Authorized Reprint 1988 from Special Technical Publication 977 1988

Copyright American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103
Jean Louis Colliat-Dangus, Jacques Desrues, ami Pierre Foray
Triaxial Testing of Granular Soil Under
Elevated Cell Pressure
REFERENCE: Colliat-Dangus, J. L., Desrues, J., and Foray, P., Triaxial Testing of Granular
Soi1 Under Elevated Cell Pressure, Advanced Triaxial Testing of Soi1 and Rock, ASTM STP
977, Robert T. Donaghe, Ronald C. Chaney, and Marshall L. Silver, Eds., American Society
for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 1988, pp. 290-310.
ABSTRACX A study of triaxial testing under elevated ce11 pressure is presented. The influence
of test conditions, namely end lubrication and slenderness ratio, on such tests is discussed.
Results of a tomodensitometric investigation of interna1 homogeneity are given. The main
results of the high pressure study are presented, including time effects on isotropic compression.
KEY WORDS: triaxial test, high pressure, lubricated ends, slenderness ratio, calcareous Sand,
density, x-ray, tomodensitometer, time effect
Some classic geotechnical engineering field problems, including high embankment dams,
piles, and deep tunneling, involve mean pressures significantly higher than those found in
common practice. A new interest in this subject stems from specific offshore geotechnical
problems, especially ones in which long piles and/or marine calcareous sand deposits are
concerned.
The purpose of this study, undertaken as part of a research program on offshore piling,
was to characterize and compare the behavior of two sands, a marine calcareous one and
a siliceous one, under high confining stresses. Within this work, a preliminary study was
conducted to evaluate the influence of the experimental conditions of the specimen end
restraint and slenderness ratio on the result of drained compression triaxial tests performed
under both low and elevated confining pressures.
Two main types of specimens are considered: (1) the conventional specimen (rough ends,
length-to-diameter ratio [LID] = 2) and (2) the specimen using lubricated ends and a
slenderness ratio reduced to 1. Two kinds of granular materials of different mineralogic
composition are used: a siliceous sand and a marine calcareous Sand. Besides current triaxial
experiments on these specimens, original tests were performed using an x-ray scanner ap-
paratus to investigate the interna1 homogeneity of the specimens.
The behavior of granular materials under elevated ce11 pressures is discussed for both
stages of the triaxial test: isotropic compression and triaxial shear. Special attention is paid
to the effects of time on this behavior.
In this paper, the words low pressure and high pressure Will be used; a numerical definition
of the threshold between these two domains cannot be given because the sensitivity of
* Project engineer, GEODIA Offshore Geotechnical Consultants, 16, rue Mdric, Paris, France.
2 Charg de recherche Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) and maitre de confr-
ences, GEONUM team, respectively, Institut de Mcanique de Grenoble, BP 68. 38402 St. Martin
dHres, France.
290
COLLIAT-DANGUS ET AL. ON TRIAXIAL TESTIiG OF GRANULAR SOILS 291
granular materials to mean stress is significantly dependent (as Will be shown) on the min-
eralogy of the sand particles, among other factors. For siliceous materials, the ce11 pressures
used in common practice of triaxial testing (lower than 1 MPa) cari be considered as defining
a low-pressure range, while higher pressure Will be considered as the high-pressure range.
Effects of End Lubrication and Slendemess Ratio on Drained Compression Triaxial
Tests: Low- and Higb-Pressure Range
Previous Works
End Restruint in Triuxial Test&--The basic requirements for reliable triaxial testing are
controlled specimen preparation to ensuring reproducible initial state, complete saturation
of the specimen, well-centered axial load, negligible friction on the loading ram, well-
controlled ce11 and pore pressures, and accurate measurements of axial load, axial defor-
mation, and volumetric change. These requirements are easily fulfilled as far as research
tests in the low-pressure range are concerned. However, less satisfactory test conditions cari
be encountered when dealing with industrial tests or with high-pressure apparatus.
Beyond these basic requirements, additional specifications to improve the homogeneity
of the test have been proposed by several workers. End restraint was recognized, a long
time ago, to be responsible for strong heterogeneous responses, such as barreling and
localization of deformation along failure planes. Bishop and Henkel discussed this point in
their classic book [Z]; it was also underlined by Sowers in the introductory paper of the
ASTM symposium on laboratory testing of soils in 1963 [2]. Roscoe and co-workers con-
ducted a series of triaxial compression and extension tests, with measurements of axial and
radial strains, revealing severe nonuniformities throughout the specimen [3]. Kirkpatrick
and Belshaw showed experimentally the existence of rigid cones inside the specimen due
to end restraint [4].
