The University of Chicago Press The History of Science Society

What Happened to Occult Qualities in the Scientific Revolution?
Author(s): Keith Hutchison

Source: Isis, Vol. 73, No. 2 (Jun., 1982), pp. 233-253
Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science Society
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CRITIQUES & CONTENTIONS
W h a t
Ha ppened
t o Oc c u l t
Qu a l it ies
in t h e Sc ient ific Revo l u t io n?
By
Keit h Hu t c h iso n*
N THIS ESSAY I seek t o re-eva l u a t e c u rrent
c o nc ept io ns
o f t h e ro l e o f o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
in t h e Sc ient ific Revo l u t io n. In Rena issa nc e sc ienc e "o c c u l t "
qu a l i-
t ies were
c o mmo nl y
c h a ra c t erized a s
insensibl e,
a s
o ppo sed
t o "ma nifest "
qu a l i-
t ies,
wh ic h were
direc t l y perc eived.
Ch rist ia n Arist o t el ia nism t ended t o
deny
t h e
exist enc e o f o c c u l t
qu a l it ies,
a nd wh en it did a l l o w t h a t su c h a
qu a l it y
wa s
rea l ,
it
insist ed t h a t it wa s
u nint el l igibl e,
bec a u se sc ient ia in t h e medieva l t ra dit io n wa s
rest ric t ed t o ent it ies wit h in t h e
ra nge
o f t h e h u ma n senses. Th is a t t it u de c o nst it u t ed
a
ma jo r epist emo l o gic a l impa sse
no t su rmo u nt ed u nt il t h e sevent eent h
c ent u ry.
At
t h a t t ime o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
bec a me
fu l l y
a nd
c o nsc io u sl y a c c ept ed
in na t u ra l
ph il o s-
o ph y, ju st
a s it bec a me
rec o gnized
t h a t no
qu a l it ies
were ever
direc t l y perc eived.
Exist ing sec o nda ry l it era t u re, h o wever,
t ends a l mo st
u niversa l l y
t o c l a im t h a t
t h e Sc ient ific Revo l u t io n
pro du c ed
a sc ient ific o u t l o o k t h a t
rejec t ed
t h ese o c c u l t
qu a l it ies.
Th e
misu nderst a nding
seems t o resu l t
princ ipa l l y
fro m
o verl o o king sig-
nific a nt
c h a nges
in t h e c o nno t a t io ns o f t h e wo rd "o c c u l t " sinc e t h e
yea r
1600. Fo r
if t h eir
writ ings
a re
c l o sel y
exa mined, ma ny
l ea ders o f t h e Sc ient ific Revo l u t io n
c a n be seen t o be
expl ic it l y u rging
t h e
a c c ept a bil it y
o f o c c u l t ent it ies. W h en
t h ey
a ppea r
t o be
rec o mmending
t h e a ba ndo nment o f o c c u l t
qu a l it ies,
c l o se exa mina -
t io n revea l s t h a t
t h ey
a re inst ea d
o bjec t ing
t o t h e ea rl ier t h esis t h a t t h e o c c u l t is
u nint el l igibl e,
t o t h e u se o f su bst a nt ia l fo rms a s c a u sa l
expl a na t io ns,
o r t o t h e
ext remel y idio sync ra t ic
o c c u l t c a u ses
po sit ed by
so me writ ers. W it h t h e
a c c ep-
t a nc e o f insensibl e
a genc ies
int o t h e
sc o pe
o f na t u ra l
ph il o so ph y,
t h e wo rd "o c -
c u l t " l o st it s c o nno t a t io n o f "insensibl e" a nd h enc efo rt h referred
so l el y
t o u nint el -
l igibil it y.
Th e Sc ient ific Revo l u t io n c u l mina t ed in a
go o d
dea l o f
dispu t e
o ver
o c c u l t c a u ses bec a u se different
ph il o so ph ies
differed in t h eir est ima t io n o f t h e
int el l igibil it y
o f t h e wo rl d. Bu t t h ese
dispu t es
h a ve l it t l e t o do wit h t h e
o rigina l
a ppl ic a t io n
o f t h e wo rd
"o c c u l t ,"
a nd h enc e mu st no t a ffec t o u r
ju dgment
o f wh a t
h a ppened
t o t h o se
pro pert ies
o f bo dies wh ic h were dec l a red o c c u l t
by
t h e o rt h o do x
befo re t h e sevent eent h
c ent u ry.
W HAT W AS AN "OCCULT"
"QUALITY"?
I do no t
pret end
t o
present
h ere
a ny
definit ive sema nt ic
h ist o ry
o f
"o c c u l t ,"
bu t
even
my prel imina ry a na l ysis
wil l su ffic e t o
give
u s
impo rt a nt insigh t s
no t a va il -
a bl e if we insist o n
u sing
t h e wo rd
o nl y
in it s el u sive mo dern sense. In
fa c t ,
t h e
*Depa rt ment
o f
Hist o ry
a nd
Ph il o so ph y
o f
Sc ienc e, Universit y
o f
Mel bo u rne, Pa rkvil l e, 3052,
Au st ra l ia .
ISIS, 1982,
73
(267)
233
KEITH HUTCHISON
c u rrent
misu nderst a nding
o f t h e t erm "o c c u l t " is
c o mpo u nded by
a n
impo rt a nt
a mbigu it y
in
sevent eent h -c ent u ry u sa ge
o f t h e t erm
"qu a l it y." "Qu a l it y"
wa s a t
t h a t t ime indeed u sed in it s mo dern
sense,
t o refer t o t h e
pro pert ies,
a t t ribu t es,
o r
fea t u res o f a n
o bjec t ,
bu t it wa s a l so u sed in a t ec h nic a l
Peripa t et ic
sense t o refer t o
t h e c a u ses o f t h o se a t t ribu t es: t h e fo rms o r
h ypo st a t ic a l qu a l it a t es,
wh ic h h a d a
rea l exist enc e in t h e
o nt o l o gy
o f Ch rist ia n Arist o t el ia nism a nd rel a t ed
ph il o so ph ies
a nd served a s t h e
expl a na t io n
o f t h e a t t ribu t es o f bo dies. Th is c a u sa l
t h eo ry
wa s
widel y rejec t ed by sevent eent h -c ent u ry ph il o so ph ers,
a nd c a u sa l o c c u l t
qu a l it a t es
were ba nish ed a
fo rt iqri.
