+"g

+c g

02%2>1
?here
"

is the #icci tensor& " is the cur'ature scalar and a, b, c are constants%
/et us now consider the constants a, b, c% 7irst& if we re:uire that e'er" ter in
.

is linear in the second deri'ati'es of

g

then we see iediatel" that c L

0% So we ha'e+
.

=a"

+"g

4o find the constants a and b we recall that the ener("=oentu tensor satisfies

=0
@ thus&

( a"

+ g

)=0
6lso we ha'e@

(
"

1
2
g

)
=0
6nd so& reeberin( that

=0
?e obtain&

=
(
1
2
a+
)
g

"=0
4hus we find that
=
a

& and so the (ra'itational field e:uations take the for

a
(
"

1
2
g

"
)
=/ )

for consistenc" with the $ewtonian theor"& we re:uire a./1 and so&
(
"

1
2
g

"
)
=/ )

02%271
?here
/=
8G
c
4
% ;:uation constitutes ;insteinFs (ra'itational field e:uations&
which for the atheatical basis of the theor" of (eneral relati'it"%
?e can obtain an alternati'e for of ;insteinFs e:uations b" writin( 02%<1 in ters of
i5ed co!onents&
g
0
(
"

1
2
g

"
)
=/ g
0
)

"

1
2

0
=/)

0
6nd contractin( b" settin(
0=
& we thus find
"=/)
& where
)=)
0
0
% Hence
we can write ;insteinFs e:uations 01%221 as+

"

=/ ()

1
2
) g

)
02%2K1
In four-diensional s!acetie
g

has 10 inde!endent co!onents and so in

(eneral relati'it" we ha'e 10 inde!endent field e:uations% ?e a" co!are this with
$ewtonian (ra'it"& in which there is onl" one (ra'itational field e:uation%
7urtherore& the ;instein field e:uations are non-linear in the
g

whereas
$ewtonian (ra'it" is linear in thefield

%
6 re(ion of s!acetie in which
)

=0
is called e!t"& and such a re(ion is
therefore not onl" de'oid of atter but also of radiati'e ener(" and oentu% It can
be seen that the (ra'itational field e:uations for e!t" s!ace are+

"

=0
02%2<1
-onsider the nuber of field e:uations as a function of the nuber of s!acetie
diensions@ then& for two& three and four diensions& the nubers of field e:uations
and inde!endent co!onents of are
"

as shown in the table%

$o% of s!acetie diensions 2 C 4
$o% of field e:uations C > 10
$o% of inde!endent co!onents 1 > 20
4hus we see that in two or three diensions the field e:uations in e!t" s!ace
guarantee that the full curvature tensor must vanish% In four diensions& howe'er&
there are 10 field e:uations but 20 inde!endent co!onents of the cur'ature tensor% It
is therefore !ossible to satisf" the field e:uations in e!t" s!ace with a non-'anishin(
cur'ature tensor% #eeberin( that a non-'anishin( cur'ature tensor re!resents a
non-'anishin( (ra'itational field& we conclude that it is only in four dimensions or
more that gravitational fields can e0ist in empty space.
;*9<: T/! @!a6?1i!( i&it o1 t/! Ein"t!in !8$ation"
4o deterine the Iweak-fieldF liit of the ;instein e:uations& we write+

"
00
=/ ()
00

1
2
) g
00
)
02%C01
In the weak-field a!!ro5iation& s!acetie is onl" Isli(htl"F cur'ed and so there e5ist
coordinates in which
g

+h

& with
h1
& and the etric is stationar"% In
this case&
g
00
11
% 3oreo'er& fro the definition of the cur'ature tensor we find
thar
"
00
is (i'en b"+
"
00
=
0

00

+
0

00

Since

is 'er" sall& so we ne(lect last two ters to 1

st
order in
h

% 6lso
usin( the fact that the etric is stationar" in our coordinate s"ste& we then ha'e+
"
00
1
i

