Introduction to

Semiconductor Theory
Introduction to Semiconductor Theory
Semiconductor Materials
Semiconductors, as the name implies, are a group of materials whose electrical
conductivity is greater than that of insulators but less than that of metals.
Semiconductor materials are found in Group IV and neighbouring columns of the
periodic table. The ones in group IV (C, Si, Ge) are called elemental semiconductors
because they are composed of the pure element.
Insulators
Metals
Semiconductors
Increasing conductance
II III IV V VI
B C N
Al Si P S
Zn Ga Ge As Se
Cd In Sb Te
Introduction to Semiconductor Theory
Elemental IV compunds
Binary III-V
compounds
Binary II-VI
compunds
Ternary
compounds
Quaternary
compounds
Si SiC AlP ZnS GaAsP InGaAsP
Ge SiGe AlAs ZnSe AlGaAs
AlSb ZnTe
GaN CdS
GaP CdSe
GaAs CdTe
GaSb
InP
InAs
InSb
These compounds are widely used in various electronic and optical applications.
Introduction to Semiconductor Theory
Covalent Bond Structure of Semiconductors
Introduction to Semiconductor Theory
Charge Carriers and Energy Levels
Two types of charge carriers exist in semiconductors, namely: electrons and holes
A hole is the term used to describe an atom with a missing electron. An electron may be
shaken loose from a bond structure by lattice vibration caused from thermal heating. The
remaining atom (ion) now has a positive charge. The loose electron is usually called a free
electron.
The mechanism of conduction in semiconductors is best explained via energy level
diagrams
Specific energy levels are always associated with each shell of orbiting electrons in atomic
structures. While the energy of each shell is different, the further away an electron is from the
parent nucleus, the higher its energy state.
In order to break the covalent bond, a valence electron must gain a minimum energy, E
g
,
called the bandgap energy.
Introduction to Semiconductor Theory
Energy level diagrams
Notice that : E
g
(Ge) < E
g
(Si) < E
g
(GaAs)
Introduction to Semiconductor Theory
Types of Semiconductors
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Intrinsic Semiconductors
This is the term given to near perfect semiconductors crystals with no impurities or
lattice defects.
At 0 Kelvin there are no free charge carriers, but as temp increases a few electron-
hole pairs (EHP) are generated due to valence electrons getting thermally excited to
have enough energy to jumpover the bandgap into the conduction band.
Since electron-holes are always created in pairs, then
n = p = n
i
where n and p are the electrons and holes concentration (per cm
3
), respectively
Recombination occurs when an electron in the conduction band makes a transition to
the valence band to recreate a complete covalent bond structure with the hole
At steady state, EHPs recombine at the same rate as they are generated
Generation and recombination of EHP are dependent on temperature
Introduction to Semiconductor Theory
Extrinsic Semiconductors
It is usually desirable to have greater number of available charge carriers that
will not be subjected to recombination. The bond structures of pure
semiconductors may be manipulated in such a way that an excess of free
electrons or Holes may be generated in predetermined and controllable
manner. The process used to generate these excess charge carriers is called
DOPING. Any semiconductor that has been subjected to the doping process is
called an extrinsic semiconductor.
Doping is the process of adding specific impurities to a pure semiconductor
in such a way that the newly formed covalent bonding creates excess charge
carriers within the crystal lattice
Semiconductors with predominantly excess Electrons are called n-Type
semiconductors
Semiconductors with predominantly excess Holes are called p-Type
semiconductors
When impurities or lattice defects are introduced into an otherwise perfect crystal additional energy
levels are created, usually within the bandgap
Introduction to Semiconductor Theory
n-Type Semiconductor
An n-type material is created by introducing impurity element that
have 5 valence electrons (e.g. arsenic, antimony and phosphorus)
into pure Si or Ge.
Diffused impurities with 5 valence electrons are called donor atoms
Introduction to Semiconductor Theory
p-Type Semiconductor
The p-type semiconductor is formed by doping pure Si or Ge with impurity atoms
having 3 valence electrons. Typically Boron, gallium, or indium is use as the dopant.
Diffused impurity with 3 valence electrons are called acceptor atoms
In n-type material, the electron is the majority charge carrier and holes are minority.
In p-type material, the holes are the majority charge carrier and electrons are minority
Introduction to Semiconductor Theory
A fundamental relationship between the electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor in
thermal equilibrium is given by:
where,
n
o
is the thermal equilibrium concentration of free electrons,
p
o
is the thermal equilibrium concentration of holes, and
n
i
is the intrinsic carrier concentration.
At room temperature (T =300 K), each donor atom donates a free electron to the semiconductor.
If the donor concentration N
d
is much larger than the intrinsic concentration, we can approximate
therefore
Similarly, at room temperature, if each acceptor atom accepts a valence electron, creating a hole.
If the acceptor concentration, N
a
, is much larger than the intrinsic concentration, we can
approximate
making
2
i o o
n p n =
d o
N n
d
i
o
N
n
p
2
=
a o
N p
a
i
o
N
n
n
2
=
Introduction to Semiconductor Theory
Drift and Diffusion Currents
The two basic processes which cause electrons
and holes to move in a semiconductor are:
(a) drift, which is the movement caused by electric
fields; and
(b) diffusion, which is the flow caused by variations
in the concentration, that is, concentration gradients.
Such gradients can be caused by a non-
homogeneous doping distribution, or by the injection
of a quantity of electrons or holes into a region.
Introduction to Semiconductor Theory
When a stedy electric field E is applied to a
semiconductor sample, each electrons will
experience a force qE from the field and will be
accelerated in the opposite direction of the field.
This is called the drift velocity and will
superimpose upon the usual random thermal
motion of the electrons.
Each Hole will also be similarly affected by the
field, but drift will occur along the direction of the
field.
Drift velocities for electrons and holes are:
E v
n n
=
E v
p p
=
where
n
is called the electron mobility and
p
is the
hole mobility, both with units of cm
2
/ V-s.
Introduction to Semiconductor Theory
Drift Currents
When an electric field E is applied across a length of uniformly doped semiconductor,
of cross sectional area, A, the electron current density J
n
flowing in the sample can
be found by summing the product of the charge (-q) on each electron times the
electron velocity over all electrons per unit volume (n):
where I
n
is the electron current.
A similar argument applies to holes:
The total drift current may now be written as the sum