Bu t it wa s
t h ro u gh
t h eir
being
rea l
qu a l it a t es
t h a t
t h ey
were t h u s
ba nish ed,
a nd no t
(I
sh a l l
sh o w) t h ro u gh
t h eir
being
o c c u l t :
qu a l it a t es
t h a t were no t o c c u l t were
rejec t ed
in
prec isel y
t h e sa me ma nner.
Ho wever,
t h ese
ph il o sph ers
o ft en u sed o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
a s
exa mpl es
wh en
t h ey
wish ed t o a t t a c k t h e
t h eo ry
o f rea l c a u sa l
qu a l it a t es, c rea t ing
t h e
impressio n
t h a t
t h ey
were
a t t a c king
t h e exist enc e o f t h e o c c u l t effec t s o f t h o se
qu a l it a t es.'
At t h e
beginning
o f t h e sevent eent h
c ent u ry,
fu rt h ermo re,
"o c c u l t " wa s
pa rt
o f
t h e t ec h nic a l
Peripa t et ic t ermino l o gy
u sed t o
dist ingu ish qu a l it ies
wh ic h were
evident t o t h e senses fro m t h o se wh ic h were h idden. In t h is c o nt ext it wa s t h e
a nt o nym
o f "ma nifest ."
Typic a l
ma nifest
qu a l it ies
were t a st es a nd
c o l o rs,
bec a u se
t h ey
c o u l d be
immedia t el y a ppreh ended by
t h e senses.
Typic a l
o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
were
pl a net a ry
infl u enc es,
t h e
ma gnet ic
virt u e
(a ppa rent l y
u nrel a t ed t o t h e
perc ep-
t ibl e
qu a l it ies
o f a
piec e
o f ro c k), o r t h e
pu rpo rt ed
a bil it ies o f c ert a in c h emic a l s t o
effec t
spec ific
medic a l c u res. If a
dru g
l ike
a spirin,
fo r
exa mpl e, ma na ges
t o
rel ieve a h ea da c h e, it do es so
by
virt u e o f
qu a l it ies
wh ic h a re
imperc ept ibl e,
a nd
it s effec t is no direc t o r indirec t refl ec t io n o f it s
being
a sil ent , wh it e
po wder
o f
bit t er t a st e a nd mediu m
densit y.
W e c a n o bserve t h e effec t s o f
a spirin,
bu t we
c a nno t o bserve wh a t it is in
a spirin
wh ic h a c h ieves t h o se effec t s. As Da niel
Sennert
pu t
it
ea rl y
in t h e'sevent eent h
c ent u ry:
Qu a l it ies a re divided in
respec t
o f o u r
kno wl edg
int o
Ma nifest
a nd Oc c u l t . Th e ma ni-
fest a re t h o se, wh ic h
ea sil y evident l y
a nd
immedia t el y,
a re kno wn t o , a nd
ju dged by
t h e Senses. So
l igh t
in t h e St a rs, a nd Hea viness a nd
Ligh t ness.
. . . Bu t o c c u l t o r
h idden
Qu a l it ies a re t h o se, wh ic h a re no t
immedia t el y
kno wn t o t h e Senc es, bu t t h eir
fo rc e is
perc eived media t el y by
t h e Effec t , bu t t h eir
po wer
o f
a c t ing
is u nkno wn. So
we see t h e Lo a d-St o ne dra w t h e Iro n, bu t t h a t
po wer
o f
dra wing
is t o u s h idden a nd no t
perc eived by
t h e Senc es. . . . So we
perc eive
wit h o u r senses t h e eva c u a t io n c a u sed
by
pu rga t ive medic a ment s; bu t we do no t
perc eive
t h a t
qu a l it y by
wh ic h t h e
pu rging
medic a ment s do wo rk t h a t effec t . Aft er t h e sa me ma nner,
we
perc eive
wit h o u r Senses
t h e
sympt o ms
wh ic h
Po yso ns
do st ir
u p
in o u r Bo dies; bu t t h e
qu a l it ies wh ereby t h ey
c a u se t h e sa id
sympt o ms
we
perc eive
no t
by
t h e sense.
By
o u r Senses . . . we
perc eive
Hea t in t h e Fire, by
mea ns wh ereo f it h ea t s: bu t it is no t so in t h o se
o pera t io ns
wh ic h
a re
perfo rmed by
o c c u l t
qu a l it ies.
W e
perc eive
t h e Ac t io ns bu t no t t h e
qu a l it ies
wh ereby t h ey
a re a ffec t ed.2
'Th is dist inc t io n is
pa rt ic u l a rl y
c l ea r in
16t h -c ent u ry disa greement s
o ver t h e na t u re o f t h e sa c ra -
ment s. Bo t h Lu t h er a nd Ca l vin
rejec t
t h e idea t h a t t h ere is a n o c c u l t qu a l it a s in, e.g., ba pt isma l wa t er,
wh ic h renders t h a t wa t er effec t ive, bu t
t h ey
do no t
deny
t h e effec t o f t h e wa t er.
Th ey simpl y
a t t ribu t e
t h e effec t t o Go d ra t h er t h a n t o a n inh erent virt u e. See Ma rt in Lu t h er, Lu t h er's W o rks, Vo l . I, ed. J.