Because the triaxial test is an elemental test, performed to obtain mechanical properties,
the specimen should be perfectly homogeneous. From a more technical point of view, the
area correction that is necessary to take into account the radial variation of the specimen
during the test in order to calculate the actual axial stress (and estimate the membrane
action on the actual lateral pressure) cari be obtained from axial and volumetric strains only
as long as the specimen shape remains cylindrical. In other cases, additional assumptions
must be made: cylinder of average area [5] or more realistic generant shapes, such as
parabolic or sinusoidal ones.
Lubricated End Platens and Slenderness Ratio-Antifriction devices were designed and
tested in order to suppress end-restraint effects. The most popular device is lubricated end
platens, using one or several rubber disks, coated with silicone grease in contact with the
polished steel platens. Such devices were developed by Bishop and Green [5], Rowe and
Barden [6], Biarez [7], and others.
If the antifriction device works, the slenderness ratio (length to diameter) should have
no effect on the test results; actually, the value of this ratio varies over a wide range from
one author to another. Most authors recommend use of rather short specimens, with enlarged
lubricated ends [6,8-241 essentially because this arrangement allows one to suppress the
rigid cones, and then to improve the homogeneity of the test up to large axial strains. A
theoretical study by Vardoulakis indicated that, regarding the bifurcation from the homo-
geneous deformation mode (cylindrical shape) to an axisymmetric diffuse heterogeneous
mode, the bifurcation stress generally increases by decreasing the slenderness ratio; hence,
shorter specimens would tend to shear more homogeneously up to large strains [15].
292 ADVANCED TRIAXIAL TESTING OF SOIL AND ROCK
A typical result of the improved boundary conditions in triaxial tests on dense cohesionless
materials is to smooth out the pronounced peak observed commonly in classic tests. Most
published results of lubricated-end tests on dense sand show a soft maximum in the curved
stress ratio (aI/o,) versus axial strain, followed by a slight softening. Some authors consider
that this softening is due to remaining imperfections and present results from improved tests
without any decrease in stress ratio 191.
Strength Parameters-Regarding the influence of the modified test conditions on the
strength parameters, various opinions are expressed in the literature. Bishop and Green,
concluding a very detailed experimental study in 1965 on that question, estimated that, as
long as the slenderness ratio is 2, conventional and frictionless ends give the same friction
angle at peak stress; shorter specimens give higher angles, unless Perfect end lubrication is
provided [5]. The value corresponding to LID = 2 is estimated to be the truc friction
angle. Many authors disagree with these conclusions and conclude from their own experi-
ments that the friction angle with conventional ends is always slightly higher [6,11,16,17].
Drescher and Vardoulakis, in a theoretical analysis based on a static method of slices,
corroborate these findings [18].
Bedding Error-Although there is general agreement on the use of lubricated platens and
a slenderness ratio reduced to 1 (essentially because of the improved homogeneity of the
test), another specific problem concems experimentalists -the so-called bedding errer. Bed-
ding errer is related to the measurement of the axial strain at the very beginning of the test;
it is due to the deformation of the antifriction device which is generally much more com-
pressible than the specimen. Several recent works are devoted to this problem [9,16,19].
For drained compression tests, using specimens with a slenderness ratio of 2, the bedding
error cari lead to initial moduli 60% lower if frictionless conditions are used [5,6,11,14].
However, the end-restraint effect cari, in turn, induce an overestimation in the modulus
[27]. Goldscheider attempted to determine a correction to be applied to the axial strain by
evaluating the difference between conventional and lubricated tests [19]; the scatter of the
results is significant. Other authors use a local measurement of the axial strain in the central
part of the specimen for calculating the initial modulus [9].
Current works devoted to bedding errer by the authors research team Will not be discussed
here. (This topic is reviewed in Ref 20; related information cari also be found in Ref 21.)
Experiments
Description of the Problem-The experiments reported in the first part of this paper were
perfonned as a preliminary study, with the intention of determining what test conditions
should be used in an experimental program on calcareous sand tested in drained triaxial
compression under elevated ce11 pressures. TO the authors knowledge, the only work on
soils for pressure ranges up to 10 MPa was published by Roy and Lo in 1971 [14]. The
conclusions of that work were favorable to the use of improved test conditions for the same
reasons as apply to the low-pressure range: improving the specimen shape (cylindrical) at
the end of the test and preventing the premature development of predominant failure surface.
