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Modeling of Frost Heave In Soils
A Report to the
Center for Transportation Studies
University of Minnesota
From
Underground Space Center
University of Minnesota
790 CivMinE Building
500 Pillsbury Drive
Minneapolis, MN 55455
Authors
Radoslaw L Michalowski
Vaughn R. Voller
Principal Investigators
Raymond L Sterling
Radoslaw L Michalowski
Vaughn R. Voller
October 1991
Table of Contents
Executive Summary i
Part I:
1.0 Introduction 1
2.0 Literature Overview 3
3.0 Philosophy of the Approach 7
4.0 Porosity Rate Function 10
5.0 Interpretation of the Stress State in Frozen Soil 15
6.0 Fundamental Equation 18
7.0 Simulations of Frost Heave Processes 21
8.0 Discussion of Results and Conclusions 27
9.0 Bibliography 39
10.0 Notation 48
Part II:
1.0 Introduction 52
2.0 Metallurgical Solidification vs. Frost Heave in a Modelling Context 53
3.0 A Model of Freezing in Soils 57
4.0 References 62
Executive Summary
This report results from a research project undertaken over the period July 1, 1990 to
September 30, 1991. The research project itself resulted from the combination of two proposals
to the Center for Transportation Studies for research into the mechanics of frost heaving in soils.
Both proposals had a general objective of creating a better understanding of the behavior
of the soil-water-ice systems and frost susceptible soils at freezing temperatures and improving the
capabilities of the faculty, researchers and students in an area of study which is important for road
design in Minnesota.
One proposal had the following major objectives:
* deriving a basis for creating an improved engineering tool (numerical/analytical) for
predictions of frost heave in soils with the emphasis being on phenomenological modeling
of the frost heave process as initiated by Fremond and Blanchard at the Laboratory for
Roads and Bridges in Paris.
* assembling a laboratory for testing frost susceptible soils. No testing capabilities for
assessing the frost susceptibility of soils existed in Minnesota - despite the importance of
frost heave in roadway pavement design in Minnesota.
The second proposal was aimed at:
* stressing the multi-phase character of the phenomenon using a "local averaging technique"
to account for the micro-level processes. This approach was designed to determine the
applicability of Dr. Voller's previous research in metallurgical solidification phenomena to
the frost heave modeling process.
The combination of the two proposals retained the separate research approaches but
provided for comparisons of the approaches and their applicability to frost heaving modeling.
Early in the project period, some changes in project arrangements were necessitated by
the move of Dr. Michalowski to Johns Hopkins University. Without Dr. Michalowski's presence
in the Department, it was concluded that the investment in the laboratory testing apparatus would
not be justified at present. It was also necessary to write a subcontract with Dr. Michalowski for
him to be able to complete his work on the project while in Baltimore.
In Part I, Radoslaw Michalowski outlines the basic background of frost heave modelling
including a summary of the existing modelling approaches. The central element in this part of the
report is the extension and application of the Blanchard and Fremond frost heave model. Results
from these models are in good agreement with other modeling approaches and consistent with
current frost heave understanding.
In Part II, Vaughan Voller discusses various similarities between frost heave in soil and
solidification of metal alloys. Three components in the thermo-mechanical frost heave model are
identified (i) modelling phase change, (ii) modelling ground water flow and (iii) deformation
modelling. In the context of the first of these components a numerical technique, previously
developed for metallurgical phase change, is applied to a two dimensional case of ground freezing.
Results, obtained in a matter of seconds on a IBM PC, are in close agreement with existing frost
heave models. This part of the report concludes with a discussion of current and on-going work,
in particular the thesis work of the master student, Lingjun Hou, who will couple the numerical
techniques of Part II with the phenomenological model of Part I.
Part I
by
Radoslaw Michalowski
1. Introduction
Frost heave in soils has been a very active area of research in the past two decades. The first
very constructive findings, however, were reported by Taber as early as 1929. It was Taber who
gave unquestionable experimental evidence that frost heave in soils occurs due to mass transfer,
and not due to stationary water expansion upon freezing, as previously thought. It then became
evident that the description of the frost heaving process must involve elements beyond heat
transfer alone.
No comprehensive models exist, so far, which would be capable of simulating both
freezing and thawing processes in frost susceptible soils. While much research on soil freezing
has been reported in the literature, a relatively small number of papers are available on the topic
of soil thawing, and most of them consider the thawing process in a rather simplified fashion.
The research presented in this report also pertains to the freezing of soils, but some of the
elements, especially those related to stress considerations, may be extended later to thawing
processes. The clear split in the literature seems to be caused by the fact that thawing cannot
be simply considered as the reverse of the freezing process. The constitutive properties of the
skeleton become increasingly more important in the consolidation process related to the melting
of ice in originally frozen soil. While the importance of different components of the model may
change from freezing to thawing, it is believed that one consistent model can describe both
processes. Such comprehensive model is beyond the goals of the research presented here,
however, the consideration of soil thawing is a natural extension of this research.
The goal of the research presented here is to produce a constitutive model of frost
susceptible soil which would be capable of simulating the frost heave process. In short, this
model can be called a "frost heave model", however, from the standpoint of constitutive
modeling, frost heave is not a property of the material (susceptibility is), but is a process which
can occur when frost susceptible soil is placed under certain initial and boundary conditions.
The modeling effort presented here is very different from that described in the vast
number of papers on the subject. It is based on introducing a specific function describing the
volumetric changes in freezing soil. This idea is an extension of the proposal by Blanchard and
Fr1mond (1985). Since most research reported in the literature in the area of soil freezing is
concentrated on the micromechanic approach, and the phenomenological approach has not
2
received a very warm welcome, the philosophy behind this approach and justification for it is
presented in the third section of this report. A literature survey is presented in the next section.
Sections 4, 5, and 6 present the assumptions made, and fundamental equations. Section 7 shows
some numerical simulations of freezing processes under different boundary conditions for
different soils. The simulations were conducted using a computer program written exclusively
for the purpose of testing the theory presented in this report. Conclusions, discussion of results,
and bibliography are presented in the last two sections.
Thanks are due to the Underground Space Center of the University of Minnesota, where
this research was initiated while the author was a USC staff member, and gratitude is expressed
to both USC and the Center for Transportation Studies of the U of M for financially supporting
the research.
3
2. Literature Overview
This literature overview is not meant to describe all published efforts pertaining to modeling of
frost susceptible soils. It describes the major trends in frost heave modeling found in the
literature, and refers only to some representative papers. A wide bibliography of the subject can
be found in section 7.
Papers by Taber (1929, 1930) and Beskow (1935) present the first systematic research on
frost action in frost susceptible soils. Taber's experiments gave solid evidence that frost heave
occurs due to transfer of water into the freezing zone rather than due to water expansion during
freezing. Efforts to rigorously describe the process of freezing and the related frost heave,
however, did not start until about two decades ago. Several different approaches to modeling
frost heave can be distinguished.
The capillary theory of frost heaving (Penner, 1959; Everett, 1961) is based on the Laplace
surface tension equation: p - p' = 2o'"/r
' ~
(0' - interfacial ice water tension, r'" - radius of the
ice/water interface). Penner (1959), Everett(1961), and others defined p' - pW as heaving pressure.
The Laplace equation suggests then that under given stress in the soil skeleton, there is a critical
pore size (related to r
?
) which leads to the growth of ice or frost damage. Williams (1967) used
the Clausius-Clapeyron equation to show that the capillary theory predicts the freezing point of
water, p' - p" being known from the Laplace equation. The simplicity of the capillary theory was
appealing, but experimental tests did not confirm its validity: heaving pressures during freezing
tests were found to be significantly larger than those predicted by the theory (Penner, 1973).
There was also evidence that ice lenses can form within frozen soil at some distance from the
freezing front (Hoekstra, 1966, 1969), which could not be explained by the capillary theory.
These shortcomings led to the concept of secondary heaving, primary heaving being assigned to the
capillary action. It also became evident that modeling frost heaving processes cannot be done
without rigorous description of the coupled heat and moisture flow within freezing soil, with
the appropriate simulation of latent heat effects (Harlan, 1973; Guymon and Luthin, 1974; Taylor
and Luthin, 1978).
The secondary heaving mechanism was proposed by Miller (1978) (see also Miller, 1980);
it can explain some of the phenomena which are not accounted for in the capillary mechanism,
namely the growth of ice lenses behind the freezing front. This secondary frost heave theory is
4
based on the regelation mechanism, causing the movement of particles imbedded in ice, under
a temperature gradient. A key experiment presenting the migration of particles in ice up the
temperature gradient was shown by R6mkens and Miller (1973). Pore ice and ice lenses are
treated in the secondary heave mechanism as one body. Due to kinematical constraints, the
mineral (solid) particles cannot move up the temperature gradient, thus it is ice which will move
down the temperature gradient, the relative particle-ice motion being the same. This mechanism
gives rise to secondary frost heave and its mathematical description is often called the rigid ice
model. Attempts at practical calculations of frost heave using the rigid ice model can be found
in papers by O'Neill and Miller (1980, 1895), Holden (1983), Holden, et al. (1985), and Black and
Miller (1985). All simulations involving the rigid ice model are restricted to one-dimensional
considerations.
Research on freezing of moist soils and their frost heaving lead to emphasizing the
importance of unfrozen water in frozen soils. The experiments reveal that, depending on the
type of soil, there may be a considerable amount of unfrozen water in soil at a few degrees
below 0C (e.g., Williams, 1967; Tice et al., 1989). This water significantly influences the ability
of frozen soil to transport water (Burt and Williams, 1976), and is also necessary for the
regelation process to take place. The existence of the unfrozen water in frozen soil is crucial to
the secondary frost heave mechanism.
As the primary heave mechanism predicted a pressure at which frost heaving would
stop, the notion of a "shut-off' pressure was introduced. Laboratory experiments by Sutherland
and Guskin (1973) with constant-volume soil freezing confirmed the tendency of heaving
pressure to reach a limit and stop the heaving. However, experiments by Loch and Miller (1973)
showed that, given enough time, the process of heaving will continue (at a lower rate), and it
is now accepted that increased stress slows down the rate of heave but, with sufficient time,
heaving may continue almost indefinitely.