Pel ika n (St . Lo u is: Co nc o rdia , 1958), pp. 95-96, 227-228, a nd Jea n Ca l vin, Inst it u t es o f
t h e Ch ris-
t ia n
Rel igio n,
ed. Jo h n T. Mc Neil l , t ra ns. Fo rd L. Ba t t l es, 2 vo l s. (Lo ndo n: S. C. M. Press, 1961),
Vo l . II, pp. 1289, 1292 (= 4.14.14, 17). Fo r
exa mpl es
in a mo re "sc ient ific " c o nt ext , c o mpa re
t h e
sec t io n
h ea ding
wit h t h e t ext o f Rend Desc a rt es, Princ ipia ph il o so ph ia e,
Pt . IV, ? 187; Oeu vres de
Desc a rt es, ed. C. Ada m & P.
Ta nnery,
13 vo l s. (Pa ris, 1897-1913), Vo l . VIII, pp. 314-315; a nd see
Ro bert
Bo yl e,
Th e W o rks
o f t h e Ho no u ra bl e Ro bert
Bo yl e,
ed. T. Birc h , 6 vo l s. (Lo ndo n, 1772), Vo l .
III, p.
44.
2Da niel Sennert , Th irt een Bo o ks o f Na t u ra l Ph il o so ph y, a ppa rent l y
a t ra nsl a t io n
by
N.
Cu l pepper
&
A. Co l e o f t h e 1632
Epit o me na t u ra l is sc ient ia e (Lo ndo n, 1661), pp. 29, 431.
234
OCCULT
QUALITIES
To da y
we
a c c ept
su c h
po wers
a s a ma t t er o f
c o u rse,
a s
my su perfic ia l l y
a na c h ro -
nist ic
a spirin exa mpl e
indic a t es,
very simpl y
a nd wit h o u t t h e need fo r
so ph ist i-
c a t ed
a rgu ment ,
a nd we h a ve
a c c ept ed
su c h
po wers c o nt inu o u sl y
sinc e t h e seven-
t eent h
c ent u ry.
Su bst a nt ia l evidenc e t h a t o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
were
fu l l y a c c ept ed by
o t h er seven-
t eent h -c ent u ry ph il o so ph ers
t h a n Sennert wil l be
present ed
l a t er. Mo re
impo r-
t a nt l y,
t h e sa me evidenc e indic a t es t h a t t h ese
ph il o so ph ers
sa w t h eir
a c c ept a nc e
o f
su c h o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
a s o ne o f t h e ma rks o f t h e
su perio rit y
o f t h eir new
ph il o so ph y
o ver t h en-o rt h o do x
syst ems
o f
t h o u gh t . Th ey
sa w Arist o t el ia nism a s u na bl e t o
h a ndl e o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
bec a u se it
pl a c ed
t o o mu c h
emph a sis
o n t h e
impo rt a nc e
o f
sensa t io n,
a nd fa il ed t o so l ve t h e c ent ra l
epist emo l o gic a l pa ra do x po sed by
o c c u l t
qu a l it ies:
Ho w c a n a sc ienc e ba sed o n sense
perc ept io n
h a ndl e
a genc ies
wh ic h
by
very
definit io n a re insensibl e?
Mo nt a igne
fo r o ne h a d
expl ic a t ed
t h is
pa ra do x
l a t e
in t h e sixt eent h
c ent u ry,
wh en h e a t t a c ked t h e Arist o t el ia n t h esis t h a t o u r senses
a re
c o mpl et e:
I ma ke a
qu est io n
wh et h er ma n be
pro vided
o f a l l na t u ra il
senses,
o r no . I see divers
c rea t u res t h a t l ive a n ent ire a nd
perfec t
l ife, so me wit h o u t
sigh t ,
a nd so me wit h o u t
h ea ring;
wh o kno wet h wh et h er we a l so wa nt eit h er
o ne, t wo , t h ree,
o r
ma ny
senses
mo re:
Fo r,
if we wa nt
a ny
o ne,
o u r disc o u rse c a nno t disc o ver t h e wa nt o r defec t
t h ereo f. It is t h e senses
privil edge
t o be t h e ext reme bo u nds o f o u r
perc eiving.
Th ere is
no t h ing beyo nd
t h em t h a t
ma y
st ea d u s t o disc o ver t h em: No o ne sense c a n disc o ver
a no t h er. . ... W h o kno wes wh et h er ...
by
t h is defa u l t t h e grea t er pa rt
o f t h e
visa ge
o f
t h ings
be c o nc ea l ed fro m u s? W h o kno wes wh et h er t h e diffic u l t ies we find in
su ndry
o f
Na t u res wo rkes
pro c eede
t h enc e? . . . Th e pro priet ies
wh ic h in
ma ny t h ings
we c a l l
sec ret [o c c u l t es]
. . . is it no t
l ikel y
t h ere sh o u l d be sensit ive fa c u l t ies in na t u re a bl e t o
ju dge
a nd
perc eive t h em, t h e wa nt wh ereo f breedet h in u s t h e
igno ra nc e
o f t h e t ru e
essenc e o f su c h
t h ings?3
Oc c u l t
a genc ies
a re
l ikel y
t o exist t h en, sa ys Mo nt a igne,
bu t if
t h ey
do
t h ey
wil l be
u nkno wa bl e. La t er na t u ra l
ph il o so ph ers a greed
t h a t
t h ey exist , bu t fo u nd
a c c ept -
a bl e met h o ds o f
kno wing
a t l ea st
so met h ing
a bo u t t h em. W il l ia m Gil bert sh o wed,
fo r
exa mpl e,
t h a t even
t h o u gh
o ne c o u l d no t
perc eive
t h e
ma gnet ic
virt u e
(h e
bel ieved t h a t it s c a u se wa s so me kind o f
l iving so u l ), t h e effec t s o f
ma gnet ism
c o u l d be
rel ia bl y
st u died
by experiment .