Nevertheless, the idea that test refinements are unnecessary for high-pressure range still
remains common; in the last 20 years, many high-pressure tests have been performed with
conventional conditions, namely rough platens and LID = 2 [22-271.
Hence, the purpose of the preliminary study was to control the effects of improved test
conditions, especially into the high-pressure range.
Moreover, the recent theoretical and experimental advances related to bifurcation analysis
COLLIAT-DANGUS ET AL. ON TRIAXIAL TESTING OF GRANULAR SOILS
293
(diffuse heterogeneous mode, localization) gave a new motivation in questioning the ho-
mogeneity of tests, as attested by recent work [15,18,28-311. A number of experimental
techniques have been used to control the homogeneity of tests and detect actual localization;
however, in the classic triaxial test performed on cylindrical specimens only the external
surface of the specimen cari be directly observed. How cari one be sure that an apparent
homogeneous deformation mode (cylindrical shape) does not actually conceal a heteroge-
neous mode of any kind? Tomodensitometry, a recent technique using an x-ray scanner.
cari provide an insight into the interna1 homogeneity. Original tests performed using this
technique are reported hereafter.
Test Procedure-The test conditions compared were: (1) conventional ends, LID = 2;
(2) lubricated ends, LID = 2; (3) lubricated ends, LID = 1. The material used in this
preliminary study is Hostun (Drme, France) RF Sand, a fine angular siliceous Sand, uni-
formly graded (Fig. l), with Ds = 0.32 mm, uniformity coefficient = 1.70, minimum and
maximum volumetric weights of 13.24 and 15.99 kN/m3, respectively, and grain specific
gravity of 2.7.
Some tests in the preliminary study and half of the tests in the high-pressure study reported
in the second part of this paper were performed on a calcareous Sand, referred to here as
SC. Figure 1 shows the grain size distribution of this second material, a well-graded Sand,
with D5,, = 0.17 mm, C. = 2.80, yd ranging from 9.81 to 13.01 kN/m3, and G, = 2.67.
The specimens were air pluviated at a constant drop height, from zero (relative density
about 20%) to 1 m (relative density of 90%). This technique ensures homogeneity and
reproducibility of the initial density.
The radius of the specimens was 100 mm for the low-pressure tests. The specimens were
axially strained at l%/min in drained conditions. The membrane was 0.4 mm thick. Mem-
brane correction was applied. The antifriction device used consisted of polished steel platens
(larger than the specimen) and two rubber disks, 0.4 mm thick, coated with silicon grease.
Drainage was ensured by a B-mm central porous stone on each platen (see Fig. 7). Axial
and volumetric strains were calculated from the global height and volume, as l 1
= - Log( Hl
HO) and E, = - Log( VIV,) (positive compression).
gravels sands
silts
clays
:.Y
%Y
,(-)&o 2 * aas? as? 9 E
ASTM
294 ADVANCED TRIAXIAL TESTING OF SOIL AND ROCK
Hereafter, the loose and dense densities refer to the relative densities given in the
preceding paragraph.
Strength Parameters and General Features-Figure 2 illustrates the typical stress ratio
versus strain curves obtained for dense and loose specimens under 90 kPa of lateral pressure
for various test conditions.
In good agreement with previous works, the main features observed are:
1. Conventional test conditions (nonlubricated ends, LID = 2) on dense specimens lead
to a pronounced stress peak (Fig. 2a, dashed line); shear banding cari be seen on the
specimen. Simultaneously, the increase of the volumetric strain is abruptly stopped (Fig.
2b, dashed line). Moreover, these conventional tests are very sensitive to imperfections.
For example, the dotted line in Figs. 2a and b gives the results for a second conventional
test, identical to the first one except that it had a slight centering fault of the specimen; the
peak stress is significantly lower, and furthermore the volumetric strain stoos much sooner,
indicating very early localization effects.
l 1
0,oo
qo5 0,lO 0,15 0,20 0,25 0,30 035
a
AXiAL STRAiN > El
>
w-
0,05 1
I----I
0,oo
0,05 0,lO 015
0,20 0,25
0,30
0,35
b
AXiAL STRAiN , El
FIG. 2-Influence of the test conditions on the stress ratio and volumetric strain curves, (a,
hj for dense sand and (c, d) for loose Sand.