An approach to explaining and describing frost heave different from the primary or
secondary heave mechanism was that proposed by Takagi (1980), and is referred to as the
adsorption force theory. According to this theory, a suction potential is generated due to freezing
of the external layers of the unfrozen film of water surrounding solid particles in frozen or
partially frozen soil. This film, trying to recover its thickness (and equilibrium), generates a
suction force which moves the molecules of unfrozen water into the liquid film. The freezing
of water that generates suction is called segregation freezing (as opposed to freezing in situ). The
adsorption force theory gives a certain explanation for the occurrence of cryogenic suction at the
freezing front, but it never materialized as a technique for the calculation of frost heave.
Another approach, aimed at engineering applications, was proposed by Konrad and
Morgenstern (1980, 1981). This approach is based on the concept of a segregation potential,
defined as the ratio of the water flux into the freezing zone to the temperature gradient in the
frozen fringe (SP = V/(T/Az)). This model differs from all previous models in that it introduces
a material parameter (SP) solely for the purpose of constructing a mathematical description. In
this respect the approach of Konrad and Morgenstern relates to phenomenological modeling,
where global quantities (or quantities at the macroscopic level) are introduced a priori rather than
derived from the processes on the microscopic level. The model proposed by Konrad and
Morgenstern seems to be applicable particularly in steady-state processes of heaving (although
an attempt was also made at describing transient processes, Konrad and Morgenstern, 1982b).
Successful implementation of the segregation potential model in practical problems, where the
process has been simplified to be dependent on one space variable, can be found in the literature
(Konrad and Morgenstern, 1984; Nixon, 1987). It should be mentioned that the segregation
potential model introduced some controversy, especially in the scientific community.
A two-dimensional model for frost heaving of soils based on rigorous considerations of
coupled heat and moisture flow was developed by Guymon, Hromadka and Berg, and
summarized in their paper of 1984. The model presented by Guymon, et al., is one of a few
attempts at describing 2-dimensional freezing. This model, however, is not explicitly coupled
with the stress field in the freezing soil.
Another model for the frost heave problem was presented by Mu and Ladanyi, 1987.
Their model has a very clear structure, incorporates heat and moisture transfer, and is coupled
with the stress field. It is one of only two models that use a constitutive relation for the soil
matrix. Although this model is applicable to multi-dimensional freezing problems, only a 1-D
example was shown by the authors.
A model based on the continuum approach was suggested in 1985 by Blanchard and
Frmond. This model is based on the introduction of a specific function describing the growth
of pore spaces in freezing soil. While no micromechanical processes are considered, the material
functions introduced model the global (or the macro-scale) effect, i.e., the response of the soil-
water-ice mixture to freezing. This model rigorously considers coupled heat and mass flow, and
the stress state. The philosophy of this approach will be elaborated in section 3. The model
presented in this report falls into the same category as that of Blanchard and Fremond.
Most models were formulated as one-dimensional ones, and were not coupled with the
stress field (Gilpin, 1980; Hopke, 1980, and Konrad and Morgenstern, 1982b, investigated the
effect of overburden in a one-dimensional process, which is not the same as coupling of the heat
and mass flow equations to the equations describing the stress field). Their applications were
related to highway and airfield construction, where, indeed, a one-dimensional heat flow regime
seems to be a reasonable approximation. However, multi-dimensional formulation is important
when the interaction of soil with arbitrary structures is to be analyzed. These problems are
never one-dimensional, and the stress field is the important outcome that is expected from the
solution.
7
3. Philosophy of the Approach
It is the model of secondary heaving (or rigid ice model) which received the most attention in
the scientific community. However, the current stage of development of this model allows only
1-D freezing simulation. Like the model based on capillary action, the secondary frost heave
model is based on considering the micromechanical processes, and the heaving effect is obtained
as the integral of the growth of all ice lenses in the frozen column (1-D process). The term
"micromechanical" processes here pertains to processes taking place between the components of
the soil skeleton-ice-water mixture. Macromechanical (or global) effects are those seen as the
response of the whole mixture.
Constructing a model for predictions of frost heave based on the summation of the actual
micromechanical processes will, certainly, lead to realistic qualitative results. As to the
quantitative results, the micromechanical approach may not necessarily be the most reliable one.
This has certainly been true in the mechanics of solids, where phenomenological models based
on introducing material parameters on the macroscopic level were far more successful in
predicting such global quantities as displacements and limit loads than micromechanics-based
models. The simplest examples of constitutive (of phenomenological) models are Hook's model
of linear elasticity, and the model of perfect plasticity. As opposed to micromechanics-based
models they cannot explain why the deformation is elastic (or plastic), but they can be quite
accurate in determining the magnitudes of deformation or the stress state, given material
properties defined at the macroscopic level (Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio or the yield
condition and the flow rule). Micromechanical models can explain the nature of deformation,
but the quantitative predictions are usually orders of magnitude apart from the true result.
There is no reason to doubt that a phenomenological model formulated on the
macroscopic level can be constructed for frost susceptible soils so the increase of porosity due
to ice lens formation can be modelled. Macroscopic models require that some material functions
be defined at the macroscopic level (for the mixture rather than for all constituents separately).
The segregation potential introduced by Konrad and Morgenstern (1980) is an example of such
a function. The first macromechanical approach, consistently carried through, is that presented
by Blanchard and Frnmond (1985), where a specific function describing the porosity increase was
introduced. This effort is extended here to include more factors influencing growth of ice during
8
the freezing process of soils.
While the material functions formulated on the macroscopic level do not have to be
strictly derived from the microscopic processes, their mathematical form must reflect the
experimentally observed effects. For the model of frost susceptible soil this effect is the increase
in volume which will be modelled by a porosity rate function, n, as suggested earlier by
Fremond' (1987). Thus the ice growth will be described as the average increase in porosity
(volume) of the soil element, rather than as separate ice lens growth. The success of the
phenomenological model depends on how accurate the porosity growth is captured as a function
of factors affecting this growth.
The best constitutive models are those which can simulate the true behavior of the
material with the least parameters introduced. The porosity rate function introduced in the next
section has five parameters,as the true process of ice lens growth is affected by many factors.
Both the porosity rate function (t) and the unfrozen water content (w) are the constitutive
relations which are important to modeling of frost heave.
The frost heave itself is a process which occurs when the frost susceptible soil is placed
under certain conditions. Thus, frost heave can be calculated as the solution to a boundary value
problem in which the soil is subjected to specific initial and boundary conditions. In this sense,
frost heave itself is not a property of the material, but frost susceptibility (described by function
i) is.
To formulate and solve the problem of frost heave for specific thermal and hydraulic
conditions, constitutive functions in addition to i and w need to be adapted: the heat transfer
and mass flow laws, and the rule describing deformability (and/or yielding) of the soil skeleton
(a deformability law of the entire mixture also needs to be defined in multidimensional problems
with structure interaction). These equations along with the fundamental principles of energy,
mass, and momentum conservation form the set of equations to be solved for given boundary
conditions.
Related to the approach proposed is the interpretation of the freezing soil as a heat engine.
Heaving soil performs mechanical work against external loads (gravity and boundary forces),
and also performs work which is either dissipated (e.g., during plastic deformation of the
skeleton) or stored as elastic energy (in both ice and skeleton). Thus it can be argued that part
9
'Personal communication.
of the latent heat released when water freezes is transformed into mechanical work by means
of a specific heat engine of a very low efficiency. While the temperature gradients at the
macroscopic level are considered finite within the freezing soil, the specific conditions for the
heat engine must exist on the microscopic level.
As all functions are formulated on the macroscopic level, this approach does not utilize
the Clausius-Clapeyron equation which is used in the micromechanics-based approach (analysis
of a single ice lens formation). Specific equations are presented in the next three sections.
10
4. Porosity Rate Function
According to the approach taken, the formation of a single ice lens is not attempted here; instead
the average volume increase of the soil matrix-water-ice mixture is considered due to the ice
growth. This volume increase is modeled by a porosity rate function, n, which describes the
porosity increase of a soil element. Predictions of the location of a single ice lens based on an
approach involving description of processes between the components of the frozen soil is
influenced by quantities which vary within the soil. Consequently, such predictions give an
approximate location of ice lenses. However, if the increase of volume due to ice lens growth
is integrated over a larger soil element and averaged, this average growth is likely to be a more
accurate result. Introducing a function modeling this average growth is then a natural step in
constitutive modeling of a frost susceptible soil. Here, it is the porosity rate function.
The porosity rate function must account for characteristic features of the freezing process
of frost susceptible soils, as known from laboratory tests. In particular, it must be a function of
temperature, temperature gradient, porosity, and the stress state. The following form of the
porosity rate function is proposed
a r
(1)
=i -a Te (1 - e- ) (1 - n ) e
where n is the porosity, n is the porosity rate (an/st), and a, 1, N, P3, and 4 are the material
parameters. The function is constructed in such a way that its first part, -aT eD'
T
, describes the
porosity rate, while the two expressions in parentheses and the last exponential function are
dimensionless factors, all ranging from 0 to 1.0, and thus reducing the porosity rate due to the
value of the thermal gradient, current porosity, and the stress state, respectively.
The dependence of the porosity rate on temperature is represented in eq. (1) by the
expression -aT e
PT
(temperature T in oC). Introducing parameters h, describing the maximum
possible porosity rate for a given soil, and T, describing the temperature (in oC) at which the
maximum porosity rate occurs, parameters a and P, can be calculated as P = -1/T,
11
and a = -(nJT,)/e, and eq. (1) can be rewritten as
T
ar
_ T 1r- _)02 (2)
--- e .T(1-e )(1 n e(2)
" T
The dependance of the porosity rate on temperature is shown graphically in Fig. 1(a) for
different parameters n, and T,. The hypothesis of a maximum porosity increase as a material
property comes from the fact that hydraulic conductivity decreases with temperature while
suction increases (both nonlinearly). It is then likely that the influx of water into a freezing soil
element has a maximum at some temperature below zero *C.
