The ABC's of Nondestructive Weld Examination

An understanding of the benefits and drawbacks of each form of nondestructive

examination can help you choose the best method for your application
BY CHARLES HAYES *
Acknowledgement:
The Paper was first published
in the Welding Journal May 1997
published by the The American Welding Society,
550 NW LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126.
CHARLES HAYES
is International
Sales/Support Manager,
The Lincoln Electric Co.,
Cleveland, Ohio. He holds
NDT Level III certification
from the American Society
of Nondestructive Testing
and is a member of the
AWS D1D Subcommittee
on Inspection.

Introduction
The philosophy that often guides
the fabrication of welded
assemblies and structures is "to
assure weld quality." However, the
term "weld quality" is relative.
The application determines what is
good or bad. Generally, any weld
is of good quality if it meets
appearance requirements and will continue indefinitely to do the job for
which it is intended. The first step in assuring weld quality is to determine
the degree required by the application. A standard should be established
based on the service requirements.
"Whatever the standard of quality, all
welds should be inspected."
Standards designed to impart weld quality may differ from job to job, but the
use of appropriate examination techniques can provide assurance that the
applicable standards are being met. Whatever the standard of quality, all
welds should be inspected, even if the inspection involves nothing more than
the welder looking over his own work after each weld pass. A good-looking
weld surface appearance is many times considered indicative of high weld
quality. However, surface appearance alone does not assure good
workmanship or internal quality.
Nondestructive examination (NDE) methods of inspection make it possible
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Visual Inspection (VT)
Radiographic Inspection (RT)
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT)
Liquid Penetrant Inspection (PT)
Ultrasonic Inspection (UT)
Table 1 - Reference Guide to Major
Methods for the Nondestructive
Examination of Welds
Choices Control Quality
to verify compliance to the standards on an ongoing basis by examining the
surface and subsurface of the weld and surrounding base material. Five basic
methods are commonly used to examine finished welds: visual, liquid
penetrant, magnetic particle, ultrasonic and radiographic (X-ray). The
growing use of computerization with some methods provides added image
enhancement, and allows real-time or near real-time viewing, compar ative
inspections and archival capabilities. A review of each method will help in
deciding which process or combination of processes to use for a specific job
and in performing the examination most effectively.
Visual Inspection (VT)
Visual inspection is often the most cost-effective method, but it must take
place prior to, during and after welding. Many standards require its use
before other methods, because there is no point in submitting an obviously
bad weld to sophisticated inspection techniques. The ANSI/AWS D1.1,
Structural Welding Code-Steel, states, "Welds subject to nondestructive
examination shall have been found acceptable by visual inspection." Visual
inspection requires little equipment. Aside from good eyesight and sufficient
light, all it takes is a pocket rule, a weld size gauge, a magnifying glass, and
possibly a straight edge and square for checking straightness, alignment and
perpendicularity.
"Visual inspection is the best buy in
NDE, but it must take place prior to,
during and after welding."
Before the first welding arc is struck, materials should be examined to see if
they meet specifications for quality, type, size, cleanliness and freedom from
defects. Grease, paint, oil, oxide film or heavy scale should be removed. The
pieces to be joined should be checked for flatness, straightness and
dimensional accuracy. Likewise, alignment, fit-up and joint preparation
should be examined. Finally, process and procedure variables should be
verified, including electrode size and type, equipment settings and provisions
for preheat or postheat. All of these precautions apply regardless of the
inspection method being used.
During fabrication, visual examination of a weld bead and the end crater
may reveal problems such as cracks, inadequate penetration, and gas or slag
inclusions. Among the weld detects that can be recognized visually are
cracking, surface slag in inclusions, surface porosity and undercut.