COLLIAT-DANGUS ET AL. ON TRIAXIAL TESTING OF GRANULAR SOILS
295
2. Lubricated platens and reduced slenderness ratio give a much smoother curve in both
diagrams (Figs. 2a and b, solid lines). The specimen remains nearly cylindrical, although a
diffuse heterogeneous mode of deformation cari be observed in some cases (conic shape).
Improved homogeneity is attested by the much larger dilatancy strain at the end of the test;
on the other hand, the peak strength and the residual strength are not significantly different
from those obtained in classic tests.
3. Classic slenderness LID = 2 associated with lubricated ends leads to iess reproducible
results than reduced slenderness ratio. This is due to the development of an axisymmetric
mode of diffuse heterogeneous deformation, extended to only a part of the specimen (Upper
or lower part). This produces a strength underestimation (Fig. 2a, mixed line), and a
truncated volumetric strain evolution (Fig. 2b).
For loose specimens, Figs. 2c and d show only slight differences between the tests con-
ducted with lubricated ends and LID = 1 or 2. The results of the conventional test are
somewhat different, showing much less contractancy and a slight softening.
Figure 3a is a summary of the effects of test conditions on strength (peak stress), in terms
of friction angle versus mean normal stress. Two sets of points cari be distinguished, referring
1
r
loose sand 1 _
i
CT3=90kPa 1
0,oo 0,05
o#lo
AXiAL
os5 0,20 0,25 0,30 0,35
C
STRAIN , El
-------- non-lubricated
ends - H/I)
= 2
3 -0JO -
-
.- Q
$- -0,05 -
0
.-
cr
0,05
0,oo
d
0,05 OJO 035 0,20 0,25 0,30 0,35
AXiAL STRAIN , El
FIG. 2-Conrinued.
296 ADVANCED TRIAXIAL TESTING OF SOIL AND ROCK
l3 N!VkllS 1VlXV MV3d
COLLIAT-DANGUS ET AL. ON TRIAXIAL TESTING OF GRANULAR SOILS
297
t
I I I 1 I I I
23
0.
i
si
0
I
8
d
I
3PhP 31W A3NVlVllCl >1V3d
5:
0
0
298
ADVANCED TRIAXIAL TESTING OF SOIL AND ROCK
to dense and loose specimens. In both cases, the most prominent feature is the decrease of
the friction angle with the mean stress; the influence of the test conditions is limited to a
few degrees (maximum 4) on the friction angle, while the error due to reproducibility of
the tests, especially in conventional tests and at very low mean pressure, is of the same
order. However, significant variation of the peak axial strain is shown in Fig. 3b, depending
on the test conditions; rough ends induce earlier peaks, as was illustrated in Figs. 2a and
c. In the same way, but much more marked in dense specimens, the volumetric strain at
the final stage of the test is sensitive to the test conditions (Fig. 3~). This sensitivity is due
to almost unavoidably truncated volumetric strain evolution in the conventional tests (due,
in tum, to the localization). This leads to nonsignificant final volumetric strains, as confirmed
by the large scatter observed for conventional tests on the figure. With regard to the dilatancy
rate at peak (Fig. 3d), despite a moderate scatter, it cari be concluded that there is no
significant influence of the test conditions.
These results cari be summarized as follows: rough ends induce restraint, leading to (1)
slightly increased initial modulus and peak strength (if no premature localization) and (2)
strong tendency to localize, from which neither reliable final volumetric strain nor peak
strength cari be determined; dilatancy rate under a11 conditions is more or less the same
before localization occurs. Reduced slendemess ratio allows improved specimen homo-
geneity with regard to the diffuse modes.
High-Pressure Range-From a comparison of Figs. 2a and b (dense, dilatant) with Figs.
2c and d (loose, contractant), one cari hypothesize that the end lubrication and slendemess
effects have less and less influence at higher pressures (inducing lower dilatancy). Actually
this is not true, as was shown by comparative tests performed at a lO-MPa ce11 pressure, on
both siliceous and calcareous sands.
The test procedure is described in the second part of this paper. Quite similar results were
obtained for this comparison on loose and dense, HF or SC sands; only the HF dense case
Will be presented.
The comparison between the improved test (solid line) and the conventional test (dashed
line) is shown in Fig. 4. In the latter, marked barreling was observed, followed by a mul-
tisurface localization. The stress ratio versus axial strain curve has a maximum followed by
a slight softening. In the improved test, the specimen remained cylindrical up to 50% axial
strain, without discernable localization. The stress-strain curve shows a monotonie increase
in this case. This could be stated to be the tme elementary response of the material.