At 0C no ice growth process takes place (h = 0), while the porosity rate increases
drastically with the decrease of temperature, reaches a maximum, and diminishes to quantities
near zero for temperatures well below zero. The rapid increase of porosity at temperatures
slightly below 0C can be interpreted as primary frost heave, while its slow growth at lower
temperatures can be viewed as the secondary frost heave process.
Parameters hm and T, allow the simulation of cases known from laboratory experiments.
For example, silt exhibits a relatively high rate of heave (related to a high porosity rate) at
temperatures slightly below zero, but it diminishes quickly when the unfrozen water content
drops down and the hydraulic conductivity becomes very small, while clay, under the same
boundary conditions, heaves more slowly, but its rate of heave does not drop as rapidly with
a decrease of temperature. This part of the porosity rate function introduced here is the same
as suggested by Fremond
1
(1987), and discussed with Duquennoi' (1989).
The second component of the porosity rate function, (1- e (aT/ra)), involves the
temperature gradient along the heat flow lines. Co-ordinate I coincides with the tangent to heat
flow lines and is directed from the warm side of the freezing front toward the cold side, hence
DT/al < 0. For a sufficiently large magnitude of thermal gradient, laT/Ia I, this function becomes
close to unity, Fig. l(b), and it drops to zero when the magnitude of the thermal gradient drops
to zero. Assuming that cryogenic suction for a given soil is a function of temperature alone, the
suction gradient must be zero when DT/l1 = 0. According to Darcy's law, no water influx due
to cryogenic suction is then possible when T = const. Water flow is possible through the frozen
soil at a constant temperature, however, due to an "externally applied" hydraulic gradient (Burt
and Williams, 1976). Hydraulic gradients due to variation of the water table in soils are likely
to be small when compared to cryogenic suction gradients in the freezing soil, and are not
12
VOM- o C 0
s
' ^("-
C
TOM
0.
0
c'J
wU
0
H-
c Q
Ccj
iO 0
0
o
0
a.
E
,) U)
!
CM
I
S -I =
CO. J "
- i -
T- pco vt CJ
Yb
S O cD C 0 '
10 .
13
"-
( i
0.
s,
C
C
a*
(5
cu
.U
Q(
LC
C.
eo
'-
D I
C) L Io
o)
o ,
!)
c
0
c
C>
0 w
0
CL
0
C
- Q)
C) U
uC 0
og
4 E
C o
cu
reflected in the porosity rate function. The cryogenic suction gradients are implicitly included
in parameters ., and T,.
The third component of the porosity rate function, (1 - n)a, makes the porosity rate a
function of the current value of porosity. Without getting into the details of a single ice lens
growth, the process can take place only if both a solid soil skeleton and water are present. An
increase in porosity at a given temperature below freezing causes an increase in the relative ice
content, 0
"
, while the relative unfrozen water content, 0("', and the solid content,
0
8", drop
down. This leads to a decrease in the hydraulic conductivity, and consequently, to a drop in the
water supply. When porosity becomes close to unity, the soil skeleton may be considered as
particles embedded in ice, and the increase of the ice volume due to the Darcian influx of water
is stopped, since the hydraulic flow paths in the soil-skeleton-ice mixture are discontinuous. At
the limit, n = 1, the ice fills the whole volume and no further increase is possible. The expression
(1 - n) in eq. (2) brings the value of ni to zero at n = 1 (see also Fig. 1(c)). Note that the non-
Darcian water and ice transport due to the regelation phenomenon (and related to the secondary
frost heaving) requires that the porosity be less than 1. The process cannot take place in the
absence of a skeleton and unfrozen water.
The fourth factor in the porosity rate function reflects the influence of the stress state in
the soil: exp(-ai/P)), where oa is the first invariant of the stress state in ice (a
c
f = a
0
+
a22+ o'), and p3 is a material parameter. Note that the influence of the stress state is
considered without introducing the notion of a frost heave shut-off pressure. The stresses in
frozen soil are discussed in more detail in the next section. The decrease in porosity rate i with
increasing stress in ice is introduced here on the basis of a purely theoretical argument. In order
for the material to increase its porosity and cause frost heave, mechanical work has to be done
against the external forces (gravity and boundary forces), the dissipation of mechanical energy
will occur during irreversible deformation of some mixture components, and energy will be
stored during reversible deformation. This requires that part of the latent heat released when
water freezes is changed into mechanical work. Frost heave can then be interpreted as a result
of the action of a particular heat engine. Macroscopically, the temperature gradients are
considered finite, but, for the heat engine to have an efficiency larger than 0, a temperature
14
discontinuity must occur on the microscopic level
2
, otherwise all heat will be diffused. As long
as the conditions for the heat engine exist on the microscopic level, part of the latent heat (small,
however, due to very low efficiency) will be used to perform the mechanical work. The power
made available by the heat engine must then lead to heave rates where, the higher the
overburden pressure, the lower the heave rate. This relation is not linear due to dissipation and
energy storage terms in the energy balance, and also due to possible structural changes on the
microscopic level leading to changes in heat engine efficiency.
Porosity changes are described here as scalar i (eq. (2)). To capture the anisotropic
character of the void growth (due to ice lens formation), the porosity growth tensor is introduced
1 avk av
n ki ( + )
2 axI ax
ax3 ax2
3v
3x 3x
2
3
aV2 V2 v2
1I a2
3
av
3
av
3
av
3
ax1 ax2 3X
3
where v, is the velocity vector of the (incompressible) mineral skeleton and x, is the Cartesian
space co-ordinate. Assuming now that x, coincides with the heat flow lines across the freezing
soil element under consideration, it is hypothetically assumed that
id
S 0 0
0 01- ) 0
0 0
2
(4)
where 0.33 ~ < 1.0. The two limit values of 4 (0.33 and 1.0) describe the isotropic growth and
unidirectional growth of ice lenses (in the direction of heat flow lines), respectively.
2
For example, efficiency of the Carnot heat engine for an ideal gas is represented as: p = 1 -
Tj/T
2
, where T, and T
2
are temperatures (K) of the two heat reservoirs, with T
2
- T, being the
temperature discontinuity.
15
(3)
I
I
5. Interpretation of the Stress State in Frozen Soil
The influence of the stress state in soil on ice lens formation, simulated here as an increase in
porosity, is perhaps one of the more crucial elements in phenomenological modeling of frost
heave. Considering the stress state on the microscopic level, it is the stress in ice which is likely
to be the governing parameter (Williams and Wood, 1985).
There has been very little concern, so far, regarding the role of the stress state in freezing
soil, and its role in modeling frost susceptible soils. If considered at all, it is usually included
as "the influence of the overburden pressure", which, from the standpoint of constitutive
modeling, is not acceptable. The "overburden pressure" is a boundary condition (part of the
boundary value problem) and cannot influence the constitutive model of the material itself; it
is the stress state at the point of consideration which influences the behavior of the material at
that point. In general, there is an infinite number of stress boundary conditions causing the
same stress state at a given point. Successful use of the "overburden pressure" as a parameter
in some models comes from the fact that these models are restricted to one-dimensional
deformation processes (with fixed principal stress directions), where the normal stress
component in the direction of the overburden pressure throughout the soil is statically
determinate and equal to the overburden pressure plus the weight of the material above the
point of consideration.
The mechanism of the stress transfer through the soil is dependent on the microstructure
of the frozen soil. Miller (1978) adapted the concept of effective and neutral stress from soil
mechanics. This concept is also adapted here, and it is presented in terms of the full stress
tensors
3
= + -( (5)
where -i is the total stress tensor in the mixture, if, is the effective stress tensor (stress in the
skeleton), and ,'"' is the neutral stress tensor (Fo, here, depicts the stress defined as the force
over the total cross-section of the mixture, and ol is the force over the cross-section of the
respective component - microstress). The neutral stress tensor is now decomposed into parts
3
Subscript indices indicate space co-ordinates (vectors and tensors), and superscript indices
in parentheses denote the specific constituent of the mineral skeleton-water-ice mixture.
16
assigned to water and ice
S=" X u, + ( - X)
(6)
where 8, is Kronecker's symbol, u is the pore water pressure, akC/ is the microstress tensor in
ice, and X is the partition factor (0 < X < 1). Note that such stress definition is based on the
parallel interaction of the skeleton and whatever fills the pores. It follows then, that under
a zero external load G, the buildup of microstress in ice, a5o, must be compensated for by the
stress in the skeleton, aOi, (assuming u unchanged). Thus the buildup of the compressive
normal stress increment in ice causes a tension increment in the skeleton. Williams and
Wood (1985) also gave a similar interpretation of the "heave pressure" transfer. This is possible
if the soil skeleton forms a continuous matrix and the matrix has enough strength to withstand
the tensile stresses. Ice inclusions, however, reduce the ability of the skeleton to resist tension,
and local slip between mineral particles (plastic flow) can be expected when the ice pockets
(lenses) increase their volume. The stress state in the clusters of the soil skeleton is expected to
be non-homogeneous and dependent on the geometrical location of these clusters with respect
to growing ice. The strength of the frozen silt or clay is, of course, much higher than that of the
unfrozen soil. However, this is the strength of the mineral-water-ice composite. The strength
of the skeleton matrix alone against expansion caused by the growing ice probably changes little
with freezing. The average stress state in the skeleton, o~', over a representative frozen soil
element can presumably be described by a function similar to the yield functions of plastic
materials, and the level of tension is probably quite low (comparable to that following from the
Mohr-Coulomb yield condition in a tensile regime, for unfrozen silt and clay of comparable
liquid moisture content).