On simple welds, inspecting at the beginning of each operation and
periodically as work progresses may be adequate. Where more than one
layer of filler metal is being deposited, however, it may be desirable to
inspect each layer before depositing the next. The root pass of a multipass
weld is the most critical to weld soundness. It is especially susceptible to
cracking, and because it solidifies quickly, it may trap gas and slag. On
subsequent passes, conditions caused by the shape of the weld bead or
changes in the joint configuration can cause further cracking, as well as
undercut and slag trapping. Repair costs can be minimized if visual
inspection detects these flaws before welding progresses.
Visual inspection at an early stage of production can also prevent
underwelding and overwelding. Welds that are smaller than called for in the
specifications cannot be tolerated. Beads that are too large increase costs
unnecessarily and can cause distortion through added shrinkage stress.
After welding, visual inspection can detect a variety of surface flaws,
including cracks, porosity and unfilled craters, regardless of subsequent
inspection procedures. Dimensional variances, warpage and appearance
flaws, as well as weld size characteristics, can be evaluated.
Before checking for surface flaws, welds must be cleaned of slag.
Shotblasting should not be done before examination, because the peening
action may seal fine cracks and make them invisible. The AWS
D1.1 Structural Welding Code, for example, does not allow peening "on the
root or surface layer of the weld or the base metal at the edges of the weld."
Visual inspection can only locate defects in the weld surface. Specifications
or applicable codes may require that the internal portion of the weld and
adjoining metal zones also be examined. Nondestructive examinations may
be used to determine the presence of a flaw, but they cannot measure its
influence on the serviceability of the product unless they are based on a
correlation between the flaw and some characteristic that affects service.
Otherwise, destructive tests are the only sure way to determine weld
serviceability.
Radiographic Inspection (RT)
Radiography (X-ray) is one of the most important, versatile and widely
accepted of all the nondestructive examination methods - Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 - Radiography is one of the most important,
versatile and widely accepted examination
methods.
Fig. 2 - Thicker areas of a specimen being x-rayed
or higher density material absorbs more radiation
and the corresponding areas on the radiograph
will be lighter



X-ray is used to determine the internal soundness of welds. The term 'X-ray
quality," widely used to indicate high quality in welds, arises from this
inspection method.
Radiography is based on the ability of X-rays and gamma rays to pass
through metal and other materials opaque to ordinary light, and produce
photographic records of the transmitted radiant energy. All materials will
absorb known amounts of this radiant energy and, therefore, X-rays and
gamma rays can be used to show discontinuities and inclusions within the
opaque material. The permanent film record of the internal conditions will
show the basic information by which weld soundness can be determined.
"Radiography is one of the most
widely accepted NDE methods."
X-rays are produced by high-voltage generators. As the high voltage applied
to an X-ray tube is increased, the wavelength of the emitted X-ray becomes
shorter, providing more penetrating power. Gamma rays are produced by the
atomic disintegration of radioisotopes. The radioactive isotopes most widely
used in industrial radiography are Cobalt 60 and Iridium 192. Gamma rays
emitted from these isotopes are similar to X-rays, except their wavelengths
are usually shorter. This allows them to penetrate to greater depths than X-
rays of the same power, however, exposure times are considerably longer
due to the lower intensity.
When X-rays or gamma rays are directed at a section of weldment, not all of
the radiation passes through the metal. Different materials, depending on
their density, thickness and atomic number, will absorb different
wavelengths of radiant energy.
The degree to which the different materials absorb these rays determines the
intensity of the rays penetrating through the material. When variations of
these rays are recorded, a means of seeing inside the material is available.
The image on a developed photo-sensitized film is known as a radiograph.
The opaque material absorbs a certain amount of radiation, but where there
is a thin section or a void (slag inclusion or porosity), less absorption takes
place. These areas will appear darker on the radiograph. Thicket areas of the
specimen or higher density material (tungsten inclusion), will absorb more
radiation and their corresponding areas on the radiograph will be lighter -
Fig. 2.
Whether in the shop or in the field, the reliability and interpretive value of
radiographic images are a function of their sharpness and contrast. The
ability of an observer to detect a flaw depends on the sharpness of its image
and its contrast with the background. To be sure that the radiographic
exposure produces acceptable results, a gauge known as an Image Quality
Indicator (IQI) is placed on the part so that its image will be produced on the
radiograph.