00
i
In our discussion of the $ewtonian liit

00
i
1
ij

j
h
00
to first order in
h

& and
so
"
00
1
1
2

ij

j
h
h0
Substitutin( our a!!ro5iate e5!ressions for g
EE
and R
""
into 01%251& in the Iweak-
fieldF liit we thus ha'e

1
2

ij

j
h
00
1/(2
00

1
2
))
02%C11
7or si!licit" we consider a !erfect fluid% 3ost classical atter distributions ha'e
-
c
2

and so we a" in fact take the ener("= oentu tensor to be that of

dust& i%e%
)

= u

4his (i'es+
)=c
2
/et us also assue that the !articles akin( u! the fluid ha'e s!eeds u in our
coordinate s"stes that are sall co!ared with c% ?e thus ake the a!!ro5iation
%

11
and hence
u
0
1c
2
% 4herefore e:uation 02%1C1 reduces to
1
2

ij

j
h
00
1
1
2
/ c
2
Here we a" write@

ij

j
=
2
6nd we ha'e+
h
00
=2/ c
2
and
/=8 G/ c
4
Here

is (ra'itational !otential% $ow we finall" (et the for+

2
1 4 G
4his is PoissonFs e:uation in $ewtonian (ra'it"% 4his identification 'erifies our earlier
assertion that aLR1 in the deri'ation of ;insteinFs e:uations%
Con+$(in0 r!&ar6":
4here is now the co!letion of the task of forulatin( a consistent relati'istic theor"
of (ra'it"% 4his has led us to the inter!retation of (ra'it" as a anifestation of
s!acetie cur'ature induced b" the !resence of atter 0and other fields1% 4his
!rinci!le is ebodied atheaticall" in the ;instein field e:uations 01%1K1% In the
reainder of this& we can e5!lore the !h"sical conse:uences of these e:uations in a
wide 'ariet" of astro!h"sical and cosolo(ical a!!lications%
C/a.t!r<*
Lin!ari"!( G!n!ra R!ativit7
4he (ra'itational field e:uations (i'e a :uantitati'e descri!tion of how the cur'ature
of s!acetie at an" e'ent is related to the ener("=oentu distribution at that
e'ent% Here we turn to a ore (eneral in'esti(ation of the (ra'itational field e:uations
and their solutions% 4o enable such a stud"& howe'er& one ust ake the !h"sical
assu!tion that the (ra'itational fields are )ea%% 3atheaticall"& this assu!tion
corres!onds to linearisin( the (ra'itational field e:uations%
<*9: T/! @!a6?1i!( &!tri+
6s discussed earlier& a weak (ra'itational field corres!onds to a re(ion of s!acetie
that is onl" Isli(htl"F cur'ed% 4hus& throu(hout such a re(ion& there e5ist coordinate
s"stes
x

in which the s!acetie etric takes the for

g

+h

Here&
|
h

|
JJ 1 0C%11
and the first and hi(her !artial deri'ati'es of
h

are also sall%

Such coordinates are often tered :uasi-3inkowskian coordinates& since the" allow
the etric to be written in a close-to-3inkowski for% -learl"&
h

ust be
s"etric with res!ect to the swa!!in( of its indices% ?e also note that& when
!re'iousl" considerin( the weak-field liit& we further assued that the etric was
stationar"& so that

0
g

0
h

L 0 where 5
0
is the tielike coordinate% In our
discussion& howe'er& we wish to retain the !ossibilit" of describin( tie-'ar"in( weak
(ra'itational fields& and so we shall not ake this additional assu!tion here%
It is stressed an" ties& coordinates are arbitrar" and& in !rinci!le& one could
de'elo! the descri!tion of weak (ra'itational fields in an" coordinate s"ste% If one
coordinate s"ste e5ists in which 0C%11 holds& howe'er& then there ust be an" such
coordinate s"stes% Indeed& two different t"!es of coordinate transforation connect
:uasi-3inkowskian s"stes to each other+ (lobal /orentH transforations and
infinitesial (eneral coordinate transforations& both of which are discussed here%
<*;: Go%a Lor!nt2 tran"1or&ation"
,lobal /orentH transforations are of the for
h