It is the first invariant of stress tensor a,/" which enters the porosity rate function. Based
on eq. (6), oag it can be calculated as
"-- x--(s)
FY_ __ - -XuB u
(7)
.I 1-x
It will be assumed that coefficient x depends on the unfrozen water concentration in the frozen
soil. The unfrozen water concentration is defined here as the ratio of the liquid water volume
to the volume of the pores
17
V(W)
(8)
V,)
Assuming hypothetically that v = X, eq. (7) can be rewritten as
o -5vui
(9)
= l-v
In a one-dimensional freezing process in an ideal vertical column (with smooth boundaries), the
vertical normal stress component of the total stress, F, is statically determinate and equal to the
overburden pressure plus the weight of material above the point considered. The effective
stress, v'P), can be calculated from the strain introduced by the porosity changes in the elastic
range, or from the yield condition when the skeleton reaches the yield state. Suction u can be
back-calculated from the Darcy law since the continuous flow rate is uniquely related to the
porosity growth. The constitutive relations for deformation of the soil skeleton and the whole
mixture need to be known to calculate stress components other than the normal vertical one, and
aCo can be calculated iteratively from eq. (7) or eq. (9). The first stress state invariant in ice,
omm
<
= o /-0 + aOoG + o+ z, can now be determined and used in calculations of ii (eq. (2)). In
2- and 3-dimensional problems, all stress components of the total stress tensor and the effective
stress tensor need to be determined using the respective constitutive relations.
18
6. Fundamental Equation
The crucial part of the model capable of simulating frost heave introduced in this report is the
characteristic porosity rate function. In this respect, the model presented falls into the same
category as that of Blanchard and Fremond (1985), and is very different from most models
available in the literature.
The proposed model considers soil a porous medium, with pores filled with water, or
water and ice. Volumetric changes of the soil-water-ice mixture are assumed to occur due to
porosity increase which, in turn, is caused by the inflowing and freezing water driven by
cryogenic suction. The process of the formation of discrete ice lenses is then "smeared" over a
representative volume, and simulated by the porosity increase of the mixture. The porosity
increase is governed by the function characteristic to the specific soil (material function). This
function describes the effect on a macroscopic level and is not derived from the processes on
a microscopic level (processes between the components of the mixture). While such model
cannot explain physical phenomena leading to frost heave, it is expected to be a reliable
predictor of frost heave, provided the material parameters are derived from reliable experimental
tests.
In addition to the porosity rate function, hi, the relation representing the unfrozen water
content in the frozen soil, w, is important to the model presented. Based on experimental tests
(e.g., Burt and Williams, 1976, and Tice et al., 1989) the form of this function is assumed as
w = w* + (io - w')e
"
T
(10)
where w is the unfrozen water content as a fraction of the dry weight, w

is the residual unfrozen
water content at some very low reference temperature, WI" is the minimum unfrozen water content
at 0C, and a is the third material parameter.
For calculation purposes it is convenient to use the unfrozen water concentration, v,
defined in eq. (8). For the saturated soil considered here one can write
v Y"'1 - n
(11)
y(W) n
where f'' and j, are the specific weights of the soil skeleton and water, respectively. Note
that for unfrozen saturated soil v = 1, and the water content becomes uniquely determined by
19
the porosity (n)
W Y 7W n (12)
y () 1-n
The skeleton, water and ice content in the frozen soil will be described by quantities 0',
0(
'
), and 0
'
defined as
0( V(
'
V(
1
) (13)
ge) - 1 - n , = ) = vn, O _ = n(l-v) (13)
V V V
where V
s
), w, and V( are the volumes of the soil skeleton, unfrozen water, and ice,
respectively, and V = Vs + V
'
+ V). Introducing the densities of the three components of the
mixture as p"', p(w), and pr), respectively, the density of the mixture can be written as
p = eO(S p(" + O()p( + ( p) = (1 - n)p() + vnp(w) + n(1 -v)p
)
(14)
The heat capacity of the mixture per unit volume can be expressed as
C = (1 -n)p')C
(S
)+vnp(w)C(w)+n(1
-v)p('oC'O
(15)
where C
(
', C
C
), and C` are the mass heat capacities of the soil skeleton, water, and ice,
respectively. Due to changing proportions of the components in the freezing soil, the heat
capacity will vary.
The Fourier law of heat conduction is adopted
aT
Q - (T)
(16)
ax.
where Q, is the heat flux vector, T is the temperature, and x, is the space co-ordinate. Thermal
conductivity X(T) is a function of temperature, and it pertains to the conductivity of the soil-
water-ice mixture.
Water transport is described by the Darcy law
Ah
q. = - k(T) (17)
ax,
where q, is the flow rate vector, h is the hydraulic head, and k(T) is the hydraulic conductivity
20
(function of temperature).
The constitutive relations for the soil skeleton and the whole frozen composite are not
specified here in detail. It is only suggested that they may be described with hypoelastic-type
relations
a1) = B(T)" e
()
(18)
Sij
k1
where ec is the strain tensor and B(T) is the constitutive tensor.
Equations (2), (4), (10), and (16)-(18) describe the constitutive model of frost susceptible
soil. Frost heave, however, is a process dependent on the initial and boundary conditions, and
can be described only as a boundary value problem. Solution to the boundary value problem
requires that the unknown functions T, h, e'j, and oej, be found such that the fundamental
principles of energy, mass, and momentum conservation are satisfied. Using eq. (16) the energy
conservation principle can be written as
aT acpO (
19
)
C - p~ - V( VT) = 0 (19)
at at
where I is the latent heat of fusion of water per unit mass. It needs to be mentioned that eq. (19)
contains no term due to heat transport by water flow. It also neglects the terms due to
mechanical work. These terms are considered small compared to the latent heat released during
freezing. The mass conservation principle takes the form
(8) + WO(.. a 0+M (20)
p t p t +pt -
p
V(kVh) = 0
at at at
or
( an () (nv) (21)
(p" - p) (p -p) ~ n - p " V(kVh) = 0 (21)
at at
Finally, the momentum conservation principle takes the form
a (s)
-
p
^gVVh+(p-p"')g
O
(22)
where gi is the gravity acceleration vector.
21
7. Simulations of Frost Heave Processes
Material parameters. Simulation of the freezing processes for specific soils requires that material
parameters be known from experimental tests. Reliable techniques of determining material
parameters for phenomenological models are those where the material sample tested can be
considered a material element. This can be done only if a homogeneous state is introduced to
the sample and the state parameters can be derived directly from the conservation principles.
The response of the material to independently controlled changes in the state parameters can be
monitored. Due to homogeneity of the state parameters the response of every material element
in the sample is the same, and the material properties can be calculated easily from the global
response of the sample.
Unfortunately, testing of the freezing processes (and heaving) requires that the sample
be subjected to a temperature gradient, thus non-homogeneous response of the material
elements throughout the sample must be expected. The contribution of the material in the
sample to the global effect (heave of the sample) varies throughout the sample. A feasible way
to obtain model parameters is then to simulate the freezing processes for which the lab tests
were done and try to match the lab and simulation results by adjusting the unknown
parameters. The number of lab tests (with different boundary conditions) must be at least equal
to the number of parameters to be evaluated.
Model parameters such as the unfrozen water content as a function of temperature,
hydraulic and thermal conductivity, initial porosity, and densities of the components of the
mixture are assumed to be known from independent tests. It is the parameters of the porosity
rate function that require some explanation as to their possible methods of estimation. It is
suggested that these parameters be derived from tests with "ramping temperatures". When the
rate of boundary temperature change is sufficiently slow, such tests allow a constant temperature
gradient to be maintained in the freezing sample, and, thus, the process in the freezing zone can
be considered as approximately stationary with respect to the co-ordinate system attached to the
moving freezing front (due to geometrical changes the process is not strictly stationary). The
22
heave rate is then expected to be nearly constant. The heave rate obtained from experiments
can now be described as
h fd dz = const
(23)
dt
0
where h is the height of the sample, and n is expressed by eq. (2). Porosity rate i for material
under a negligible stress state is a function of parameters i., T., 12, and 4, thus a minimum of
four tests are needed, each with a different temperature gradient. Parameter 13 needs to be
evaluated from additional tests where the sample is loaded with an external load. While,
theoretically, five separate tests are needed to evaluate the five parameters, more tests are
desirable to obtain a reliable set of parameters. Determining the model parameters reduces then
to a "curve fitting" process with five free parameters. The tests used to determine the parameters
must not be used to verify the adequacy of the model.
Numerical simulations. A computer program was written for the purpose of performing
numerical simulations of a 1-D freezing process. The program considers the freezing soil an
assembly of "control volumes" (or elements) with the heat and mass flow occurring discretely
between these volumes. The temperature of the boundary volumes is adjusted to be equal to
the prescribed boundary temperatures. The diffusion process inside the "column" is numerically
generated through an explicit scheme (independently calculated fluxes between the elements).
The porosity growth was assumed to be anisotropic with t = 1 (eq. (4)). Hydraulic
conductivity undergoes large changes in quantity during freezing. While these changes easily
can be incorporated into the calculations, the experimental data for particular materials (for
which freezing was simulated) was not available. Therefore, only 2 values of hydraulic
conductivity k were used: one for unfrozen soil, and one for frozen soil. Consequently, the
suction in the soil was not accurately calculated and the calculations of the stress in ice,
according to eq. (9), were expected to be unreliable (the approximation X = v adds to this
inaccuracy). Therefore, to calculate the influence of the elevated stress in the soil the last
component of eq. (2) was replaced with
Sis the first invariant of the total stress tensor in the soil. The first invariant of the total
where o^ is the first invariant of the total stress tensor in the soil. The first invariant of the total
23
stress was then calculated assuming that the frozen soil is elastic
-a=Z +2
P 1
- -p (24)
where az is the normal vertical component in the total stress tensor (equal to overburden
pressure p; weight of sample neglected), and p is Poisson's ratio of the frozen composite.
No comprehensive experimental results were found in the literature to allow the porosity
rate parameters for soils to be evaluated with acceptable precision for practical purposes. The
parameters used in simulations presented in this section were adopted for the purpose of
presenting qualitative results. Comparison to lab test results available in the literature is shown
to present the potential of the model. Even though the simulations fit the lab data very well,
quantitatively these results cannot be considered a verification of the model.
Three one-dimensional freezing processes with different boundary conditions were
simulated (see Fig. 2):
1. A one-step freezing process, where the boundary temperatures are adjusted only once,
at the beginning of the process
2. A freezing process with ramping temperatures
3. A multi-step freezing process, where the temperature at the "warm" boundary is adjusted
three times during the process.