OCCULT QUALITIES IN CHRISTIAN ARISTOTELIANISM
Ma ny
Arist o t el ia ns sh a red
Mo nt a igne's
view t h a t o c c u l t
pro pert ies,
even wh en
rea l , were
met h o do l o gic a l l y u nst u dya bl e.4 Indeed, t h e int el l ec t wa s seen, in Peri-
3Mic h el de
Mo nt a igne,
Th e Essa yes o f
Mic h a el Lo rd o f Mo nt a igne, t ra ns. J. Fl o rio (1603), ed. H.
Mo rl ey (Lo ndo n, 1886), p.
302.
4I u se t h e t erms
"Peripa t et ic "
a nd "Arist o t el ia n" ra t h er
l o o sel y, a t t a c h ing a
ph il o so ph er t o t h is
t ra dit io n if h e
ro u gh l y
a dh ered t o a do c t rine o f imma nent
qu a l it a t es.
In
Lynn Th o rndike's Hist o ry o f
Ma gic a nd
Experiment a l Sc ienc e, 8 vo l s. (Lo ndo n: Ma c mil l a n, 1923; New Yo rk: Co l u mbia Univ.
Press, 1934-1958), t h ere is no su st a ined disc u ssio n o f
epist emo l o gic a l issu es, bu t
my pro po sa l s a re
su ppo rt ed t h ro u gh
nu mero u s sc a t t ered inst a nc es: see Vo l . I, pp. 377-379, 431, 644, 646, 778; Vo l .
II, pp. 8, 29-31, 131, 135, 144, 160-161, 166, 220, 281, 299, 336, 363, 387, 408, 508ff., 535, 545,
555, 573, 603-604, 632, 652-653, 701, 733-734, 769, 789, 829, 837, 886, 891, 893; Vo l . III, pp.
157-158,408, 577, 582; Vo l . IV, pp. 118, 170-171, 208, 225, 229, 313; Vo l . V, pp. 109, 117-118;
Vo l . VI, pp. 391, 432. See a l so Da vid Kno wl es, Th e Evo l u t io n o f Medieva l Th o u gh t (Lo ndo n:
Lo ngma ns, 1962), pp. 101-102; Arma nd A. Ma u rer, Medieva l Ph il o so ph y (New Yo rk: Ra ndo m
Ho u se, 1964), pp. 183-184, 198, 221, 237-238, 282; Jo h n Herma n Ra nda l l , Th e Ca reer o f Ph il o s-
o ph y,
Vo l . I (New Yo rk: Co l u mbia Univ. Press, 1962), pp. 31, 33-34, 104, 263, 305; W il l ia m A.
W a l l a c e, Ga l il eo 's Ea rl y No t ebo o ks: Th e Ph ysic a l Qu est io ns (No t re Da me, Ind.: No t re Da me Univ.
Press, 1977), p.
297.
235
KEITH HUTCHISON
pa t et ic psyc h o l o gy,
a s
o pera t ing by
mea ns o f a bst ra c t ed sense
ima ges,
a nd sinc e
o nl y
t h e effec t s o f o c c u l t virt u es c o u l d be
sensed,
t h e c a u ses o f t h ese effec t s were
o u t side t h e
ra nge
o f ma n's int el l ec t . Oc c u l t
qu a l it ies
c o u l d t h u s be det ec t ed
experi-
ment a l l y,
bu t c o u l d no t be st u died
sc ient ific a l l y,
sinc e sc ient ia in t h e Arist o t el ia n
t ra dit io n
wa s,
a bo ve
a l l ,
a
kno wl edge
o f c a u ses. Bu il t
u po n
fo u nda t io ns l a id
by
Pl a t o a nd
Au gu st ine,
ma inst rea m medieva l
t h o u gh t inc o rpo ra t ed
a
l a rge
mea su re
o f
skept ic ism
a nd denied t h a t ma n's rea so n wa s
c a pa bl e
o f
a c h ieving
ext ensive
kno wl edge, exc ept
wh en
gra nt ed
divine a id. W it h t h e a c c o mmo da t io n o f Arist o t e-
l ia n rea l ism in t h e t h irt eent h
c ent u ry,
t h e dema rc a t io n bet ween rea so n a nd revel a -
t io n wa s est a bl ish ed a ro u nd t h e l evel o f sense
perc ept io n:
if a n
ent it y
c o u l d no t be
sensed,
t h en it wa s
u nl ikel y
t h a t Go d wish ed
o rdina ry
men t o u nderst a nd t h a t
ent it y.
Oc c u l t
a genc ies
fu rt h ermo re were
widel y rega rded
a s u nrel ia bl e in
o per-
a t io n.
Spu rio u s experient ia l repo rt ing
a nd fa il u re t o iso l a t e t h e
prec ise prec o ndi-
t io ns o f t h e
o pera t io n
o f t h ese
a genc ies c o mmo nl y
l ed t o t h e c a u se a nd effec t
rel a t io ns invo l ved
being perc eived
a s
irregu l a r.
Th is
perc eived irregu l a rit y
st rengt h ened
t h e refu sa l o f Arist o t el ia ns t o
c l a ssify kno wl edge
o f t h e o c c u l t a s a
bra nc h o f
sc ienc e,
sinc e sc ient ia wa s seen a s
dea l ing o nl y
wit h u niversa l
nec essa ry
c a u ses.
Ac c o rdingl y, su perna t u ra l
revel a t io n wa s
widel y rega rded
a s t h e
pa t h
t o a
kno wl edge
o f o c c u l t virt u es, a nd t h e o c c u l t wa s
c l o sel y
a sso c ia t ed wit h
myst ic ism
a nd demo nism.
Being
o u t side t h e
pro vinc e
o f na t u ra l
ph il o so ph y,
a nd
dependent
o n a
su perna t u ra l epist emo l o gy,
o c c u l t
po wers
were exc l u ded fro m o ffic ia l sc i-
enc e, ju st
a s t h eir na mesa kes a re
t o da y,
no w t h a t t h e
o rigina l s
h a ve been
fu l l y
a c c ept ed.