=
= = = =
n
i
n n i
n
n
E qn qnv qv
A
I
J
0
) (
E qp qpv J
p p p
= =
E qp qn J
p n
) ( + =
Introduction to Semiconductor Theory
Conductivity and Resistivity
The quantity in parenthesis from the previous equation is known as the conductivity:
The electron and hole contribution to conduction is simply additive. The
corresponding resistivity of the semiconductor is:
Because of the many orders of magnitude difference between the majority carriers in
extrinsic semiconductor, the resistivity reduces to
and
) (
p n
qp qn + =
) (
1 1
p n
qp qn

+
= =
) (
1
n
qn
=
) (
1
p
qp
=
for n-type for p-type
Introduction to Semiconductor Theory
Diffusion Currents
As stated earlier, if there is a spatial variation of carrier concentration in the
semiconductor material, carriers will move from a region of high concentration to a
region of low concentration. This current component is called diffusion current. The
electron and hole diffusion current may be expressed as
where J
n
and J
p
are the electron and hole diffusion density in units of cm
2
/s, and D
n
and D
p
are the electron and hole diffusivity.
The Current Density Equation:
When E is present in addition to carrier concentration gradients, both drift and
diffusion currents will flow
dx
dn
qD J
n n
=
dx
dp
qD J
p p
=
p n cond
p p p
n n n
J J J
dx
dp
qD pE q J
dx
dn
qD nE q J
+ =
=
+ =

For large E field

The E terms must
Be replaced by field
Dependent carrier
velocity
At room temperature (300
0
K), E
G
= 1.1 eV
For Si, m = 2.5 for electrons
= 2.7 for holes
For Ge, m = 1.66 for electrons
= 2.33 for holes
dx
dp
qD pE q J
dx
dn
qD nE q J
p p p
n n n
=
+ =

Introduction to Semiconductor Theory

The Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function
A very important property of the density of electrons in a crystal lattice is their
distribution among the allowed states at thermal equilibrium. Electrons have integer
spin that obey Paulis exclusion principle. The occupational probability of an energy
level E by an electron is given by the Fermi-Dirac distribution function
where E
f
is the reference energy called the Fermi Level.
Note that when E = E
f
, f(E) =
Throughout any semiconductor structure at thermal equilibrium, the Fermi
Level is always constant. This may be expressed as:
The Fermi Level is one of the principal quantities which is used to describe the
behavior of semiconductor materials and devices
kT
E E
f
e
E f
) (
1
1
) (

+
=
T is temp in Kelvin
k is Boltzman constant
0 =
dx
dE
f