The one-step freezing process was simulated with parameters representing a freezing lab
test described by Konrad and Morgenstern in their 1980 paper (test NS-10). The initial height
of the sample was 18 cm, and its temperature +1
0
C. The temperature of the top boundary was
dropped to -6
0
C at t = 0, and kept at -6
0
C for ten days. Parameters used in the simulation are
shown in Table 1. Figs. 3, 4, and 5 represent the temperature, porosity, unfrozen water content,
ice content, suction, suction gradients, and heave rate.
The second process simulated is that for which the lab test was reported by Penner in
1986 (soil No. 1, run No. 1). The original height of the sample was 10 cm. Temperatures at the
cold and warm plates were ramped from -0.35 to -0.55
0
C, and from +0.55 to +0.35C,
respectively, at 0.02C/24h. It is assumed that a constant temperature gradient compatible with
the boundary temperatures exists in the sample at the beginning of the simulation. The
24
2 4 6 8 10
Time (days)
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (days)
10
21
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
15
Time (days)
Fig. 2
Boundary conditions for simulated precesses; (a) step
freezing, (b) ramped temperatures, (c) multi-step
freezing.
25
0
CL
Q.
E
I--
Dboattom.boundarv.
initial temperature: 1C
initial temp. gradient: 0
top boundary
,I I 1 I I I I 1 I
(a)
(b)
(C)
bottom boundary
initial temp. gradient: 9
0
C/m
_ I. top boundary
0
C)
0
o
E
0
a,
0
I-
,,
H.
I--
.6
.4
.2
0
-.2
-.4
-.6
-.8
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-------- bottom boundary
-I------
initial temperature: 4
0
C
initial temp. gradient: 0
top boundary
_ I I , I
I
! A
Table 1. Data used in simulations of freezing processes.
Simulation I I m
Initial height of sample
cm 18 10 15.2
Initial porosity 0.35 0.35 0.35
Heat conductivity X
frozen soil, J/24h.m.C 145,000 147,000 170,000
Heat conductivity X
unfrozen soil, J/24h.-m.C 175,000 181,000 190,000
Heat capacity of skeleton
Cs, J/kg-.C 900 900 900
Hydraulic conductivity k
frozen soil, m/24h 10
6
10
"
10
5
Hydraulic conductivity k
unfrozen soil, m/24h 10.
2
0.1 0.1
h,, 1/24h
15 0.40 5001
Tm, oC -0.15 -0.15 -0.12
2~
5 5 7
3, MPa
0.333
P4, m/C
0.2 0.2 0.2
w 0.15 0.15 0.15
w* 0.02 0.02 0.02
a 0.9 0.9 0.9
p", kg/m
3
2700 2700 2700
Poisson's ratio p 0.3 -
'Very frost susceptible mixture of sand and ground chalk used by McCabe and Kettle (1985).
26
respective model parameters are given in Table 1, and the results are shown in Figs. 6, 7, and 8.
The third simulation reflects the results of the lab test given by McCabe and Kettle (1985).
The original height of the sample was 15.2 cm. The temperature of the sample before the test
was +4C. At t = 0 the cold plate was adjusted to -7.5
0
C, and the warm plate to +3
0
C, and,
thereafter, the warm plate temperature was dropped to +2C at t = 8 days, and to +1C at
t = 11.3 days. The results of the simulation are shown in Figs. 9-12.
27
8. Discussion of results and conclusions
Even though the model parameters used in simulations were not determined in laboratory tests,
the results allow one to indicate, in qualitative terms, the realistic character of the modelled
heave processes.
Figures 3 - 12 present the results for the three particular freezing processes for which the
boundary conditions are presented in Fig. 2: (a) one-step freezing, (b) freezing under "ramping"
temperatures, and (c) multi-step freezing. These figures represent the distribution of
temperature, unfrozen water content, porosity, volumetric ice content, and also the hydraulic
head (suction) and its gradient. All quantities are shown for a series of selected instants, and
the distribution along the sample is related to the current co-ordinate updated due to the heave
process (except Fig. 12). All results are presented in an "unsmoothened" fashion, thus some
discontinuities in derivatives of the distribution curves appear due to the division of the sample
into discrete volumes in the numerical technique used.
The results from a simulation of the one-step freezing process are shown in Figs. 3, 4, and
5. Under given boundary conditions, the heat flow process becomes almost steady after one day
(Fig. 3(a)). The departure from the steady-state process is caused by heaving. A slight change
in the temperature gradient at 0C after one day is caused by the assumed abrupt change in
thermal conductivity (though small in quantity; see Table 1).
Appearance of the ice lenses is modelled here as regions of increased porosity, Fig. 3(b).
The quick advancement of the freezing zone in the first four hours of the process results in
predominantly freezing in situ where no significant increase in void volume is observed. Once
the speed of the 0C isotherm becomes relatively small, the process of porosity growth becomes
very pronounced (Fig. 3(b)). The ice content increases significantly in the neighborhood of the
nearly-stationary freezing zone, which is indicated by the increasing "bulb" in ice content
distribution curves in Fig. 3(d). The peak in the ice content distribution can be interpreted as
the "final" ice lens formed during step freezing, while the increased ice content above that
indicates lower average ice concentration, e.g., thinner and widely spaced lenses. The constant
ice content distribution in the upper part of the sample indicates freezing in situ of that part.
The variation in the unfrozen water content is related to the temperature changes. The
unfrozen water content changes gradually as a function of temperature. The drop in unfrozen
28
(a)
C
CU
0
0)
E
0)
0J
-6 -4 -2 0
Temperature (oC)
(b)
.2
.18
0
E
.15
.05 o
.2 .4 .6
Porosity
(C)
E
C
O. 0
0
NO
0
o
E
0
C!,
0 .05 .1 .15 .20
Unfrozen water content
(fraction of dry weight)
.2 (d)
.15 "
C
0
.1 o
0
.05 E
0
0
0 .2 .4 .6
Ice content
(fraction of total volume)
Fig. 3
Step freezing process; (a) temperature, (b) porosity,
(c) unfrozen water content, (d) ice content.
29
v
.8
.2
.15
.1
.05
0
Pll
(b)
-15 -10 -5
hudraulic head (m)
(suction)
.2
.15
.1
.05
0 -800 -600 -400 -200 0
suction gradient (m/m)
.2
.15
.1
.05
0
Fig. 4
Step freezing process; (a) hydraulic head, (b) hydraulic
head gradient
(b)
0 2 4 6
Time (days)
10
O 8
E
E 6
a 4
2
A
8 10 0 .2 .4 .6
Time (days)
Fig. 5
Frost heave during step freezing process.
30
(a)
cC
0
0
0
0
E
0J
(a)
25
20
15
10
5
0
E
C-
0
>I
.8 1
||
water content with decreasing temperature (eq. (10)) affects the heat diffusion process through
the release of latent heat (this coupling leads to iterative numerical procedures for solving the
freezing process).
The model presented does not require calculations of hydraulic head (suction) to simulate
heave. This is because the porosity rate function becomes independent of the suction if the
influence of the stress state in ice is neglected. It is possible, however, to back-calculate suction
assuming that the water transfer is governed by Darcy's law. Hydraulic conductivity in frozen
soil is very much dependent on temperature (especially in the region of intensive porosity
increase), and its exact variation is seldom tested for practical purposes. Back calculations of
suction based on approximately estimated hydraulic conductivity are not very accurate, but they
are presented here so some qualitative conclusions can be drawn. The two values of hydraulic
conductivity (for frozen and unfrozen soil) used in calculations are given in Table 1. The level
of the hydraulic head at the bottom of the sample was assumed to be zero. The hydraulic head
and its gradient for the simulated step freezing process are presented in Fig. 4. The distribution
of the cryogenic suction changes during the process, and it reaches its maximum before a big
concentration of increased porosity is formed. As expected, the maximum of the suction
gradient is related to the maximum heave rate, and the suction gradient decrease coincides with
a decrease in the heave rate. Some oscillations in the magnitude of the cryogenic suction and
suction gradient were observed during the process (see, for example, the sequence of results for
2, 5, and 10 days). These oscillations seem to be of a numeric nature and become smaller with
the decrease in time step and element size.
The heave of the sample as a function of time is shown in Fig. 5. During the step
freezing process the heave rate (derivative of the heave curve) tapers down once the freezing
zone becomes almost stationary. Such behavior of the simulated sample is to be expected, since
it is postulated in eq. (2) that the porosity rate decreases with an increase in porosity itself. The
heave rate reaches its maximum somewhere at the beginning of the process, but not at the very
start of freezing. The temperature gradient is the highest in the frozen part of the sample at the
beginning of step freezing. The porosity rate increases with an increase in |3T/Az . Heave of
the sample, however, is the integral of the volume increase over the frozen part of the sample,
and this frozen part is small at first, when the magnitude of the temperature gradient is high.
Consequently, the sample (during step freezing) reaches the maximum of the heave rate not at
the very start of the process, but shortly after, see Fig. 5(b) (some fluctuations in the simulated
31
heave rate were also observed, due to discretization of the sample for numerical calculations).
Discrete points in Fig. 5(a) represent the heave measured by Konrad and
Morgenstern (1980). The height of the sample and the boundary conditions used in the
simulation were identical to those reported by Konrad and Morgenstern, and the other
parameters (Table 1) were selected in such a way so that the simulated heave would match that
measured by Konrad and Morgenstern quantitatively. While such simulation cannot be
considered a verification of the model, the numerical results indicate that the model produces
very reasonable qualitative results. The four curves for p > 0 in Fig. 5(a) represent heaving for
overburden pressures of 30, 100, 200, and 300 kPa, respectively. As mentioned earlier, the stress
state in ice, which is likely to be a governing factor in decreasing the heave rate, cannot be
calculated accurately. Therefore, the decrease of the porosity rate due to an elevated stress level
was expressed as a function of the first invariant of the total stress state (in the entire frozen
composite). This hypothesis requires more study, though the reduction in frost heave in Fig. 5(a)
due to overburden seems to be reasonable.