0C%21
3oreo'er& we see fro this e5!ression that& under a /orentH transforation&
h

itself transfors like the co!onents of a tensor in 3inkowski s!acetie%

4he abo'e !ro!ert" su((ests a con'enient alternati'e 'iew!oint when describin(
weak (ra'itational fields% Instead of considerin( a sli(htl" cur'ed s!acetie
re!resentin( the (eneral-relati'istic weak field& we can consider
h

si!l" as a
s"etric rank-2 tensor field defined on the flat 3inkowski back(round s!acetie in
-artesian inertial coordinates% Howe'er& that
h

does not transfor as a tensor

under a (eneral coordinate transforation but onl" under the restricted class of (lobal
/orentH transforations%
<*<: In1init!"i&a 0!n!ra +oor(inat! tran"1or&ation"
Infinitesial (eneral coordinate transforations take the for+
x

=x

+3

001 0C%C1
where the
3

001 are four arbitrar" functions of !osition of the sae order of

sallness as the
h

% Infinitesial transforations of this sort ake tin" chan(es

in the fors of all scalar& 'ector and tensor fields& but these can be i(nored in all
:uantities e5ce!t the etric& where tin" de'iations fro

contain all the

inforation about (ra'it".
4he new etric !erturbation functions bein( related to the old ones 'ia
h

=h

0C%41
If we ado!t the 'iew!oint in which
h

is considered as a tensor field defined on

the flat 3inkowski back(round s!acetie& then 0C%41 can be considered as analo(ous
to a (au(e transforation in electroa(netis%
7ro 0C%41& it is clear that if
h

is a solution to the linearised (ra'itational field

e:uations 0see below1 then the sae !h"sical situation is also described b"
h

=h

0C%51
;:uation 0C%51 is 'iewed as a (au(e transforation rather than a coordinate
transforation% $ow that we ha'e considered the coordinate transforations that
!reser'e the for of the etric
g

in 0C%11& it is useful to obtain the corres!ondin(

for for the contra'ariant etric coefficients
g

% It is strai(htforward to 'erif"
that& to first order in sall :uantities& we ust ha'e
g

+h

<*=: T/! in!ari"!( Gravitationa Fi!( E8$ation"

;instein (ra'itational field e:uations were derie'ed in e:uation 02%<1 are
(
"

1
2
g

"
)
=/ )

4o obtain the linearised for of these e:uations& we need linearised for of

#ieann tensor& the corres!ondin( e5!ression for #icci tensor and #icci scalar then
followed b" the contraction of indices%
4he field e:uations becoe

24 )

0C%>1
4hese are basic field e:uations of linearised (eneral relati'it" and are 'alid whene'er
the etric takes the for 0C%11%
<*>: Lin!ari"!( 0ravit7 in t/! Lor!n2 0a$0!
4he field e:uations 0C%>1 can be si!lified further b" akin( use of the (au(e
transforation 0C%51% *enotin( the (au(e-transfored field b"
h

for
con'enience& the co!onents of its trace-re'erse transfor and we find that

h

=

2
3

If we choose the functions

3

( x)
so that the" )ustif"

2
3

4hen we ha'e

h

L0
4he i!ortance of this result is& in this new (au(e& each of last three ters on left
hand side of 0C%>1 'anishes and field e:uations in new (au(e becoe

=24 )

0C%71
Pro'ided

5ati5f6 th! guag!c7'diti7'5

=0
0C%K1
<*A: T/! Co&.a+t So$r+! A..ro3i&ation to t/! G!n!ra So$tion o1
Lin!ari"!( Fi!( E8$ation"
/et us su!!ose that the source is soe atter distribution localised near the ori(in O
of our coordinate s"ste% ?e need (eneral solution of linearised field e:uations
which is (i'en b"

