Pendahuluan Pendahuluan

HitungperataanI
Adjustment Computation AdjustmentComputation
nomeasurementsareexact.
l measurementalwayscontainerrors.
Thestepsinvolvedinaccountingfortheexistence p g
oferrorsinmeasurementsconsistof
(1)performingstatisticalanalysesofthe
observations to assess the magnitudes of their observationstoassessthemagnitudesoftheir
errorsandtostudytheirdistributionsto
determinewhetherornottheyarewithin
acceptabletolerances;andiftheobservationsare
acceptable,
(2) adjusting them so that they conform to exact (2)adjustingthemsothattheyconformtoexact
geometricconditionsorotherrequired
constraints.
Measurementsaredefinedas
observationsmadetodetermine
unknown quantities. unknownquantities.
Theymaybeclassifiedaseitherdirect or
i di indirect.
Directmeasurements
aremadebyapplyinganinstrumentdirectly
totheunknownquantityandobservingits q y g
value,usuallybyreadingitdirectlyfrom
graduated scalesonthedevice. g
Indirect measurements Indirectmeasurements
areobtainedwhenitisnotpossibleor
practical to make direct measurements practicaltomakedirectmeasurements.
Insuchcasesthequantitydesiredis
determinedfromitsmathematical
relationshiptodirectmeasurements.
(1) no measurement is exact (1) nomeasurementisexact,
(2) Everymeasurementcontainserrors,
(3) h l f i (3) thetruevalueofameasurementisnever
known,andthus
(4) theexactsizesoftheerrorspresentare
alwaysunknown.
1. Instrumentalerrors.
arecausedbyimperfectionsininstrumentconstructionor
adjustment.Forexample,thedivisionsonatheodoliteor
totalstationinstrumentmaynotbespaceduniformly.
Theseerrorsourcesarepresentwhethertheequipmentis
readmanuallyordigitally.
2. Naturalerrors.
arecausedbychangingconditionsinthesurrounding
environment,includingvariationsinatmosphericpressure,
temperature,wind,gravitationalfields,andmagneticfields.
3.Personalerrors.
ariseduetolimitationsinhumansenses,suchastheability
to read a micrometer or to center a level bubble. The sizes toreadamicrometerortocenteralevelbubble.Thesizes
oftheseerrorsareaffectedbythepersonalabilitytosee
andbymanualdexterity.Thesefactorsmaybeinfluenced
furtherbytemperature,insects,andotherphysical y p , , p y
conditionsthatcausehumanstobehaveinalessprecise
mannerthantheywouldunderidealconditions.
1.Mistakes.Thesearecausedbyconfusionorbyan y f y
observerscarelessness.
Theyarenotclassifiedaserrorsandmustbe
removedfromanysetofobservations.
Examplesofmistakesinclude
(a) forgettingtosettheproperpartspermillion
(ppm)correctiononanEDMinstrument,or
f il t d th t i t t failuretoreadthecorrectairtemperature,
(b) mistakesinreadinggraduatedscales,and
( ) bl d i di (i i i d 27 55 (c) blundersinrecording(i.e.,writingdown27.55
for25.75).Mistakesarealsoknownasblunders
or gross errors orgrosserrors.
2.Systematicerrors.
Theseerrorsfollowsomephysicallaw,andthustheseerrors
b d d d b canbepredicted.Somesystematicerrorsareremovedby
followingcorrectmeasurementprocedures(e.g.,balancing
backsightandforesightdistancesindifferentiallevelingto
compensate for Earth curvature and refraction) Others are compensateforEarthcurvatureandrefraction).Othersare
removedbyderivingcorrectionsbasedonthephysical
conditionsthatwereresponsiblefortheircreation(e.g.,
applying a computed correction for Earth curvature and applyingacomputedcorrectionforEarthcurvatureand
refractiononatrigonometriclevelingobservation).
Additionalexamplesofsystematicerrorsare
( ) t t t b i t d d hil t i (a) temperaturenotbeingstandardwhiletaping,
(b) anindexerroroftheverticalcircleofatheodoliteortotal
stationinstrument,and
(c) useofalevelrodthatisnotofstandardlength.