Results from simulations of soil freezing with ramped temperatures are shown in Figs. 6,
7, and 8. A constant temperature gradient throughout the sample was assumed at the beginning
of the process. As heat conductivity is assumed different for soil above 0C and below, this
gradient becomes discontinuous at the 0C isotherm once the process advances, Fig. 6(a) (this
discontinuity is relatively small due to the small change in conductivity, Table. 1). The porosity
increase is quite different from that during step freezing. Porosity now grows gradually
(Fig. 6(b)) due to the slow movement of the freezing zone. No regions of high void
concentration are created. If the process was continued sufficiently long, a nearly constant
porosity would be left some distance behind the freezing zone. This constant distribution of the
average porosity could be interpreted as the rhythmic formation of lenses that are identical in
thickness and evenly spaced.
The unfrozen water content drops down rapidly from the initial 0.199 to 0.15 at 0C, and
further drops down almost linearly due to a small change in temperature (it is, however, an
exponential function, eq. (10)). According to the model presented here, the rapid drop from
0.199 to 0.15 occurs at 0C. The inclination of the distribution lines in this range in Fig. 6(c) is
caused by discretizing the sample for calculations. As no discontinuities were allowed within
a discrete volume, this otherwise abrupt drop is plotted between the centers of two adjacent
discrete volumes, giving the impression of a continual decrease.
32
.1
E
c.
.08 .
.06
0
0
.04 E
o
0
.02
n
0 .2 .4 .6
Temperature (oC)
4 (b)
.2 .3 .4
Porosity
(d) .12
.1
.08
.06
.04
.02
0
0 .05 .1 .15 .2
Unfrozen water content
(fraction of dry weight)
.1.
.1
.08
.06
.04
.02
0I
v
.5 .6
n
0 .1 .2 .3 .4
Ice content
(fraction of total volume)
Fig. 6
Freezing by temperature ramping; (a) temperature,
(b) porosity, (c) unfrozen water content, (d) ice content
33
(a)
c
0
0
4-9
E
Co
-.6 -.4 -.2
(C) .12
.1
.08
.06
.04
.02
0
4 ^
(a)
C
0
o
- -
- -
a)
E
CD
-3 -2 -1
Hydraulic head (m)
Ik\
.12 \U/
.1
.08
.06
.04
.02
n
-100 -50
.12
.1
.08
.06
.04
.02
0
Suction gradient (m/m)
Fig. 7
Freezing by temperature ramping; (a) hydraulic head,
(b) hydraulic head gradient
E
E
a)
2
LL
12
10
8
6
4
2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (days)
Fig. 8
Frost heave during freezing process with temperature
ramping.
34
Oh
Ice content, Fig. 6(d), in the area behind the freezing front still increases after 11 days.
After sufficiently extended "ramping", the ice content could be expected to be nearly constant
in the upper part of the sample. While the calculations of the suction are not considered
accurate quantitatively, Fig. 7(a) indicates that it varies little, and these variations are probably
due to numerical instabilities. The suction gradient (which drives the water into the freezing
part of the sample) decreases gradually toward the cold boundary (Fig. 7(b)), and not as rapidly
as in the step freezing, since the drop in temperature toward the cold boundary is now much
smaller.
Heaving of the sample during the process with ramped temperatures occurs with a nearly
constant heave rate, Fig. 8. The simulated heave is shown along with the heave curve reported
by Penner (1986) for an experiment with similar boundary conditions (the actual heat flow in
Penner's experiment was from the top down). The material parameters were selected in such
a way so that the quantitative results matched Penner's laboratory test. As in the previous
instances, the simulation cannot be considered a verification of the model, but its qualitative
result is quite realistic.
The multi-step freezing simulation, according to Fig. 2(c), is shown in Figs. 9 - 12. The
periodic porosity increase of the freezing soil is now clearly related to temperature jumps in the
warm end of the sample. The porosity distribution has characteristic maxima. The most upper
peak in porosity distribution is formed as in the single-step freezing. The next peak is caused
by the rapid movement of the 0C isotherm from its nearly steady position at 8 days, to its new
position, which is associated with the change in the warm boundary temperature. This is later
repeated at 12.3 days. These peaks are related to the material and not to a steady location in
space, therefore they move up while the heave process takes place. Fig. 10(a) shows the same
porosity increase, but drawn at the original positions of the material elements. The unfrozen
water content is shown in Fig. 9(c), and the ice content in Fig. 9(d). As with the porosity, the
ice content distribution has maxima characteristic to a multi-step freezing process (see also
Fig. 10(b)).
The hydraulic head and its gradient have a clear tendency to increase at the beginning
of each initiation of a porosity peak, and to decrease with elapsing time until the subsequent step
in warm boundary temperature. This decrease causes the heave rate to drop after the initial
increase at the beginning of each step in boundary temperature, which is shown in Fig. 12.
35
.2 (b)
E
.15
S-0
0
.1
E
.05 0
C)
A
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4T
Temperature (oC)
0 .05 .15 .1 .2
Unfrozen water content
(fraction of dry weight)
0 .2 .4
Porosity
.2 (d)
.15
.1
.05
0
.15
.15
.1
.05
n
v
.6 .8 n
0 .2 .4 .6 .8
Ice content
(fraction of total volume)
.2
.15
.1
.05
0
Fig. 9
Multi-step freezing process; (a) temperature, (b)
porosity, (c) unfrozen water content, (d) ice content.
36
(a)
C
0
c0
E
0
0)
(c)
el
(a)
c
0
0
-
EO
0
0)
0
0 .2 .4
Porosity
.6 .8 n
(b)
.2
.15
.05
O1
.9
.05 o
0)
0
initial height of sample
.05
7.99-
1.
11.29
days 15
I I i i i
0 .2 .4 .6 .8
Ice content
(fraction of total volume)
.2
.15
.1
.05
0
Fig. 10
Multi-step freezing; porosity (a), and ice content (b)
related to the original position of the material elements.
37
n
(a)
0
E
0
aQ
0
I3
.5 -.4 -.3 -.2 -.1
Hydraulic head (m)
Multi-step freezing;
gradient.
I.C
50
40
30
20
10
0
.2 (b)
.15
.1
.05
.2
.15
.1
.05
-40 -30 -20 -10 0
Hydraulic gradient (m/m)
Fig. 11
(a) hydraulic head, (b) hydraulic head
5 10
Time (days)
15
Fig. 12
Frost heave during multi-step freezing process.
38
Conclusions.
1. As the model is not derived from micromechanical processes, it is not targeted at
explaining the frost heave phenomenon, but at qualitative and quantitative predictions
of frost heave in saturated soils.
2. The hypothetical dependencies of the void increase due to temperature, temperature
gradient, current magnitude of porosity, and the stress state need experimental
verification. While available in the literature raw data do not allow verification of the
model, the simulations for different freezing processes indicate very realistic
(qualitatively) behavior of soil under freezing conditions.
39
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46
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47
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48
10. Notation
a - material parameter in the unfrozen water content function
B,, - constitutive tensor for deformation of the soil-water-ice mixture
Bij constitutive tensor for deformation of the skeleton
C - heat capacity of soil-water-ice mixture per unit volume
C

- heat capacity of ice per unit mass
C
(
- heat capacity of mineral skeleton per unit mass
C - heat capacity of water per unit mass
h - hydraulic head
k - hydraulic conductivity
n - porosity
n - porosity rate
n, - maximum porosity rate
Q - heat flux vector
q - hydraulic flow rate vector
T - temperature (
0
C)
Tm - temperature at which the maximum porosity rate occurs
t - time
u - pore water pressure
V - volume of a soil element
V) - volume of ice in the representative soil element
VS - volume of mineral skeleton in the representative soil element
V

w - volume of water in the representative soil element

VP - volume of pores
w - unfrozen water content in frozen soil (fraction of dry skeleton weight)
w - residual unfrozen water content at some low reference temperature
(for practical purposes can be assumed 0)
w - minimum unfrozen water content at 0

C
x - space co-ordinate
49
a
i -04
OP)
oo"'
x
vV
O'"'
x
p(i)
p"'
aii
ij
(s)
(i
")
aqu>
50
- material parameter in the porosity rate function
- material parameters in porosity rate function
- specific weight of mineral skeleton
- specific weight of water
- stress partition factor
- strain tensor (skeleton)
- unfrozen water concentration (VJV)
coefficient describing anisotropic growth of porosity
- volumetric ice fraction in frozen soil
- volumetric soil skeleton fraction in frozen soil
- volumetric water fraction in frozen soil
- thermal conductivity
- ice density
skeleton density
- water density
- total stress tensor
- stress tensor in skeleton
- neutral stress tensor
- stress tensor in ice (microstress)
Part II
by
Vaughn Voller
51
1. Introduction
The objective of the second part of the project was to explore the commonality between
metallurgical phase change systems and frost heave with the aim of:
1. Transferring the applicable computational and modelling approaches for metallurgical phase
change systems to frost heave.
2. Developing and extending the research capabilities of the principal investigator to an area of
interest to the CTS. This talent development component also included a masters student
(Lingjun Hou) who would develop his thesis topic in the area of frost heave.
3. Provide an interface with the first part of the project. In particular lay the ground work for
further activity that would include the coupling of the phenomenological model developed
by Michalowski in part one to the numerical methods developed in part two.
The two major components to be reported here are:
1. A discussion of the relationship between frost heave and metallurgical phase change
modelling, and
2. An illustration of the application of a numerical phase change models (originally developed
for metallurgical phase change systems) to the case of frost heave.
52
2. Metallurgical Solidification vs. Frost Heave in a Modelling Context
In the first part of this report Radoslaw Michalowski provided an overview of frost heave
phenomena and the modelling approaches that can be used in its analysis. This overview will provide
an excellent source for information on frost heave in discussing the commonality between
metallurgical phase change and frost heave. Information on metallurgical phase change systems can
be found in the texts by Flemings (1974) and Kurtz and Fisher (1989).
Although frost heave and metallurgical solidification are both thermo-mechanical systems at
the process level there is little in common between them. When one looks at the underlying
phenomena however, commonalities do emerge. This is particularly useful in a modelling context in
that an appropriate process model can be developed on piecing together phenomena models. In
other words, if well defined modelling techniques exist for modelling metallurgical phase change
phenomena it may be possible to use them to model related frost heave phenomena.
Common phenomena found in both metallurgical phase change and frost heave are outlined
below. In addition, commonalities in the modelling approach are noted.