To
pret end
t h a t t h ese
ext remel y genera l
rema rks
a ppl y
t o t h e wh o l e o f t h a t va st
a nd
h et ero geneo u s fiel d, medieva l a nd Rena issa nc e
ph il o so ph y,
wo u l d be t o c l a im
so mewh a t t o o mu c h . Bu t t h e
ph il o so ph y
o f t h is era exh ibit ed a
very st ro ng
t en-
denc y
t o dismiss t h e o c c u l t , a nd fu rt h ermo re, (a s
we sh a l l see bel o w), t h e inno va -
t o rs o f t h e sevent eent h
c ent u ry perc eived
.t h is ina bil it y
t o h a ndl e t h e o c c u l t a s a n
impo rt a nt
fa u l t in t h e
ph il o so ph y t h ey
were
su ppl a nt ing.
No do u bt t h eir view o f
t h is
ph il o so ph y
wa s so mewh a t
wa rped,
bu t t h e
presu mpt ive
evidenc e
pro vided by
t h ese
o ppo nent s
c a n
fo rt u na t el y
be
su ppo rt ed by st ro ng, t h o u gh sc a t t ered, direc t
evidenc e fro m t h e Arist o t el ia ns t h emsel ves. Nu mero u s
exa mpl es
exist o f medieva l
ph il o so ph ers
eit h er
fa il ing
t o
rec o gnize
t h a t insensibl e ent it ies c a n be
c o rpo rea l ,
o r
dec l a ring
t h a t wh a t is insensibl e c a n
o nl y
be kno wn
imperfec t l y.
Insensibil it y
a To ken
o f Inc o rpo rea l it y. Perh a ps
t h e mo st
t el l ing
il l u st ra t io n o f
t h e fa il u re t o
rec o gnize
t h e
po ssibil it y
o f insensibl e ma t t er is
Aqu ina s's
dec l a ra t io n
t h a t no a nima l s c a n exist bel o w t h e t h resh h o l d o f o u r senses. "It is no t
po ssibl e,"
h e writ es in h is
c o mment a ry
o n t h e
Ph ysic s,
"t h a t t h ere sh o u l d be c ert a in
pa rt s
o f
fl esh a nd bo ne wh ic h a re no n-sensibl e bec a u se o f sma l l ness."5 Th is st a nc e h a d
t h eo l o gic a l signific a nc e,
bec a u se t o
a c c ept
t h e exist enc e o f a nima l s t h a t ma n c o u l d
no t sense wo u l d seem t o l ea d t o a c l a sh wit h Genesis 2:19-20, wh ere Ada m is sa id
t o h a ve
given
na mes t o a l l t h e a nima l s in a
pa ra de.6
Genesis
su ggest s
fu rt h er t h a t
t h e wh o l e o f c rea t io n fu nc t io ns t o serve ma n: t h e st a rs a re desc ribed a s "a do rn-
5Th o ma s
Aqu ina s, Co mment a ry
o n Arist o t l e's
Ph ysic s,
t ra ns. R. J. Bl a c kwel l et a l . (Lo ndo n:
Ro u t l edge
&
Kega n Pa u l , 1963), p.
34. See a l so Arist o t l e's De a nima in t h e Versio n
o f
W il l ia m
o f
Mo erbeke a nd t h e
Co mment a ry o f St . Th o ma s
Aqu ina s,
t ra ns. K. Fo st er a nd S.
Hu mph ries (Lo ndo n:
Ro u t l edge
&
Kega n Pa u l , 1951), p. 490, a nd Ga l il eo 's disc u ssio n in W a l l a c e, Ea rl y No t ebo o ks, pp.
208-209, 224-225.
6See
Aqu ina s, Su mma t h eo l o gia e,
l a . 94. 3.
236
OCCULT
QUALITIES
ment ,"
a nd ma n is sa id t o h a ve c o mma nd o ver a l l c rea t u res. Th is
view,
widel y
h el d u nt il t h e sevent eent h
c ent u ry,
ru ns c o u nt er t o t h e mo re mo dern idea t h a t Go d
h a s fil l ed h is u niverse wit h
o bjec t s
t h a t ma ke no
impa c t
o n t h e h u ma n senses.
El sewh ere
Aqu ina s su ggest s
in
pa ssing
t h a t t h e sense fa c u l t ies o f fa l l en men a re
inferio r t o t h o se o f t h e
o rigina l
c rea t io n: t h is wo u l d a l l o w a fu l l er
c o rpo rea l
na t u re
t o h a ve been a c c essibl e t o Ada m wh en h e
ga ve
t h e a nima l s t h eir na mes.
Au gu st ine
c ert a inl y
inc l u des
epist emic impa irment
a s
pa rt
o f Go d's
pu nish ment
a ft er t h e
fa l l .7
Yet a no t h er
sympt o m
o f t h e rel u c t a nc e o f medieva l
ph il o so ph ers
t o
a c c ept
t h e
po ssibil it y
o f ma t eria l ent it ies t h a t c a nno t be seen is t h eir c o mmo n
t endenc y
t o
u se,
if
o nl y
in
pa ssing,
t erms su c h a s "invisibl e" t o refer t o
spirit u a l
ent it ies.
Aqu ina s,
indeed,
l u mps
invisibl e ma t eria l
t h ings t o get h er
wit h
da rkness,
a nd
h enc e
a rgu es
t h a t su c h
t h ings
a re in fa c t
perc eived by sigh t : "Sigh t perc eives
bo t h
t h e visibl e a nd t h e
invisibl e,
t h e invisibl e
being
da rkness,
wh ic h is
a ppreh ended by
sigh t ." Aqu ina s
do es, h o wever,
c l a ssify
t h e su n a s
invisibl e,
bec a u se it is so
brigh t
t h a t it
o verpo wers
t h e
eye. Ac c o rdingl y
t h e o wl wa s c h a ra c t erized a s t h e
a nima l wit h t h e wea kest
eyesigh t ,
sinc e it c o u l d no t even bea r no rma l l evel s o f
il l u mina t io n.