IQls used to determine radiographic quality are also called penetrameters. A
standard hole-type penetrameter is a rectangular piece of metal with three
drilled holes of set diameters. The thickness of the piece of metal is a
percentage of the thickness of the specimen being radiographed. The
diameter of each hole is different and is a given multiple of the penetrameter
thickness. Wire-type penetrameters are also widely used, especially outside
the United States. They consist of several pieces of wire, each of a different
diameter. Sensitivity is determined by the smallest diameter of wire that can
be clearly seen on the radiograph.
A penetrameter is not an indicator or gauge to measure the size of a
discontinuity or the minimum detectable flaw size. It is an indicator of the
quality of the radiographic technique.
Radiographic images are not always easy to interpret. Filmhandling marks
and streaks, fog and spots caused by developing errors may make it difficult
to identify defects. Such film artifacts may mask weld discontinuities.
Surface defects will show up on the film and must be recognized. Because
the angle of exposure will also influence the radiograph, it is difficult or
impossible to evaluate fillet welds by this method. Because a radiograph
compresses all the defects that occur throughout the thickness of the weld
into one plane, it tends to give an exaggerated impression of scattered-type
defects such as porosity or inclusions.
An X-ray image of the interior of a weld may be viewed on a fluorescent
screen, as well as on developed film. This makes it possible to inspect parts
faster and at lower cost, but image definition is but image definition is
possible to overcome many of the shortcomings of radiographic imaging by
linking the fluorescent screen with a video camera. Instead of waiting for
film to be developed, the images can be viewed in real time. This can
improve quality and reduce costs on production applications such as pipe
welding, where a problem can be identified and corrected quickly.
By digitizing the image and loading it into a computer, the image can be
enhanced and analyzed to a degree never before possible. Multiple images
can be superimposed. Pixel values can be adjusted to change shading and
contrast, bringing out small flaws and discontinuities that would not show up
on film. Colors can be assigned to the various shades of gray to further
enhance the image and make flaws stand out better. The process of digitizing
an image taken from the fluorescent screen - having that image computer
enhanced and transferred to a viewing monitor - takes only a few seconds.
However, because there is a time delay, we can no longer consider this "real
time." It is called "radioscopy imagery."
Existing films can be digitized to achieve the same results and improve the
analysis process. Another advantage is the ability to archive images on laser
optical disks, which take up far less space than vaults of old films and are
much easier to recall when needed. Industrial radiography, then, is an
inspection method using X-rays and gamma rays as a penetrating medium,
and densitized film as a recording medium, to obtain a photographic record
of internal quality. Generally, defects in welds consist either of a void in the
weld metal itself or an inclusion that differs in density from the surrounding
weld metal.
Radiographic equipment produces radiation that can be harmful to body
tissue in excessive amounts, so all safety precautions should be followed
closely. All instructions should be followed carefully to achieve satisfactory
results. Only personnel who are trained in radiation safety and qualified as
industrial radiographers should be permitted to do radiographic testing.
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT)
Magnetic particle inspection is a
method of locating and defining
discontinuities in magnetic
materials It is excellent for
detecting surface defects in welds,
including discontinuities that are
too small to be seen with the
naked eye, and those that are
slightly subsurface.
This method may be used to
inspect plate edges prior to
welding, in process inspection of
each weld pass or layer, postweld
Fig. 3 - Applications for magnetic particle testing
include inspecting plate edges prior to welding, in
process inspection of each weldpass or layer,
postweld evaluation and repairs.

evaluation and to inspect repairs - Fig. 3.
It is a good method for detecting surface cracks of all sizes in both the weld
and adjacent base metal, subsurface cracks, incomplete fusion, undercut and
inadequate penetration in the weld, as well as defects on the repaired edges
of the base metal. Although magnetic particle testing should not be a
substitute for radiography or ultrasonics for subsurface evaluations, it may
present an advantage over their methods in detecting tight cracks and surface
discontinuities.