Correctionsfor
systematicerrorscanbecomputedandappliedto y p pp
observationstoeliminate
theireffects.Systematicerrorsarealsoknownasbiases.
3.Randomerrors.
Thesearetheerrorsthatremainafterallmistakesand
systematic errors have been removed from the measured systematicerrorshavebeenremovedfromthemeasured
values.Ingeneral,theyaretheresultofhumanand
instrumentimperfections.Theyaregenerallysmallandare
as likely to be negative as positive They usually do not aslikelytobenegativeaspositive.Theyusuallydonot
followanyphysicallawandthereforemustbedealtwith
accordingtothemathematicallawsofprobability.
Examples of random errors are Examplesofrandomerrorsare
(a)imperfectcenteringoverapointduringdistance
measurementwithanEDMinstrument,
(b) b bbl t t d t th i t t l l d i d d (b)bubblenotcenteredattheinstantalevelrodisread,and
(c)smallerrorsinreadinggraduatedscales.
Itisimpossibletoavoidrandomerrorsinmeasurements
entirely.
Although they are often called accidental errors their Althoughtheyareoftencalledaccidentalerrors,their
occurrenceshouldnotbe
consideredanaccident.
1.Precisionisthedegreeofconsistencybetween g f y
observationsbasedonthesizesofthe
discrepanciesinadataset.Thedegreeof
precision attainable is dependent on the stability precisionattainableisdependentonthestability
oftheenvironmentduringthetimeof
measurement,thequalityoftheequipmentused
t k th b ti d th b kill tomaketheobservations,andtheobserversskill
withtheequipmentandobservational
procedures. p
2.Accuracyisthemeasureoftheabsolutenearness
ofameasuredquantitytoitstruevalue.Sincethe
true value of a quantity can never be determined truevalueofaquantitycanneverbedetermined,
accuracyisalwaysanunknown.
observation observation
1. Population. 1. Population.
Apopulationconsistsofallpossible
measurements that can be made on a measurementsthatcanbemadeona
particularitemorprocedure.Often,a
populationhasaninfinitenumberofdata
elements.
2.Sample.
Asampleisasubsetofdataselectedfromthe
population.
Numerical methods of describing data Numericalmethodsofdescribingdata
(1) measures of central tendency (1) measuresofcentraltendency,
(2) measuresofdatavariation,and
(3) f l i di (3)measuresofrelativestanding.
Thesecategoriesareallcalledstatistics.
Simply described a statistic is a numerical Simplydescribed,astatisticisanumerical
descriptorcomputedfromsampledata.
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY MEASURESOFCENTRALTENDENCY
1. Arithmeticmean.Forasetofnobservations,y1,y2,.
..,yn,thisistheaverageoftheobservations.
Itsvalue,y,iscomputedfromtheequation
(2.1)
T i ll h b l i d l Typically,thesymbolyisusedtorepresentasamples
arithmeticmeanandthesymbolisusedtorepresent
thepopulationmean.
2 Median is the midpoint of a sample set when 2.Median.isthemidpointofasamplesetwhen
arrangedinascendingordescendingorder.One
halfofthedataareabovethemedianandone
halfarebelowit.Whenthereareanoddnumber
ofquantities,onlyonesuchvaluesatisfiesthis
condition.
Foradatasetwithanevennumberofquantities, q
theaverageofthetwoobservationsthatstraddle
themidpointisusedtorepresentthemedian.
3. Mode. Within a sample of data, the mode is 3.Mode.Withinasampleofdata,themodeis
themostfrequentlyoccurringvalue.Itis
seldomusedinsurveyingbecauseofthe
relativelysmallnumberofvaluesobservedin
atypicalsetofobservations.
Insmallsamplesets,severaldifferentvalues
mayoccurwiththesamefrequency,and
h h d b i l hencethemodecanbemeaninglessasa
measureofcentraltendency.
Additional definitions Additionaldefinitions
1.Truevalue,:aquantitystheoreticallycorrectorexactvalue.As
t d th t l b d t i d noted.thetruevaluecanneverbedetermined.