( ct * x)=
4G
c
4

)

(ct |x6|* 6)
|x6|
d
3
6
0C%<1
6nd b" considerin( onl" first ter in ulti!ole e5!ansion& the solution in the
co!act- source a!!ro5iation is (i'en b"

( ct * x)=
4G
c
4

)

(ct 8* 6)d
3
6
0C%101
In this a!!ro5iation& we are thus considerin( onl" the far$field solution to the
linearised (ra'itational e:uations& which 'aries as 1Sr%
7ro 0C%101& we see that calculatin( the (ra'itational field has been reduced to
inte(ratin(
)

o'er the source at a fi5ed retarded tie ct/r% 4he !h"sical

inter!retation of the 'arious co!onents of this inte(ral is as follows+

)
00
d
3
6
& total ener(" of source !articles 0includin( rest ass ener("1 T 3c
2

)
0i
d
3
6
& c 5 total oentu of source !articles in the 5i-direction T
$
i
c@

)
ij
d
3
6
& inte(rated internal stresses in the source%
7or an isolated source& the :uantities 3 and Pi are constants in the linear theor"%
3oreo'er& without loss of (eneralit"& we a" take our s!atial coordinates
x
i
to
corres!ond to the Icentre-of-oentuF frae of the source !articles& in which

case
$
i
L 0% 4hus& fro 0C%101& in centre-of-oentu coordinates we ha'e

h
00
=
4G9
c
2
8
&

h
i 0
=

h
0i
=0
4he reainin( co!onents of the (ra'itational field are then (i'en b" the inte(rated
stress within the source&

h
ij
( ct * x)=
4G
c
4
[
)
ij
( c t

* 6) d
3
6
]
8
?here& c
t

=ct 8
6fter calculation& we ha'e defined the quadrupole$moment tensor of the ener("
densit" of the source&
1
i+
2ct3 L U

,
00
2ct,
6
3 y
i
y
+
d
4
6
0C%111
4his is a constant tensor on each h"!ersurface of constant tie% $e5t& we will use this
forula to deterine the (ra'itational wa'es (enerated b" a tie-'ar"in( atter
source%

C/a.t!r=* Gravitationa @av!"
,ra'itational wa'es are ri!!les in
the cur'ature of s!acetie that !ro!a(ate as a wa'e& tra'ellin( outward fro the
source%
7ro !re'ious to!ic the linearised field e:uations of (eneral relati'it" could be
written in the for of a wa'e e:uation
2
h
V
5v
L R2%,
5v
04%11
Pro'ided that the h
V
5v
satisf" the /orenH (au(e condition

h
V
5v
L 0. 04%21
4his su((ests the e5istence of (ra'itational wa'es in an analo(ous anner to that in
which 3a5wellFs e:uations !redict electroa(netic wa'es% Here is discussion of
the !ro!a(ation& (eneration and detection of such (ra'itational radiation% 6s in
the !re'ious cha!ter& there was ado!tion of the 'iew!oint that h
5v
is si!l" a
s"etric tensor field 0under (lobal /orentH transforations1 defined on a flat
3inkowski back(round s!acetie%
7i(ure 4%1+ 4wo su!er assi'e black holes s!iral to(ether after their (ala5ies ha'e er(ed& sendin( out
(ra'itational wa'es%
=*9: Anao07 %!t@!!n Gravitationa an( E!+tro&a0n!ti+ Wav!"
Before (oin( on to discuss (ra'itational wa'es in ore detail& it is instructi'e to
illustrate the close analo(" with electroa(netic wa'es% B" ado!tin( the /orenH
(au(e condition

A
5
L 0& the electroa(netic field e:uations in free s!ace take the for
2
A
5
L 0% 4hese adit !lane-wa'e solutions of the for
A
5
L 67
5
e5! 2i
4