Phase Change. Clearly both frost heave and solidification involve a liquid to solid phase change. In
this respect there is an additional common feature; in both systems, due to impurities (or alloying
elements) and undercooling effects, the solid to liquid phase change does not occur at a unique
temperature. In metals, solidification can occur over a reasonably wide range of temperatures. Such
a range is referred to as a "mushy" region and is characterized by a local liquid fraction temperature
relationship. The form of this relationship for a aluminum copper alloy is given by the curve in
Figure la. This curve has been derived on considering the effect of local solute redistribution
(microsegregation) (Flemings (1974) and Kurtz and Fisher (1989)). In frost heave systems, the
temperature range is referred to as the "frozen fringe" (Miller (1980) and O'Neill and Miller (1985)).
This region can be characterized by pore unfrozen water content and its nature is determined from
experiment (O'Neill and Miller (1985)). A typical shape of this curve (following Blanchard and
Fremond (1985)) is given in Figure lb. Although the metal and frost heave curves have different
shapes, the important point is that a freezing range characterized by a liquid fraction temperature
relationship exists in each case. Hence, if a robust numerical treatment of a liquid fraction
temperature range phase change can be found it can be effectively used for both metal phase change
and frost heave phase change. The demonstration of such a technique will be made at a later point
in this report.
53
Mushy Region. The natures of the metal mushy region and the frost heave frozen fringe are
schematically illustrated in Figure 2. In metal systems the characteristic size of the mushy region is
defined by the size of the secondary dendritic arm spacings (Flemings (1974)) of the order of 10's of
microns. The frozen fringe is characterized by the soil particle size. In modelling both the metal
solidification and the frost heave systems, it is true to say that events occurring in the mushy region
(frozen fringe) are occurring at the microscopic scale. These microscopic events, however, can not
be neglected at the macroscopic process level. This is a point we will return to below.
Fluid Flow. The fluid flow in both metal solidification and frost heave takes a significant role. In
metal solidification, the shrinkage in the mushy region results in fluid flow. This fluid flow plays an
important part in the heat and mass transfer of the solidification process (Flemings (1974)). A
solidification fluid flow is also a fundamental part of frost heave. In order to maintain equilibrium
in the mushy region, a suction is created in the absorbed film and new water is brought up into the
frozen fringe. This so called "primary heave" is one of the prime causes of frost heave
1
. A detailed
discussion is given in Michalowski (1991)). The fluid flow in both frost heave and solidification (see
Voller et al (1989)) can be adequately described by Darcy type equations. Hence, fluid flow
modelling approaches developed for one system will be suitable for the other.
Deformation. Both frost heave and metallurgical phase change can be classed as thermo-mechanical
processes. The analysis requires the coupling of heat and mass transfer modelling with the modelling
of the deformation and stress. In looking at the deformation modelling of the two systems, however,
there is a fundamental difference in that frost heave involves expansion and metal solidification
involves contraction (shrinkage). There are distinct similarities in the modelling approach of the
deformation processes, however, in particular the coupling of the heat and mass transfer models to
suitable constitutive equations. In part one of this report Michalowski (1991) has outlined suitable
constitutive equations for frost heave systems. An equivalent discussion for metals solidification
systems can be found in Dantzig (1989).
Micro vs. Macro Modelling and the Engineering Modelling Approach. In closing our discussion of
the similarities between solidification and frost heave systems,we will compare and contrast the
modelling approaches used. Many of the key features of metallurgical solidification (frost heave)
occur in the mushy region (frozen fringe). An appropriate model at the macroscopic scale will in
1
The other cause of frost heave ("Secondary Heave") is the so called
"regulation", Miller (1980), the movement of soil particles through the ice.
54
general have a characteristic length which is too large to fully resolve events at the microscopic mushy
region (frozen fringe) scale. This mismatch between micro and macro scales is not only found in frost
heave and metal solidification it is common in the modelling of many engineering systems.
Modelling of solidification has taken two distinct paths. On one path, modelling has been
carried out in the mushy region, at the microscopic scale, concentrated on the investigation of
microstructure and micro segregation phenomena. In these models, macroscopic phenomena, eg. heat
and fluid flow, are only treated approximately, if at all, and the emphasis is on a fundamental
scientific understanding of the solidification phenomena. On the other path, modelling has been
carried out at the macroscopic level centered on the heat transfer aspects and the engineering
performance of the process as a whole. In these models, microscopic effects are included by the
definition of appropriate constitutive models (e.g. a liquid fraction temperature relationship, see
Figure la.). The different types of micro and macro models have been extensively reviewed by
Rappaz (1989). This review paper clearly indicates the success of both modelling approaches but
notes that further advances can only be made if coupling between the micro and macro scales is
improved. Recent approaches that attempt to do this include (i) the so called micro-macro models
(Rappaz and Stefanesq (1988)) which combine a macro and micro models acting on two time scales
and (ii) the use of Representative Elementary Volume (REV) averaging technique which allows for
a more comprehensive treatment of the microscopic behavior in macroscopic models, Beckerman
(1990).
A similar distinction in modelling paths can be found in the frost heave literature. On one
hand, are what Michalowski (1989) refers to as the micromechanical models of frost heave. These
microscopic models (by far the majority) emphasis the fundamental physical nature of the frost heave
process. Although these models provide insight into the possible micromechanisms they are, by and
large, unable to provide a comprehensive treatment of frost heave and structural interactions at the
macro process scale. On the other hand, are the phenomenological models (e.g. Blanchard and
Fremond (1985)). These continuum models use constitutive equations to capture the microscopic
behavior and in every respect are similar in scope and purpose to the macro solidification models.
In view of this similarity, it is valid to ask the question; can the micro-macro metal solidification
modelling approach (Rappaz and Stefanesq (1988)) be adopted for frost heave? A drawback in using
such an approach is that there is still controversy (e.g. see the paper by Takagi (1980) and the
subsequent discussion by Miller (1980)) in determining the exact nature of microscopic frost heave
55
phenomena. In the metals literature the microscopic phenomena is reasonably well understood and
consistent.
To summarize, a thermo-mechanical model, can be used to describe both frost heave and
metallurgical solidification. Common components in theses models include:
1. A treatment of a non-linear phase change, i.e., a non unique phased change temperature with
a non-linear liquid fraction temperature relationship (Figure 1.)
2. A multi phase region mushy (=solid + liquid metal) or fringe (=water + ice + soil), in which
the microscopic phenomena are key to the macroscopic process behavior.
3. Fluid flow driven by suction in the mushy region or frozen fringe.
4. Deformation driven by the expansion of pores (frost heave) or the contraction of the
solidifying metal.
In arriving at a full and comprehensive model all of the above features need to be carefully
coupled. An example of such a coupling can be found in the first part of this project. In arriving
at the final best model, however, there is some merit in treating each of the above components in
turn. This was the approach followed in the second part of this project with the aim of identifying
metallurgical modelling approaches that could be easily and efficiently applied in the modelling of a
component of the frost heave problem. In the next section, a recently developed metallurgical phase
change technique (Voller (1990)) and Voller and Swaminathan (1991) will be successfully applied to
a realistic frost heave phase change.
56
3. A Model of Freezing in Soils
3.1 The Test Problem
The test problem is taken from the work of Li et al. (1985). The geometry for this test
problem is given in Figure 3. The boundary conditions are given in Table 1 (note the cyclic boundary
condition over a 120 day period). In modelling this problem, we will only consider the heat transfer
aspects. Flow due to suction in the frozen fringe and the subsequent heave and deformation will be
neglected. With this assumption the governing heat transfer equation can be written as, Crank
(1982).
pH = V.(KV)(1)
at
where p is density H is the enthalpy, K is conductivity and T is temperature. In a case of constant
specific heat, Cp, and a zero reference temperature the enthalpy can be defined as:
H = CT+.fL
where L is the latent heat and f is the local liquid fraction (see Figure Ib). In this work the
following f vs T curve equation will be assumed:
1 if >0
f
/
=
(2)
(T+2)
if -2T<0
16
and the following thermal properties will be used where a is the thermal diffusivity.
Note that the latent heat is based on assuming a porosity of 0.4 in the soil.
57
L = 60.00 (KJIkg)
a = 0.11 (m
2
/day) Silt
= 0.10 (m
2
/day) Sand
C, = 1.00 (KJlkg- C)
3.2 The governing equation
Since f is a function of temperature, T equation (1) is non-linear. In nearly all the frost heave
models to date (see references in Michalowski (1991)) the above equation is solved using the so
called apparent heat capacity approach. In essence on noting that:
aH dH aT
(3)
9t dT St
equation (1) becomes
C aT= V.(KV7) (4)
9at
where C = dH/dT is an enhanced specific heat. On the surface, equation (4) looks attractive since
it has the same form as the linear heat conduction equation and the basic numerical (finite element
of finite difference) techniques can be employed. In practice, however, a number of complications
arise. In particular, sharp changes in the f vs T relationship will result in unstable schemes. As a
result jumps in the f vs T curve have to be artificially smoothed out. Further, even after this
smoothing small and hence inefficient time steps are required for stable solutions. A discussion of
apparent heat capacity methods as used in the metallurgical industry can be found in a review by
Voller et al (1990).
An alternative to the enhanced specific heat approach is to use a so called source-based
method (Voller (1989) Voller and Swaminathan (1990)). With this approach phase change problems
with arbitrary liquid fraction temperature curves (e.g. Figure 1.) can be efficiently resolved. This
approach has been successfully used on a wide range of metallurgical systems (Swaminathan and
Voller (1991)). The aim of the current work is to apply it to the frost heave freezing problem.
Substitution of equation (2) in equation (1) with rearrangement results in:
aT = V.(aVT) - L --
(5)
at (t
58
where L* = L/Cp. The essential feature of this equation is that the non-linearity associated with the
phase change has been isolated in a source term.