Th o u gh
it wa s
rec o gnized
t h a t so me a nima l s c o u l d see in t h e
da rk,
su c h visio n wa s o ft en no t
expl a ined t h ro u gh
inc rea sed
sensit ivit y
t o
l igh t
bu t ra t h er
seen a s evidenc e fo r t h e
t h eo ry
o f ext ra missio n.8 As t h ese
exa mpl es
indic a t e,
medieva l
ph il o so ph y
h a d
grea t diffic u l t y
in
a c c o mmo da t ing
t h e exist enc e o f
a ny-
t h ing
t o o "sma l l " t o be sensed.
Aqu ina s
do es in fa c t
a c c ept
t h a t t h ere a re so me insensibl e a c t io ns in t h e
c o rpo re-
a l wo rl d, l ike
ma gnet ic a t t ra c t io n, bu t h e c it es su c h a t t ra c t io n a s a n "o c c u l t virt u e
wh ic h ma n is no t
c a pa bl e
o f
expl a ining." Fu rt h er, h e insist s t h a t
ma ny
a c t io ns
wh ic h seem t o be na t u ra l , l ike
ma gnet ism,
a re in fa c t
su perna t u ra l .
He
rejec t s,
fo r
exa mpl e,
t h e c l a im t h a t
sa int l y
rel ic s h a ve a n o c c u l t c u ra t ive virt u e, a nd insist s
t h a t sinc e t h e c u res
perfo rmed by
su c h rel ic s a re
o nl y perfo rmed sel ec t ivel y
a nd do
no t su c c eed wit h
every pa t ient , t h ey
mu st be
perfo rmed by a ngel ic
int ervent io n.9
Aqu ina s's rel ega t io n
o f so me insensibl e
o pera t io ns
t o t h e rea l ms o f t h e
su per-
na t u ra l a c c o rds wit h a st a nda rd medieva l a nd Rena issa nc e view o f
ma gic ,
t h a t it
wa s no t t h e
ma gic ia n
wh o
perfo rmed
wo nders bu t ra t h er demo ns,
wh o were
su mmo ned, impl ic it l y
o r
expl ic it l y, by
t h e
ma gic ia n.
Su c h a
t h eo ry
o f
ma gic
impl ies
eit h er t h a t t h e
ma gic ia n's pa ra ph ena l ia
do es no t h a ve o c c u l t
po wers,
o r
t h a t if it do es, it is t h e demo n ra t h er t h a n t h e
ma gic ia n
wh o c a n
depl o y
t h e
po wers.
In
Au gu st ine's view, demo ns were a ided in
t a pping
su c h
po wers by
t h e fa c t t h a t
t h ey
h a d keener senses t h a n men, a nd
Aqu ina s
endo rsed t h is idea , a l beit
a mbigu -
o u sl y.
La t e in t h e Rena issa nc e t h is view met a n
impo rt a nt c o mpet it o r
wh en t h e
idea o f a na t u ra l
ma gic ,
wh ic h
pro c eeded
wit h o u t
su perna t u ra l int ervent io n, wa s
pro mu l ga t ed,
bu t su c h a
ma gic
c o nt inu ed t o be viewed wit h
su spic io n by
t h e
7See Pet er Bro wn, Au gu st ine o f Hippo (Lo ndo n: Fa ber, 1967), pp. 261-262; Aqu ina s,
Su mma
t h eo l o gia e l a .99.1, l a .101. See a l so
Henry Po wer, Experiment a l Ph il o so ph y (1664; New Yo rk:
Jo h nso n, 1966), prefa c e; Geo rge At wel l , An
Apo l o gie,
o r
Defenc e o f
t h e Divine Art
o f Na t u ra l
Ast ro l o gie (Lo ndo n, 1660), p. 59; Al exa nder Ro ss, Th e
Ph il o so ph ic a l To u c h -st o ne (Lo ndo n, 1645),
pp. 2, 56-57; Lu t h er's W o rks, Vo l . I, p.
62.
8See, e.g., Au gu st ine,
So l il o qu ia
1.3; Aqu ina s, Su mma t h eo l o gia e l a .64.1, 2a .2a e.171.3; Aqu i-
na s, Co mment a ry o n t h e
Met a ph ysic s o f Arist o t l e, t ra ns. J. P. Ro wa n, 2 vo l s.
(Ch ic a go : Regnery,
1961), Vo l , I, p. 118; Aqu ina s, Co mment a ry
o n De a nima , pp. 301, 305, 317; Da vid C.
Lindberg,
Th eo ries
o f Visio n
fro m Al -Kindi t o
Kepl er (Ch ic a go : Univ.
Ch ic a go Press, 1976), pp. 53, 88, 160.
9Aqu ina s, Su mma
t h eo l o gia e 2a .2a e.96.2; Aqu ina s, "On t h e Oc c u l t W o rks o f Na t u re," in J. B.
Mc Al l ist er, Th e Let t er o f Sa int Th o ma s
Aqu ina s
De o c c u l t is
o peribu s na t u ra e
(W a sh ingt o n: Ca t h o l ic
Univ. Press, 1939), pp. 20, 22. See a l so Th o rndike, Hist o ry, Vo l . IV, p.
208.
237
KEITH HUTCHISON
o rt h o do x.
Mo reo ver,
ma gic
wa s no t l ea rned
by
t h e no rma l
pro c esses
o f h u ma n
invest iga t io n,
bu t fro m a no t h er
ma gic ia n
wh o in t u rn l ea rned fro m a no t h er
ma gi-
c ia n a nd so o n ba c k t o a
ma gic ia n
wh o l ea rned
by
demo nic revel a t io n.10
Insensibil it y
a To ken
o f Unint el l igibil it y.