With this method, probes are usually placed on each side of the area to be
inspected, and a high amperage is passed through the workplace between
them. A magnetic flux is produced at night angles to the flow of current -
Fig. 3. When these lines of force encounter a discontinuity, such as a
longitudinal crack. they are diverted and leak through the surface, creating
magnetic poles or points of attraction. A magnetic powder dusted onto the
surface will cling to the leakage area more tenaciously than elsewhere,
forming an indication of the discontinuity.
For this indication to develop, the discontinuity must be angled against the
magnetic lines of force. Thus, when current is passed longitudinally through
a workpiece, only longitudinal flaws will show. Putting the workpiece inside
a solenoid coil will create longitudinal lines of force (Fig. 3) that cause
transverse and angular cracks to become visible when the magnetic powder
is applied.
Although much simpler to use than radiographic inspection, the magnetic
particle method is limited to use with ferromagnetic materials and cannot be
used with austenitic steels. A joint between a base metal and a weld metal of
different magnetic characteristics will create magnetic discontinuities that
may be falsely interpreted as unsound. On the other hand a true defect can be
obscured by the powder clinging over the harmless magnetic discontinuity.
Sensitivity decreases with the size of the defect and is also less with round
forms such as gas pockets. It is best with elongated forms, such as cracks,
and is limited to surface flaws and some subsurface flaws, mostly on thinner
materials.
Because the field must be distorted sufficiently to create the external leakage
required to identify flaws, the fine, elongated discontinuities, such as hairline
cracks, seams or inclusions that are parallel to the magnetic field, will not
show up. They can be developed by changing the direction of the field, and
it is advisable to apply the field from two directions, preferably at right
angles to each other.
Magnetic powders may be applied dry or wet. The dry powder method is
popular for inspecting heavy weldments, while the wet method is often used
in inspecting aircraft components. Dry powder is dusted uniformly over the
work with a spray gun, dusting bag or atomizer. The finely divided magnetic
particles are coated to increase their mobility and are available in gray, black
and red colors to improve visibility. In the wet method, very fine red or
black particles are suspended in water or light petroleum distillate. This can
be flowed or sprayed on, or the part may be dipped into the liquid. The wet
method is more sensitive than the dry method, because it allows the use of
finer particles that can detect exceedingly fine defects. Fluorescent powders
may be used for further sensitivity and are especially useful for locating
discontinuities in corners, keyways, splines and deep holes.
"MT may have an advantage over
RT and UT in detecting tight cracks
and surface disconfinuifies."
Liquid Penetrant Inspection (PT)
Surface cracks and pinholes that
are not visible to the naked eye
can be located by liquid penetrant
inspection. It is widely used to
locate leaks in welds and can be
applied with austenitic steels and
nonferrous materials where
magnetic particle inspection
would be useless.
Liquid penetrant inspection is
often referred to as an extension of
the visual inspection method.
Many standards, such as the AWS
D1.1 Code, say that "welds subject to liquid penetrant testing ... shall be
evaluated on the basis of the requirements for visual inspection."
Two types of penetrating liquids are used - fluorescent and visible dye. With
fluorescent penetrant inspection, a highly fluorescent liquid with good
penetrating qualities is applied to the surface of the part to be examined.
Capillary action draws the liquid into the surface openings, and the excess is
then removed. A "developer" is used to draw the penetrant to the surface,
and the resulting indication is viewed by ultraviolet (black) light. The high
Fig. 4 - Dye penetrant inspection is similar to liquid
penetrant inspection except vividly coloreddyes
visible under ordinary light are used.

contrast between the fluorescent material and the object makes it possible to
detect minute traces of penetrant that indicate surface defects.
Dye penetrant inspection is similar, except that vividly colored dyes visible
under ordinary light are used - Fig 4. Normally, a white developer is used
with the dye penetrants that creates a sharply contrasting background to the
vivid dye color. this allows greater portability by eliminating the need for
ultraviolet light.