3.3 The Numerical Solution
The numerical solution of equation (5) will follow that proposed by Voller and Swaminathan
(1990). The reader is referred to this source for additional information. Following a suitable spatial
discretization of the domain of interest (i.e. finite elements (Zienkiewicz (1977), or control volumes
Patankar (1980), etc.) and a backward Euler time discretization with a lumped capacitance
formulation the generic discretization equation corresponding to the governing equation (5) subject
to appropriate boundary and initial conditions can be conveniently written down in point-form as:
V V (6
aT = an, Tnb T+ + L * P-
nb
At AtP
where the a's are coefficients of the discretization equation which depend on the thermal properties
and the chosen form of the numerical scheme, Vp is a volume associated with node P and AT is
the time step. The superscript [] refers to the old time value and the subscript []p and []nb refer to
the node P and the neighboring nodes respectively. In essence, equation (6) provides a relationship
between the temperature value at node P and the neighboring nodes nb see Figure 4. In the case
of bilinear square finite elements with side Ax the coefficients assuming constant thermal
diffusivity are:
a = 8+ a a = a, V= Ax
2
At 3 nb 3
P
The system of equations resulting form the assembly of the point equation (6) will be non-linear since
the liquid fraction field is a strong function of temperature. On using a truncated Taylor series
expansion for fpm+1, we have:
59
,+1 dF +
+1 - 1 n]
(7)
where F is the given liquid fraction temperature relationship the term [dF/dT] is evaluated at fp
m
and
the superscript ]m refers to the iteration level. Using this linearization, the term:
(8)
S = VLf
can be conveniently expressed as:
where:
S = Sc + S, T..t
Sc= -VL f - vF
[(f)]
SdF
S
= - V L*
-
d
dT
(9)
(10)
The iterative scheme now reads:
(11)
* anb *+ I V; V
= E anb I+ p+ pO + Sc
nb
At
At9
Based on equation (11), the solution procedure in a single time step is as follows:
(1) At the start of the time step, the iterative procedure is initiated on setting f" = fo.
(2) The coefficients and the values of Sp and S
c
are evaluated and the linearized system (in the
form Ax=b )is solved to give the temperature field, Tm+1. (A simple iterative point by point
60
(ap -SP) rI
scheme is often sufficient to solve the Ax=b).
(3) In general, this temperature field will not be consistent with the current liquid fraction field.
Consequently, the liquid fraction field is corrected via equation (7).
(4) In practice, the liquid fraction update, equation (7) is applied at every node point followed
by the over/under shoot correction.
+1 = 0 if f.+ < 0
(12)
F1 = 1 if fp+1 >1
Equation (12) eliminates the need to check the necessity of an update at each and every node
and efficiently accounts for the jumping of the latent heat peak. It also provides a mechanism
by which the nodal volume can start or finish a phase change in a single time step.
(5) The procedure outlined in steps (2) to (4) is continued to convergence.
Some general comments on the proposed method point:
(1) The optimum performance is obtained without the need for any under-relaxation.
(2) The jump discontinuities at the top of the f=F(T) curve (equation (2) is dealt with on setting
[dF/dT] to an arbitrarily large value (e.g. 1010). This is equivalent to the introduction of a
finite freezing interval. However, the scheme is not dependent in any way on the size of the
interval.
(3) In order to ensure a smooth transition from the fully liquid to a phase change state, the
proposed liquid fraction update, equation (11), is only used for nodes for which fpm+1 < 1.
At nodes where fpm+1 = 1, the liquid fraction update of Brent et al. (1986) is used i.e.
1 t1= I b + a [ - F
-
(f,,M)] (13)
a,
(4) In many respects, the proposed scheme has similarities to the apparent heat capacity method.
In particular, the addition of the Sp term to the diagonal of the coefficient matrix can be
thought of as an apparent capacity. As with the conventional apparent capacity methods, this
will introduce some control in the iterative solution in that it ties down the predicted
61
temperatures at nodes where the phase change is occurring. The inclusion of the liquid
fraction update will mean that remedial actions and averaging schemes are not required at
jumps on the F(T) curve.
3.4 Solution
The test problem outlines in section 3.1 has been solved using the approach outlined above.
Approximately 1000 square bilinear finite elements of size 0.25 m with a time step of 2.5 days (note
that this time step is 8 times larger than that allowed by an explicit scheme) was used in this solution.
The solution time to reach 120 days was on the order of 10 minutes on an IBM 386 clone with math
co-processor. Results in terms of temperature contours at 120 days are given in Figure 4. Note the
trapped "frozen sandwich" caused by the subsequent thawing of the soil. These results also compare
well with the results obtained by Li et al. using the Blanchard and Fremond model on a main frame
computer see Figure 5.
The significance of the above result is not so much in the numbers but in the method. In
essence a metallurgical phase change approach has been successfully applied to a component of the
frost heave problem. Although the freezing is only one component of the frost heave problem it is
not an insignificant problem and much effort has been used up on it in the past. The efficient
solution presented here (10 minutes of CPU on a 386 is insignificant when compared with similar or
longer main frame times) is only achieved through the use of a methodology developed in the
metallurgical literature - a method that has been under development for almost five years (the
original source based method dates back to Voller and Prakash (1987)). It is hoped that in follow
up studies more robust and efficient metallurgical methodologies will be found to be useful in the
analysis of frost heave.
Conclusions and Further Work
The major aim of this part of the project was to explore and exploit the commonality between
metallurgical solidification and frost heave. In the first part of this report a number of common
phenomena and modelling issues were outlines and discussed. This commonality was emphasized in
the second part of the project on successfully applying a numerical method developed in the
metallurgical literature to the freezing component of the frost heave system.
In follow up studies it will be hoped to couple the freezing model to the phenomenological
62
heave and deformation model developed in part one. We feel that this approach is promising
because the analysis of real engineering frost heave problems (e.g. the interaction of frost heave with
engineering structures) becomes possible.
63
(a) 1.
C
00.
4-,
O0
co
0
L
0J
0
0.
(b)
1.00
00. 00-
O-
0.60-
LL
0.,40"
CT
-J
0.20
0.00- ", . .. I.. ... .. . i f. . . , ,. .. .. .I
-4.00 -3.00 -2.00 -1.00 0.00 1.00 2.00
Temperature C
Figure 1 Liquid Fraction Temperature Relationships in (a) metal [Al - 4.5% Cu] and (b) pores
in frozen soil
64
%
Columnar Dendrite
(a)
Equiaxed Dendrite
(b)
Figure 2 Mush Region / Frozen Fringe in (a) Metal [Al - 4.5% Cu] and (b) Freezing Soil
65
(a)
Figure 3 Test Problem Geometry
Figure 3 Test Problem Geometry
Figure 4 Predicted Temperature (OC) Isotherms After 120 Days
Figure 5 Predicted Temperature (oC) Isotherms After 120 Days as Predicted
by Li et al. (1989).
66
Table 1. Boundary Conditions
67
4.0 References
Blanchard, D. and M. Fremond, "Soil Frost Heaving and Thaw Settlement, 4th Int. Symp. Ground
Freezing, Sapporo (1985), 209-216.
Crank, J. "Free and Moving Boundary Problems", Clarendon Press, Oxford 1984).
Dantzig, J.A., 'Thermal Stress Development in Casting Processes", Metallurgical Science and
Technology, 7, (1989), 133-178.
Flemings, M.C., "Solidification Processing", McGraw Hill, New York, (1974).
Kurz, W. and D.J. Fisher, "Fundamentals of Solidification", Trans Tech Publications,
Aedermannsdorf, Switzerland (1989).
Li, Y., R.L. Michalowski, B. Dasgupta and R.L. Sterling, "Preliminary Results from Simulation of
Retaining Wall Displacement by Frost Action," Proceedings, 5th Int. ASCE Specialty Conference
on Cold Regions Engineering, Feb. 6-8, 1989, St. Paul, MN. ASCE, N. Y., pp. 389-396.
Michalowski, R.L. "Modelling of Frost Heave in Soils" Part 1. Report to CTS. (1991).
Miller, R.D., "The Absorbed Film Controversy" Cold Regions Science and Technology", 3 (1980) 83-
86.
Miller, R.D., "Freezing Phenomena in Soils" Applications of Soil Physics Academic Press, (1980).
Ni, J. and C. Beckermann, "A volume averaged two-phase model for transport phenomena during
solidification, "Metall. Trans. B, 22B, (1991), 349-361. Transfer Conference, Seattle, June 1990).
O'Neill, K and R.D. Miller, "Exploration of a Rigid Ice Model of Frost Heave" Water Resources
Research, 21, (1985) 281-296.
Patankar, S.V., "Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow", McGraw Hill, New York (1980).
Rappaz, M. and D.M. Stefanesq, "Modelling of Microstructural Evolution", Computer Applications
in Metals Casting, Metals Handbook, 15 (1988), 883-891.
Rappaz, M., "Modelling of Microstructure Formation in Solidification Processes," Int. Mat. Review,
34 (1989), 93-123).
Swaminathan, C.R. and V.R. Voller, "A general enthalpy method for modeling solidification
processes" submitted to Metall. Trans. B, (1991).
Takagi, S., "The Adsorption Force Theory of Frost Heaving", Cold Regions Science and Technology,
3 (1980), 57-81.
Voller, V.R., and C. Prakash, "A fixed grid numerical modelling methodology for convection-diffusion
mushy region phase change", Int. J. Heat and Mass Transfer, 30, (1987), 1709-1719.
68
Voller, V.R., A.D.Brent and C. Prakash, "The Modelling of Heat, Mass and Solute Transport in
Solidification Systems", Int. J. Heat Mass Transf., 32 (1989), 1719-1731.
Voller, V.R., "Fast Implicit Finite Difference Method for the Analysis of Phase Change Problems",
Numerical Heat Transfer B. 17B, (1990), 155-169.
Voller, V.R. and C.R. Swaminathan, "A general source based method for solidification phase
change", Numerical Heat Transfer B. 19B, (1990) 175-190.
Voller, V.R., C.R. Swaminatnan and B.G. Thomas, "Fixed grid techniques for phase change
problems: A review," Int. J. Numer. Methods Eng. 30 (1990), 875-898.
Zienkiewicz, O.C., "The Finite Element Method", McGraw Hill (1977).
69
TE 210 .M525 1991
Michalowski, Radoslaw L.
Modeling of frost heave in
soils