The initial modulus is, again, higher in conventional tests (up to 30%). The volumetric
strain curves do not have systematic differences; as in the low-pressure range, the volumetric
strain mobilization seems to be faster, leading here to slightly higher contractancy, despite
the heterogeneity (barreling, localization). The heterogeneity of the volumetric strains in
high-pressure tests Will be discussed in the next section.
Tomodensitometric Survey of the Interna1 Homogeneity-The x-ray scanner, well known
for its medical applications, is beginning to be used in the engineering domain. For dry sand
specimens, a simple correlation cari be established between the local x-ray attenuation and
the local compactness; proper calibration for each specific material is required if quantitative
measurements are desired.
Briefly, an x-ray scanner irradiates the abject to be examined, through a range of angles
of incidence. Only a thin slice of the abject is irradiated. For each incidence, the transmitted
x-ray beam is recorded behind the abject by detectors, giving a profile of the integrated
local attenuation along parallel paths inside the slice. From the combination of these profiles,
one cari compute the local attenuation in elementary volumes (voxels). The attenuation
COLLIAT-DANGUS ET AL. ON TRIAXIAL TESTING OF GFIANUIAR SOILS
299
0
_-.-
1 =q/upm
~-
1
-----em____
bricated e%xm-Hz?!j
ted ends - H/D=l
-
J -
1 I
l
0 o#lo 920
0,30 0,LO
0,50
AXiAL STRAiN , El
z
qoo
z
2

0,lO -
22
E
Y
3
P 0.m
1 I
FIG. 4-Conventional and improved tests under high ce11 pressure.
is affected by the mass density, depending on compactness and minera1 density. Because
the minera1 density is unaffected, the degree of compactness is the variable goveming the
attenuation. A map of the compactness in a cross-section of the sand specimen (averaged
over the thickness of the slice) cari then be obtained.
Practically, some difficulties in the numerical process cari result from complicated geo-
metric shapes or very dense inclusions. This leads to completely distorted pictures. The
cylindrical shape of the authors specimens is the optimum. Another difficulty is due to the
modification of the spectrum of the x-ray beam in the first millimeters of their path inside
the material. The less penetrating part of the radiation is absorbed in this zone, while the
remainder goes through the sample; this skin effect gives an overestimated attenuation
(compactness) near the boundary of the section; it cari be avoided by special devices, or
corrections, but the results presented here were obtained without any special disposition.
Hence, the easily discernable extemal white halo should be neglected when evaluating the
results.
Al1 the figures presented were directly photographed on a cathode ray tube (CRT) display.
They cari be interpreted as classic x-ray photographs. In the picture, the darker a zone is,
the looser the material inside that zone is. When profiles are shown, they concem the
attenuation along the zone indicated by dotted lines on the picture. Differences in lightness
and darkness are to be interpreted in relative terms, because the system was not calibrated.
1. Conventional versus improved test conditions on dense HP sand
A special apparatus, designed to allow the tomodensitometric survey of a specimen during
a triaxial test, consists of a rather rustic, manually operated mechanical press. The confining
pressure is produced by atmospheric pressure on the dry specimen under vacuum. After a
300
ADVANCED TRIAXIAL TESTING OF SOIL AND ROCK
given loading step, the specimen cari be unloaded and, still under vacuum, removed from
the apparatus and placed in the scanner. It is then possible to control the homogeneity of
the compactness over the specimen at several stages of the test.
Figures 5a and b show the density inside the conventionally tested specimen, rough ends
and LID = 2, at 10% axial strain. At this stage, a typical failure surface could be directly
observed outside the specimen. In Fig. 5a a cross-section is shown at the middle height of
the specimen (Z = 10 cm); the failure surface appears clearly as a dark straight line on the
picture. Darker means looser, SO this figure confirms the strong dilatancy observed inside
the shear bands under low mean pressure, reported in a number of works about strain
localization [28,30,31]. In Fig. Sb another cross-section is shown, a few centimeters below
the Upper platen (Z = 15 cm). The brighter central zone, surrounded by a gray ring, is the
section of the less deformed central cane, induced by end restraint (little dilatancy). More-
over, the failure surface appears to be distorted; this indicates that, during its development,
the surface could not penetrate the rigid zone, but had to pass around it. TO the authors
knowledge, this observation is original. Although indicating only relative values, the density
profiles deserve comment: the lower density, recorded inside the failure surface, is quite
the same in both sections (1670 units); the mean value outside the surface: in the central
section of Fig. 5a, is about 1730, while the value in the rigid cane, in Fig. 5b, is markedly
denser (1880). (These units are uncalibrated, but in monotonie increase with compactness.)