The part to be inspected must be clean and dry, because any foreign matter
could close the cracks or pinholes and exclude the penetrant. Penetrants can
be applied by dipping, spraying or brushing, but sufficient time must be
allowed for the liquid to be fully absorbed into the discontinuities. This may
take an hour or more in very exacting work.
Liquid penetrant inspection is widely used for leak detection. A common
procedure is to apply fluorescent material to one side of a joint, wait an
adequate time for capillary action to take place, and then view the other side
with ultraviolet light. In thin-walled vessels, this technique will identify
leaks that ordinarily would not be located by the usual air test with pressures
of 5-20 Ib/in
2
. When wall thickness exceeds 1/4 in., however, sensitivity of
the leak test decreases.
Ultrasonic Inspection (UT)
Ultrasonic Inspection is a method
of detecting discontinuities by
directing a high-frequency sound
beam through the base plate and
weld on a predictable path. When
the sound beam's path strikes an
interruption in the material
continuity, some of the sound is
reflected back. The sound is
collected by the instrument,
amplified and displayed as a
vertical trace on a video screen - Fig. 5.
Both surface and subsurface defects in metals can be detected, located and
measured by ultrasonic inspection, including flaws too small to be detected
by other methods.
The ultrasonic unit contains a crystal of quartz or other piezoelectric material
encapsulated in a transducer or probe. When a voltage is applied, the crystal
vibrates rapidly. As an ultrasonic transducer is held against the metal to be
inspected, it imparts mechanical vibrations of the same frequency as the
Fig. 5 - Ultrasonic inspection detects
discontinvities both on and below the weld
surface. Compact, portable equipment makes it
easy to use in the field.

crystal through a couplet material into the base metal and weld. These
vibrational waves are propagated through the material until they reach a
discontinuity or change in density. At these points, some of the vibrational
energy is reflected back. As the current that causes the vibration is shut off
and on at 60-1000 times per second, the quartz crystal intermittently acts as a
receiver to pick up the reflected vibrations.These cause pressure on the
crystal and generate an electrical current. Fed to a video screen, this current
produces vertical deflections on the horizontal base line. The resulting
pattern on the face of the tube represents the reflected signal and the
discontinuity. Compact portable ultrasonic equipment is available for field
inspection and is commonly used on bridge and structural work.
Ultrasonic testing is less suitable than other NDE methods for determining
porosity in welds, because round gas pores respond to ultrasonic tests as a
series of single-point reflectors. This results in low-amplitude responses that
are easiIy confused with "base line noise" inherent with testing parameters.
However, it is the preferred test method for detecting plainer-type
discontinuities and lamination.
Portable ultrasonic equipment is available with digital operation and
microprocessor controls. These instruments may have built-in memory and
can provide hard-copy printouts or video monitoring and recording. They
can be interfaced with computers, which allows further analysis,
documentation and archiving, much as with radiographic data. Ultrasonic
examination requires expert interpretation from highly skilled and
extensively trained personnel.
Table 1 - Reference Guide to Major Methods for the Nondestructive
Examination of Welds
Inspection
Method
Equipment
Required
Enables
Detectiort of
Advantages Limitations Remarks
Visual Magnifying
glass
Weld sizing
gauge
Pocket rule
Straight edge
Workmanship
standards
Surface flaws -
cracks,
porosity,
unfilled
craters, slag
inclusions
Warpage,
underwelding,
overwelding,
poorly formed
beads,
misalignments,
improper fitup
Low cost.
Can be
applied while
work is in
process,
permitting
correction of
faults.
Gives
indication of
incorrect
procedures.
Applicable to
surface
defects only.
Provides no
permanent
record.
Should always
be the primary
method of
inspection, no
matter what
other
techniques are
required.
Is the only
"productive"
type of
inspection.
Is the
necessary
function of
everyone who
in any way
contributes to
the making of
the weld.