2.Error,:thedifferencebetweenameasuredquantityanditstrue
value.
The true value is simply the populations arithmetic mean Since the Thetruevalueissimplythepopulation sarithmeticmean.Sincethe
truevalueofameasuredquantityisindeterminate,errorsarealso
indeterminateandarethereforeonlytheoreticalquantities.
errors are expressed as errorsareexpressedas
(2 2) (2.2)
whereyiistheindividualobservationassociatedwithiandisthe
truevalueforthatquantity.
3.Mostprobablevalue, :thatvalueforameasuredquantitywhich,based
ontheobservations,hasthehighestprobabilityofoccurrence.Itisderived
fromasamplesetofdataratherthanthepopulationandissimplythe
meaniftherepeatedmeasurementshavethesameprecision.
4.Residual,v:Thedifferencebetweenanyindividualmeasuredquantityand
themostprobablevalueforthatquantity.Residualsarethevaluesthat
areusedinadjustmentcomputationssincemostprobablevaluescanbe
determined The term error is frequently used when residual is meant and determined.Thetermerrorisfrequentlyusedwhenresidualismeant,and
althoughtheyareverysimilarandbehaveinthesamemanner,thereis
thistheoreticaldistinction.
Themathematicalexpressionforaresidualis
(2.3)
where vi is the residual in the ith observation yi and y is the most whereviistheresidualintheithobservation,yi,andyisthemost
probablevaluefortheunknown.
5.Degreesoffreedom:thenumberofobservationsthatarein
excessofthenumbernecessarytosolvefortheunknowns.
Inotherwords,thenumberofdegreesoffreedomequals
thenumberofredundantobservations
Asanexample,ifadistancebetweentwopointsismeasured
threetimes,oneobservationwoulddeterminethe
unknowndistanceandtheothertwowouldberedundant.
Th d d t b ti l th di i d Theseredundantobservationsrevealthediscrepanciesand
inconsistenciesinobservedvalues.This,inturn,makes
possiblethepracticeofadjustmentcomputationsfor
obtaining the most probable values based on the measured obtainingthemostprobablevaluesbasedonthemeasured
quantities.
6.Variance, :avaluebywhichtheprecisionforasetof
dataisgiven.
Populationvarianceappliestoadatasetconsistingofan
entirepopulation.
Itisthemeanofthesquaresoftheerrorsandisgivenby
(2.4)
Samplevarianceappliestoasamplesetofdata.iscalculated
As
(2.5)
7 Standard error : the square root of the 7.Standarderror,:thesquarerootofthe
populationvariance.FromEquation(2.4)and
this definition the following equation is thisdefinition,thefollowingequationis
writtenforthestandarderror:
8.Standarddeviation,S:thesquarerootofthe , q f
samplevariance.Itiscalculatedusingthe
expression p
9 Standard deviation of the mean: the error in 9.Standarddeviationofthemean:theerrorin
themeancomputedfromasamplesetof
measured values that results because all measuredvaluesthatresultsbecauseall
measuredvaluescontainerrors.Thestandard
deviation of the mean is computed from the deviationofthemeaniscomputedfromthe
samplestandarddeviationaccordingtothe
equation equation
Tugas
( k ) (waktu:1minggu)
Thesecondsportionof50pointingsandreadingsforaparticulardirection
d i 1 t t l t ti ith 0 1 di l madeusinga1totalstationwitha0.1displayare
34.q 33.635.230.138.434.030.234.137.736.4
37.9 33.033.535.935.932.439.332.232.836.3
35.3 32.634.135.633.7 39.235.133.434.932.6
36.7 34.836.433.736.134.836.730.035.334.4
33.7 34.137.838.733.632.634.734.736.831.8
(a)Whatisthemeanofthedataset?
(b)Constructafrequencyhistogramofthedatausingsevenuniformwidth
classintervals.
(c)Whatarethevarianceandstandarddeviationofthedata?
(d)Whatisthestandarddeviationofthemean?
P dan q adalah dua dijit terakhir NIM anda! PdanqadalahduadijitterakhirNIManda!