For the improved tests (lubricated ends, LID = l), a question arises: does a specimen
that remains cylindrical after deformation conceal some strong interna1 heterogeneities? As
FIG. 5-Conventional test: (top) Z = 10 cm, (bottom) Z = 15 cm.
COLLIAT-DANGUS ET AL. ON TRIAXIAL TESTING OF GRANULAR SOILS
301
Will be discussed, some heterogeneities do exist, but these are much smaller and limited
than in the conventional test.
Figure 6a shows a section from just beneath the Upper lubricated platen; this rather
surprising picture reveals that a very small rigid cane is generated by the small porous stone
placed for drainage at the tenter of the platen. In Fig. 7, a schematic of the actual arrange-
ment, the cane is bordered by a failure surface, clearly identified by its high void ratio (dark
circle in Fig. 6~2). The density measure is, again, about 1650 units. The half angle of this
cane cari be estimated at 25 from another cross-section, 1 cm beneath, as shown in Fig. 7.
This cane, being only a local perturbation, cannot affect significantly the overall measure-
ments.
Figure 6b shows the central cross-section (2 = 5 cm) of the specimen sheared at 20%
axial strain. No failure surface is revealed inside the specimen, despite the large axial strain.
However, a diffuse heterogeneity is observed, namely a denser small zone in the middle of
the specimen (1800). The remainder is in a more or less homogeneous loose state, only
slightly denser (1700) than the density measured inside the failure surfaces. This supports
the idea of a critical void ratio, which cari be reached immediately after localization inside
the shear bands, or at large strains in the homogeneous specimens. No clear explanation of
the denser central zone is proposed; further experiments are needed to clarify that point.
2. High pressure tests on calcareous sand
The SC specimens, once consolidated and strained under lO-MPa ce11 pressure, remain
sufficiently cohesive to be easily handled. It is then possible to put them, once dried, inside
FIG. 6-Improved test: (top) Z = 8 cm, (bottom) Z = 5 cm.
302 ADVANCED TRIAXIAL TESTING OF SOIL AND ROCK
E
loading cap
lubrication
cross section
\ layer
.-.-.---.
-+.- .-.-. -.
lateral
+.--membrane
FIG. 7-Lubricated end, porous stone and x-ray cross-sections.
the scanner. Figure 8 shows a section of such a specimen, along its axis (not a cross-section).
The specimen was sheared to extreme strain (50%). A typical barrel-like shape is observed,
but the most interesting result is the effect of end restraint: the rigid cones remain
significantly looser than the other parts of the specimen. This result is quite reasonable
because the material in these cones undergoes less stress and strain, and therefore less
contractancy; however, it is commonly assumed that high mean pressure erases any restraint
effect. It is shown here that the heterogeneity of strains, and therefore of particle crushing
and alteration, is severely affected by restraint.
These tomodensitometric results confirm in a unique way that the lubricated ends and
reduced slenderness ratio ensure improved (but not Perfect) homogeneous behavior in
triaxial tests, in both the low- and high-pressure ranges.
High-Pressure Triaxial Tests
Test Procedure
Consolidated drained (CD) compression triaxial tests were performed under elevated ce11
pressures (up to 15 MPa) on both materials already used in the preliminary study: the
siliceous HF sand and the calcareous SC Sand.
FIG. 8-Transverse section of a specimen tested under high pressure and under conventional
conditions.
COLLIAT-DANGUS ET AL. ON TRIAXIAL TESTING OF GRANULAR SOILS 303
902
0.03
qo4
1
o#lo
O,ll
,
w
_ q15
<- 2
k$ 0,16
.v
E
$ 0.17
3
9
O)H
0.33
0,34
0,3E
0.36
HFL -2 MPa 9- ---o-
I
I
HFD-5MPa 7 : ;
--o--D-------
I
1
HFL - 10 MPa 4--
-0,
----.&
-Y-
-0,
-c
I
I
SCL-2MPa~7
\
N
.--k
I --.
I
-w-
-\
l
-1:
/
I
15s 30s lmn 2mn 5mn 10mn 2Omn lh 2h 5h 10h 24h
TIME , t
FIG. 9-Volumetric strain versus time in isotropic creep tests.