Radiographic Commercial
X-ray or
gamma units
made
especially for
inspecting
welds,
castings and
forgings.
Film and
processing
facilities.
Fluoroscopic
viewing
equipment.
Interior
macroscopic
flaws - cracks,
porosity, blow
holes,
nonmetallic
inclusions,
incomplete
root
penetration,
undercutting,
icicles, and
burnthrough.
When the
indications
are recorded
on film, gives
a permanent
record.
When viewed
on a
fluoroscopic
screen, a low-
cost method
of internal
inspection
Requires skill
in choosing
angles of
exposure,
operating
equipment,
and
interpreting
indications.
Requires
safety
precautions.
Not generally
suitable for
fillet weld
inspection.
X-ray
inspection is
required by
many codes
and
specifications.
Useful in
qualification
of welders and
welding
processes.
Because of
cost, its use
should be
limited to
those areas
where other
methods will
not provide
the assurance
required.
Magnetic
Particle
Special
commercial
equipment.
Magnetic
powders - dry
or wet form;
may be
fluorescent
for viewing
under
ultraviolet
light.
Excellent for
detecting
surface
discontinuities
-
especially
surface cracks.
Simpler to
use than
radiographic
inspection.
Permits
controlled
sensitivity.
Relatively
low-cost
method.
Applicable to
ferromagnetic
materials
only.
Requires skill
in
interpretation
of indications
and
recognition of
irrelevant
patterns.
Difficult to
use on rough
surfaces.
Elongated
defects
parallel to the
magnetic field
may not give
pattern; for
this reason the
field should be
applied from
two directions
at or near right
angles to each
other.
Liquid
Penetrant
Commercial
kits
containing
fluorescent or
dye
penetrants
Surface cracks
not readily
visible to the
unaided eye.
Excellent for
locating leaks
Applicable to
magnetic and
nonmagnetic
materials.
Easy to use.
Low cost.
Only surface
defects are
detectable.
Cannot be
used
effectively on
In thin-walled
vessels will
reveal leaks
not ordinarily
located by
usual air tests.
and
developers.
Application
equipment for
the developer.
A source of
ultraviolet
light - if
fluorescent
method is
used.
in weldments. hot
assemblies.
irrelevant
surface
conditions
(smoke, slag)
may give
misleading
indications.
Ultrasonic Special
commercial
equipment,
either of the
pulse-echo or
transmission
type.
Standard
reference
patterns for
interpretation
of RF or
video
patterns.
Surface and
subsurface
flaws including
those too small
to be detected
by other
methods.
Especially for
detecting
subsurface
lamination-like
defects.
Very
sensitive.
Permits
probing of
joints
inaccessible
to
radiography.
Requires high
degree of skill
in interpreting
pulse-echo
patterns.
Permanent
record is not
readily
obtained.
Pulse-echo
equipment is
highly
developed for
weld
inspection
purposes.
The
transmission-
type
equipment
simplifies
pattern
interpretation
where it is
applicable.
Choices Control Quality
A good NDE inspection program must recognize the inherent limitations of
each process. For example, both radiography and ultrasound have distinct
orientation factors that may guide the choice of which process to use for a
particular job. Their strengths and weaknesses tend to complement each
other. While radiography is unable to reliably detect lamination-like defects,
ultrasound is much better at it. On the other hand, ultrasound is poorly suited
to detecting scattered porosity, while radiography is very good.
Whatever inspection techniques are used, paying attention to the "Five P's"
of weld quality will help reduce subsequent inspection to a routine checking
activity. Then, the proper use of NDE methods will serve as a check to keep
variables in line and weld quality within standards.
The Five P's are
1. Process Selection. The process must be right
for the job.
2. Preparation. The joint configuration must be
right and compatible with the welding process.
3. Procedures. The procedures must be spelled
out in detail and followed religiously during
welding.
4. Pretesting. Full-scale mockups or simulated
specimens should be used to prove that the
process and procedures give the desired
standard of quality.
5. Personnel. Qualified people must be assigned
to the job.