As t h is
c o nc ept io n
o f t h e
epist emic s
o f
ma gic su ggest s,
medieva l
t h o u gh t
a l so h a d
grea t diffic u l t y a c c ept ing
t h e
int el l igi-
bil it y
o f t h e insensibl e. Cent ra l t o t h is
diffic u l t y
wa s Arist o t el ia n
psyc h o l o gy,
wh ic h
requ ired
t h e dist inc t io n o u t l ined
by
Sennert bet ween o c c u l t a nd ma nifest
qu a l it ies.
W h en a n
o bjec t
bec a me
kno wn,
a c c o rding
t o t h is
psyc h o l o gy,
it bec a me
kno wn
t h ro u gh
it s sense
ima ge."
As it wa s
sensed,
it s ma nifest
qu a l it ies
ent ered
t h e
ima gina t io n
wit h o u t t h e ma t t er
c o mpo sing
t h e
o bjec t .
Th e fo rms in t h e
ima gi-
na t io n were ident ic a l t o t h e sensibl e fo rms in t h e
o bjec t ,
a nd t h e mo du s
o pera ndi
o f t h e h u ma n int el l ec t wa s t h e
"sift ing"
o f t h ese fo rms t o a bst ra c t t h e u niversa l
a nd essent ia l fo rms fro m t h e a c c ident a l a nd
singu l a r.
Th a t
pro c ess ju st
c o u l d no t
o c c u r in t h e a bsenc e o f a sense
ima ge,
a nd a n o c c u l t
qu a l it y
wa s a
fo rt io ri
o u t side
t h e
sc o pe
o f t h e h u ma n int el l ec t . As
Aqu ina s
c o mment s,
"a l l t h e
o bjec t s
o f o u r
u nderst a nding
a re inc l u ded wit h in t h e
ra nge
o f sensibl e
t h ings exist ing
in
spa c e.
. . . W h enever t h e int el l ec t
a c t u a l l y rega rds a nyt h ing,
t h ere mu st a t t h e sa me t ime
be fo rmed in u s a
ph a nt a sm [i.e.,
sense
ima ge]";
a nd
el sewh ere,
"Ma n is no t
c o mpet ent
t o
ju dge
o f int erio r a c t io ns t h a t a re h idden
[qu i
l a t ent ] bu t
o nl y
o f
ext erio r mo t io ns t h a t a re ma nifest
[qu i a ppa rent ].
"12 Su c h a
po sit io n
c o u l d wel l be
u sed t o
deny
t h a t Go d is kno wa bl e, sinc e h e is t h e
prime exa mpl e
o f a n o c c u l t
c a u se, a nd bo t h
Aqu ina s
a nd Sc o t u s c o nsider t h e
a rgu ment
wh en
exa mining
t h e
bo u nds o f h u ma n rea so n. Th is view h a d t h e a t t ra c t io n o f
impl ying
a
ma jo r
l imit a -
t io n o n rea so n a s
o ppo sed
t o fa it h a nd
su ppo rt ing
t h e t ra dit io na l
skept ic ism
o f
Ch rist ia n
t h eo l o gy,
bu t bo t h
Aqu ina s
a nd Sc o t u s wish t o est a bl ish t h a t a mea su re
o f na t u ra l
kno wl edge
o f Go d is
po ssibl e.
So
Aqu ina s
do es a l l o w so me
epist emic
a c c ess t o insensibl e c a u ses, bu t h e insist s t h a t su c h
kno wl edge, a c qu ired
fro m
sensed effec t s o f t h e c a u se, is defec t ive
kno wl edge, no nqu iddit ive
in c h a ra c t er.
13
Th a t
Aqu ina s
did no t see t h ese
epist emic pro bl ems
a s rest ric t ed
so l el y
t o t h e
a rena o f
t h eo l o gy a ppea rs
fro m h is
o pinio n
t h a t
ma gnet ism
wa s
beyo nd h u ma n
c o mpreh ensio n.
Th is
pessimism
a bo u t
u nderst a nding
t h e na t u re o f
ma gnet ism wa s
very c o mmo n, a nd
persist ed u p
t o t h e end o f t h e sixt eent h
c ent u ry
a nd
beyo nd.
In
1597, fo r
exa mpl e,
W il l ia m Ba rl o w c o nt ra st ed t h e
ma rvel o u s-bu t -expl ic a bl e be-
h a vio i o f
gu npo wder
wit h t h e
t ru l y inexpl ic a bl e
beh a vio r o f t h e
ma gnet .14
Simi-
l a rl y, Au gst ine
c it ed t h e o c c u l t issimi c h a ra c t erist ic s o f
qu ic kl ime, c h a ra c t erist ic s
t h a t c a nno t be
direc t l y
sensed
yet
c a n be
"experienc ed" (sed c o mpert u s experi-
ment o ) in t h e sense t h a t
t h ey
h a ve sensibl e effec t s, a s a
pa ra l l el
in t h e ma t eria l
wo rl d t o t h e mira c l es o f Ch rist ia n t ra dit io n. Henc e h e
impl ied t h a t t h e beh a vio r o f
qu ic kl ime,
wh ic h
gro ws
h o t wh en mixed wit h t h e c o l d el ement
wa t er, yet rema ins
c o o l wh en mixed wit h infl a mma bl e
o il , is
beyo nd
ma n's
u nderst a nding. Twel ve
h u ndred
yea rs
l a t er
Au gu st ine's exa mpl e
wa s st il l
being
u sed a s a
spec imen
o f a
'?Au gu st ine, Co nt ra a c a demic o s 1.7.20; Au gu st ine, De c ivit a t e dei 9.22, 10.8-11, 21.6; Aqu ina s,
Su mma
t h eo l o gia e l a .57.4, l a . 110.4, l a . 114.4; Aqu ina s, Su mma c o nt ra gent il es 3. 101-107.