The conclusions of the preliminary study led to the choice of short specimens (LID =
1) with lubricated end platens.
Great attention was paid to the measurement of significant volume changes; for this reason,
large specimens were used, namely
D = 100 mm for o3 between 1 and 5 MPa
D = 70 mm for u3 between 5 and 10 MPa
D = 50 mm for
u3 between 10 and 15 MPa
304 ADVANCED TRIAXIAL TESTING OF SOIL AN0 ROCK
2,50 ,
i-
l
0
.O
-0-o -
SOkrn
0--
2
,--o--o-
1
/
_____- - - - - - - T- - e
lQ!2k@a
*-c---
/--
1~50 AXIAL STRAIN 8 t
1 dense calcareous sand SCD1
-------LA
------4-d-_-
3COkFb
---.-
1
FIG. Il-Stress-strain-volume change curves-dense calcareous Sand.
COLLIAT-DANGUS ET AL. ON TRIAXIAL TESTING OF GRANULAR SOILS
305
.A11 tests were performed on saturated specimens. Full saturation of the specimen was
achieved by a precirculation of carbon dioxide gas and application of a back pressure of 300
kPa; this back pressure was kept constant during the test by a self-compensating mercury-
pot system.
Al1 tests were performed under constant confining pressure. Specimens tested at confining
pressure below 5 MPa were enclosed in a high-quality neoprene membrane, 0.5 mm thick;
for higher pressures, two membranes were used. No membrane correction wab applied.
Except in some specific cases, a11 the specimens were sheared at constant strain rate l%/
min, up to large axial strains (50%).
Test Results
The behavior of granular materials was studied for both stages of the triaxial test: isotropic
compression and triaxial shear. The specimens Will be referred to as HFD, HFL, SCD, SCL
tith D and L for dense and loose, respectively, initial compactness.
Time Effects on Granular Materials Under Isotropic Compression-Previous work has
shown that under elevated confining pressures the compression of sand is not instantaneous
but continues at an ever-decreasing rate over a long period of time, in a way similar to the
phenomenon of secondary compression observed in clays [21,22].
Creep tests, in which the confining pressure was kept constant for 24 h, were performed
to characterize time effects on the compression of granular materials. Typical results, pre-
sented in the classic semi-log graph (eV versus Log t), are given in Fig. 9. A time effect is
clearly shown, analogous to a viscous phenomenon at a macroscopic scale.
dense s~keous sond HFD/
-l
?AIN , El
0.60
FIG. 12-Stress-strai*voIume change curves-dense siliceous Sand.
306
ADVANCED TRIAXIAL TESTING OF SOIL AND ROCK
The slope of the secondary compression (that is, the increase in volumetric strain, AE,,
measured between 1 h and 24 h of consolidation), is represented versus the confining pressure
in Fig. 10. Despite a certain extent of scattering in the results obtained, it is shown that this
time effect increases with the confining pressure. For siliceous sand HF, the compression
may be considered instantaneous as long as the pressure is lower than 2 MPa, while, for
calcareous sand SC (composed of fragile particles), time effects occur even at very low
confining pressures.
From these results, a threshold in stress level cari be defined, corresponding to a Sharp
increase in time effect: about 0.8 MPa for the calcareous sand and 6 MPa for the siliceous
one. This threshold cari be called a creep stress,
with reference to the so-called creep
load defined from static pile loading tests.
Grain size analyses, performed at successive stages of the creep tests, showed that time
effects are correlated to grain crushing [32]. Hence, the propagation of the rupture of
particles may be the physical factor responsible for time effects on the compression of
granular materials under elevated stresses. Further research is needed to give firm conclu-
sions on that point; nevertheless, it cari be stated that the mineralogy of the particles affects
the value of the creep stress.
Triaxial Shearing Under High Pressures-Figures 11 and 12 give typical stress-strain-
volume change behavior for dense HF and SC sands. The decrease of the friction angle
when increasing the mean stress applied to the specimen is shown in Fig. 13. It is worth
comparing the friction angle measured in the high-pressure range with the so-called char-
- 0,70
-0,60
-0.50
nT
2 -0,40
g -0,30
CY
$
Q
-0,20
.zj -0,lO
2 0,oo
a
OJO
0,20
OS l,O
10
MEAN NORMAL STRESS , (Jm (MFU
FIG. l3-Stress peak friction angle evolution with mean pressure.