38,
where the 7
5
are the constant co!onents of the a!litude 'ector% 4he field
e:uations a(ain i!l" that the 4-wa'e'ector # is null and the /orenH (au(e
condition re:uires that 7
5
%
5
L 0& thereb" reducin( the nuber of inde!endent
co!onents in the a!litude 'ector to three% In !articular& if we a(ain consider a
wa'e !ro!a(atin( in the 0
C
-direction then 6%
5
8 L 2%, 0, 0, %3 and the /orenH
(au(e condition i!lies that 7
0
L 7
C
& so that
67
5
8 L 27
0
, 7
1
, 7
2
, 7
0
3.
4he /orenH (au(e condition is !reser'ed b" an" further (au(e transforation of
the for A
5
M A
5
W

: *
!ro'ided that
2 :
L 0% 6n a!!ro!riate (au(e
transforation that satisfies this condition is
:
L

e5! 2
i4

*
where

is a constant% 4his "ields 7

5
L 7
5
W i%
5
& and so
7
0
L 7
0
W i

%, 7
1
L 7
1
, 7
2
L 7
2
.
B" choosin(

L Ri7
0
/%& on dro!!in( !ries we ha'e 7
0
L 0% In the new
(au(e& the a!litude 'ector has )ust two inde!endent co!onents& 7
1
and 7
2
&
and the electroa(netic fields are trans'erse to the direction of !ro!a(ation% B"
introducin( the two linear !olariHation 'ectors
e
5
1
L 00& 1& 0& 01 and
e
5
2
L 00& 0&1& 01&
4he (eneral a!litude 'ector can be written as+
7
5
L
a!
1

+ !
2

,
where a and b are arbitrar" 0in (eneral& co!le51 constants%
If b L 0 then as the electroa(netic wa'e !asses a free !ositi'e test char(e this will
oscillate in the 0
1
-direction with a a(nitude that 'aries sinusoidal with tie%
Siilarl"& if a L 0 then the test char(e will oscillate in the 0
2
-direction% 4he
!articular cobinations of linear !olariHations (i'en b" b L Xia (i'e circularl"
!olariHed wa'es& in which the utuall" ortho(onal linear oscillations cobine in
such a wa" that the test char(e o'es in a circle%
=*;: T/! 0!n!ration o1 0ravitationa @av!"
/et us su!!ose that we ha'e a atter distribution 0the source1 localiHed near the ori(in
B of our coordinate s"ste that we and take our field !oint
x
to be a distance r
fro B that is lar(e co!ared with the s!atial e5tent of the source% ?e a" therefore
use the compact$source appro0imation discussed in last cha!ter% ?ithout loss of
(eneralit"& we a" take our s!atial coordinates 5i to corres!ond to the Icentre-of
oentuF frae of the source !articles& in which case fro
017%CK1 we ha'e

h
00
=
4G9
c
2
8
&

h
i 0
=

h
0i
=0
04%C1
4he reainin( 0s!atial1 co!onents of the (ra'itational field are (i'en b" the
inte(rated stress within the source& which a" be written in ters of the
quadrupole formula 017%441 as

h
ij
( ct * x)=
2G
c
6
8
[
d
2
2
ij
( ct)
dt
2
] r
04%41
4he :uadru!ole-oent tensor of the source is
1
i+
2ct3 L U

,
00
2ct,
6
3 y
i
y
+
d
4
6
04%51
4hus& we see that& in the co!act-source a!!ro5iation& the far field of the source
falls into two !arts+ a stead" field 04%C1 fro the total constant IassF 3 of the source
and a !ossibl" 'ar"in( field 04%41 arisin( fro the inte(rated internal stresses of the
source% It is clearl" the latter that will be res!onsible for an" eitted (ra'itational
radiation%
7or slowl" o'in( source !articles we ha'e 4
00
Y

c
2
& where

is the !ro!er
densit" of the source& and so the inte(ral 04%51 a" be written as
1
i+
2ct3 L c
2
U