COLLIAT-DANGUS ET AL. ON TRIAXIAL TESTING OF GRANULAR SOILS
307
acteristic angle and the interparticle friction angle. The characteristic angle is defined by
Luong and Touati as the mobilized friction angle when the minimum in volume change is
reached in the first stage of low-pressure triaxial tests on dense material [27]. As far as
siliceous Sand is concemed, the actual friction angle does not decrease below these bounds
(32). On the other hand, for calcareous Sand, friction angles obtained at high mean pressures
are clearly smaller than the characteristic angle (4, = 39), and than the interparticle friction
angle (4, = 38), the latter determined indirectly on the basis of Rowes stress dilatancy
theory. This means that, for calcareous sands, with high compressibility linked with intra-
particle porosity and brittleness of their grains, the interparticle friction angle, $,, cannot
be considered as a lower limit for the friction angle.
Figures 11 and 12 show that the compressibility of granular materials under triaxial shear
reaches a maximum value and then decreases in the high-pressure range. This behavior is
also shown in Fig. 14 giving the evolution of the rate of volume change at peak stress: at
very high pressures, the rate of volume change at peak becomes zero. This reduction of
Sand compressibility at the peak is related to the transformation of the material that occurred
during the consolidation stage, as pointed out by Billam [33]. If the total volume changes
due to both confining stage and shear stage of the test are considered. a monotonie increase
with increasing pressure is observed (as expected).
P
5
8 l
0 0
.Y0 O
-,o
. .
.
l,O
10
MEAN NORMAL STRESS < &, (MPa)
FIG. 14-Stress peak dilatancy rate evolution with mean pressure.
308
ADVANCED TRIAXIAL TESTING OF SOIL AND ROCK ADVANCED TRIAXIAL TESTING OF SOIL AND ROCK
Odense sand 1 Odense sand 1
q loose sand \ q loose sand \
after CD triaxial test after CD triaxial test
Odense sand 1 af ter isotropic compression Odense sand 1 af ter isotropic compression
n loose sand \ n loose sand \
C - % finer than initial dl0 C - % finer than initial dl0
C C
10 10
2
t
e
1
0)
10
MEANONORMAL STRESS , C&m (MPa)
100
FIG. 15-Grain crushing evolution with mean pressure.
For granular materials, grain crushing is the main cause of compressibility under elevated
pressures. Figure 15 gives typical features of both siliceous and calcareous sands. The classic
behavior is recognized here (that is, the main part of grain crushing occurs during the shearing
stage of the triaxial test). The magnitude of crushing is expressed in terms of a crushing
coefficient, C,, defined as 0.1 times the percentage of particles finer than D,, of the original
Sand. For both sands, grain crushing begins at very low pressure, because of the brittleness
of the calcareous particles and the angularity of the siliceous particles. With higher pressures,
the rate of grain crushing decreases, which is responsible for the decrease in compressibility
already described.
Conclusions
The use of short specimens (ZJD = 1) with lubricated enos ru rlldxial
test is preferable to the use of conventional specimens (nonlubricated ends, LID = 2) for
the determination of stress-strain parameters, because of the improved homogeneity. This
improvement was discussed along these lines, on the basis of global considerations (global
response, specimen shape), and local measurement (x-ray scanner).
Despite the problem of bedding error, these modified experimental conditions were es-
timated to be particularly advantageous, with regard to the following objectives:
0 Uniform distribution of stress inside the specimen, for the study of grain-crushing effect
0 Homogeneous deformation of the specimen, for measurement of significant volume
changes
0 Large axial strains (> 10%)
0 Elevated confining pressures (> 1 MPa)
COLLIAT-DANGUS ET AL. ON TRIAXIAL TESTING OF GRANULAR SOILS
309
Classic behavior was obtained for two types of granular materials of different mineralogic
composition, tested under elevated confining pressures: decrease of the friction angle and
high compressibility related to grain crushing.
In the case of calcareous sands, characterized by a very high compressibility, due to the
intraparticle porosity and the brittleness of their grains, the friction angle may decrease far
below the interparticle friction angle, previously considered as a lower limit,
Finally, time effects (creep) observed during the confining stage of triaxial tests increase
with the increasing pressure applied to the specimen and seem to be related to the propa-
gation of the rupture of particles.
Acknowledgment
Thanks are due to Pleybert and Martin, who gave us access to and operated the x-ray
scanner of LETI, Centre dtudes Nuclaires de Grenoble, France.
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