2ct,
x
0
i
0
+
d
C
x
04%>1
4hus& the (ra'itational wa'e !roduced b" an isolated non-relati'istic source is
!ro!ortional to the second deri'ati'e of the quadrupole moment of the atter densit"
distribution% B" contrast& the leadin( contribution to electroa(netic radiation is the
first deri'ati'e of the dipole oent of the char(e densit" distribution%
4his fundaental difference between the two theories a" be easil" understood fro
eleentar" considerations% .sin(

to denote either the !ro!er ass densit" or the

!ro!er char(e densit"& the 'olue inte(ral
;
d9 o'er the source is constant in
tie for both electroa(netis and linearised (ra'itation and so (enerates no
radiation% $ow consider the ne5t oent
:

0
i
d9& i%e% the di!ole oent% 7or electroa(netis& this (i'es the !osition of
the centre of char(e of the source& which can o'e with tie and hence ha'e a non-
Hero tie deri'ati'e@ this !ro'ides the doinant contribution in the (eneration of
electroa(netic radiation%
7or (ra'itation& howe'er
:

0
i
d9 (i'es the centre of ass of the source and& for an isolated s"ste&
conser'ation of oentu eans that it cannot chan(e with tie and so cannot
contribute to the (eneration of (ra'itational wa'es% 4hus& it is the (enerall" uch
saller :uadru!ole oent& which easures the sha!e of the source that is doinant
in (eneratin( (ra'itational wa'es% 4his fact& and the weak cou!lin( of (ra'itation to
atter& eans that (ra'itational radiation is uch weaker than electroa(netic
radiation% 6s a corollar"& we note that a s!hericall" s"etric s"ste has a Hero
:uadru!ole oent and thus cannot eit (ra'itational radiation%
=*<: T/! (!t!+tion o1 0ravitationa @av!"
6 a)or (oal of odern e5!eriental astro!h"sics is to ake a direct detection of
(ra'itational wa'es b" easurin( their influence on soe test bodies% 4here are two
distinct a!!roaches to (ra'itational-wa'e detection& Ifree-!articleFand IresonantF
detection% ?e found that the effect of a (ra'itational wa'e on a cloud of free test
!articles is a 'ariation in their relati'e se!arations% 4hus one a" atte!t to detect
(ra'itational wa'es b" easurin( the se!arations of a set of free test !articles as a
function of tie& which is the basis of free-!article detection e5!erients%
6lternati'el"& if the !articles are not free& but are instead the constituent !articles of
soe elastic bod"& then tidal forces on the !articles induced b" a (ra'itational wa'e
will (i'e rise to 'ibrations in the bod"& which one can atte!t to easure% In
!articular& if the incident (ra'itational radiation were in the for of a !lane wa'e of a
(i'en fre:uenc" then the a!litude of the induced 'ibrations would be enhanced if
the elastic bod" were desi(ned to ha'e a resonant fre:uenc" close to that of the
incident wa'e% 4his is the basis of resonant detection%
#esonant detectors are the older t"!e of realistic (ra'itational-wa'e detector& ha'in(
been !ioneered b" ?eber in the earl" 1<>0s and refined b" hi and others o'er
se'eral decades% Here is discussion on free-!article (ra'itational-wa'e detectors&
which ha'e (ained in !o!ularit" o'er recent "ears and are also 'er" uch easier to
anal"He% In the otion of free test !articles in the !resence of a !assin( (ra'itational
wa'e& we see that the relati'e !h"sical se!aration l of two free !articles 'aries as
<
2
=(
ij
h
ij
) 3
i
3
j
04%71
where
3
i
is the se!aration 'ector between the two !articles% In the absence of a
(ra'itational wa'e& the undisturbed distance l
;
between the !articles is (i'en b" l
;
L

ij

3
i
3
j
% 4o first order in
h
ij
& the fractional chan(e in the !h"sical se!aration
of the !articles is therefore (i'en b"

<
<
0
=
1
2
h
ij
'
i
'
j
04%K1
?here
'
i
is a unit 'ector in the direction of se!aration of the two !articles% 4hus&
we see that the !assin( of a (ra'itational wa'e !roduces a linear strain& i%e% the
chan(e in the relati'e se!aration of the !articles is !ro!ortional to their ori(inal
undisturbed se!aration% 7or t"!ical astro!h"sical sources& the lar(est strain one i(ht
reasonabl" e5!ect to recei'e at the ;arth is of order
<
<
10
21
4hus& e'en if the two test asses were se!arated b" a distance l
;
L 1k& the chan(e
<
in this distance is of order 10
-1>
c& which corres!onds to 10
->
of
the siHe of the atos that co!rise the test assesZ 7ortunatel"& laser 3ichelson
interferoeters !ro'ide a eans of easurin( such tin" chan(es in the se!aration of
the test asses% 4he !rinci!le of o!eration of such an e5!erient is :uite
strai(htforward and is illustrated in 7i(ure%
7i(ure 4%2+ 6 scheatic re!resentation of a laser 3ichelson interferoeter desi(ned to detect
(ra'itational wa'es%
4he basic s"ste of ade u! of three test asses% 4wo ha'e irrors 3 attached to
the& and to the third is attached a bea s!litter B% ;ach ass is sus!ended fro a
su!!ort that isolates the ass fro e5ternal 'ibrations but allows it to swin( freel" in
the horiHontal direction% 6 laser / 0with t"!ical wa'elen(th
=
10
-4
c1 is aied at
B& which s!lits the laser li(ht into two beas directed down the ars of the
interferoeter% 4he beas are reflected b" the irrors at the end of each ar and then
recobined in B before bein( detected in the detector *%
?hen the beas are recobined the" will interfere constructi'el" if the len(ths of the
two ars /
1
and /
2
differ b" an aount

/ L n
6nd will interfere destructi'el" if

/ L 0nW [1 & where n is an inte(er%

4he s"ste is arran(ed so that the beas interfere destructi'el" if all three asses are
!erfectl" stationar"% In !ractice& the e5!eriental set-u! is ore so!histicated than the
si!le 3ichelson interferoeter we ha'e discussed% 4he ost i!ortant
i!ro'eent is the introduction of an additional test ass with a !artiall" reflectin(
irror P in each ar of the interferoeter& thereb" forin( a Ica'it"F& as illustrated in
7i(ure 4%2%
6 t"!ical !hoton a" tra'el u! and down this ca'it" an" ties before e'entuall"
arri'in( at the bea s!litter& thereb" (reatl" increasin( the effecti'e ar len(th of the
interferoeter% 4he use of lar(e laser 3ichelson interferoeters as a eans for
atte!tin( to detect (ra'itational wa'es is currentl" bein( acti'el" !ursued b" a
nuber of laboratories around the world%
7i(ure 4%C+ 4he densit" distribution in the center of a su!erno'a shown in for of (ra'itational wa'es&
one second after the be(innin( of the e5!losion%
Con+$"ion
,ra'itational wa'es will hel! !h"sicists and astronoers to understand soe of the
ost fundaental laws of !h"sics% 4he" will also tell us about the d"naics of lar(e-
scale e'ents in the .ni'erse like the death of stars& and the birth of black holes% ?ith
/IS6& scientists will be able to !robe throu(h s!ace and tie& to obser'e the .ni'erse
)ust a fraction of a second after the Bi( Ban(% .sin( this inforation& we a" be able
to learn ore about how the .ni'erse be(an and e'ol'ed as well as what i(ht be in
store for the future%
R!1!r!n+!"
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40K%
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