"See,
e.g., Aqu ina s, Su mma
t h eo l o gia e l a .85.1; Ra nda l l , Ca reer
o f Ph il o so ph y, Vo l . I,
pp.
31-
36.
'2Aqu ina s, Co mment a ry o n De a nima , p. 456; Su mma t h eo l o gia e l a .2a e.91.4.
13Du ns Sc o t u s, Ph il o so ph ic a l W rit ings,
ed. a nd t ra ns. A. W a l t er (Lo ndo n: Nel so n, 1963),
pp.
14-
33, Aqu ina s, Su mma
t h eo l o gia e l a .84.7; Su mma c o nt ra
gent il es
1.3. On Go d a s a n o c c u l t c a u se, see
Aqu ina s, Su mma
t h eo l o gia e l a .64.1; Ca l vin, Inst it u t es, Vo l . I, pp. 52, 209 (=I.v.l , I.xvi.9).
'4W il l ia m Ba rl o w, Th e
Na viga t o rs Su ppl y (Lo ndo n, 1597), pa ge o pp.
p. B.
238
OCCULT
QUALITIES
na t u ra l ma rvel "t h a t ma n's
u nderst a nding
. . .
ma y
no t
a ppreh end,"
bu t c o u l d
o nl y
be kno wn
t h ro u gh experienc e.15
Co rnel iu s
Agrippa 's
disc u ssio n o f o c c u l t
virt u es refl ec t s t h is sa me
genera l epist emic
a t t it u de:
Th ere a re . . . vert u es in
t h ings,
wh ic h a re no t fro m
a ny
El ement ,
a s t o
expel l po yso n,
t o drive
a wa y
t h e no xio u s
va po u rs
o f
Minera l s,
t o a t t ra c t
Iro n,
o r
a ny t h ing
el se; a nd
t h is vert u e is a
sequ el l
o f t h e
spec ies,
a nd fo rm o f t h is o r t h a t
t h ing;
wh enc e a l so it
being
l it l e in
qu a nt it y,
is o f
grea t effic a c y;
wh ic h is no t
gra nt ed
t o
a ny El ement a ry
qu a l it y.
Fo r t h ese vert u es
h a ving
mu c h
fo rm,
a nd l it l e
ma t t er,
c a n do
very
mu c h ;
bu t
a n
El ement a ry vert u e,
bec a u se it h a t h mo re
ma t eria l it y, requ ires
mu c h ma t t er fo r it s
a c t ing.
And
t h ey
a re c a l l ed o c c u l t
qu a l it ies,
bec a u se t h eir Ca u ses l ie h id
[fro m
o u r
senses],
a nd ma ns int el l ec t c a nno t in
a ny wa y rea c h ,
a nd find t h em o u t . W h erefo re
Ph il o so ph ers
h a ve a t t a ined t o t h e
grea t est pa rt
o f t h em
by l o ng experienc e [a nd c o njec -
t u re],
ra t h er t h en
by
t h e sea rc h o f rea so n.16
Agrippa
ma kes t h e
dist inc t io n,
a l rea dy
met in
Au gu st ine,
bet ween
sensing
a n
ent it y
a nd
experienc ing it ,
o c c u l t
qu a l it ies being
wit h in t h e rea l m o f
experienc e,
bu t o u t side t h e rea l m o f sense. Th e fa c t t h a t Arist o t el ia nism
emph a sized
t h e
dependenc e
o f na t u ra l
ph il o so ph y u po n
sense
ima ges
is o ft en
rega rded
a s evidenc e
o f t h e
"empiric a l "
na t u re o f sc h o l a st ic
t h o u gh t .
Bu t t o insist o n direc t sensa t io n a s
t h e fo u nda t io n o f o ne's
epist emo l o gy
is t o deva l u e a l l o t h er fo rms o f
experienc e.
Th u s in t h e sevent eent h
c ent u ry Henry
Po wer c o u l d
c a st iga t e
t h e Arist o t el ia ns fo r
being
"So ns o f Sense" wh il e h imsel f
rec o mmending
a n
experient ia l ph il o so ph y.17
Sc h o l a st ic sc ient ia wa s rel u c t a nt t o dea l wit h ent it ies wh ic h c o u l d
o nl y
be
exper-
ienc ed, a nd h enc e t h is
ph il o so ph y
mu st be
rega rded
a s
h a ving
viewed
experienc e
a s a
po o r
ba sis fo r
kno wl edge.
Sinc e
experienc e no rma l l y
indic a t es effec t s
sepa -
ra t ed fro m t h eir c a u ses, it did no t seem t o
su ppl y
t h e c a u ses
requ ired by
t h e
Arist o t el ia n
c o nc ept io n
o f
epist eme.'8 Fu rt h ermo re, even t h e effec t s t h emsel ves
were
c o mmo nl y t h o u gh t
t o be in do u bt , fo r, a s Ho bbes
pu t it , "t o remember a l l t h e
c irc u mst a nc es t h a t
ma y
a l t er t h e su c c ess is
impo ssibl e."
Th is
ph il o so ph ic a l
a t t i-
t u de, a remna nt o f
Arist o t el ia nism, expl a ins wh y Kepl er a do pt s
a
ma rkedl y
defen-
sive t o ne wh en h e insist s t h a t
experienc e
is
u l t ima t el y rel ia bl e, a nd t h a t t h e o l d
wives' t a l es
po l l u t ing c o nt empo ra ry kno wl edge
o f o c c u l t a c t io ns c a n indeed be
el imina t ed:
So me l o vers o f na t u re . . . h a ve fo u nd t h ere a re a t t ribu t ed t o t h e st a rs effec t s t h a t a re
c ert a inl y
no t fa bric a t ed, bu t t h a t
t h ro u gh pro t ra c t ed empiric a l experienc e
a re a t t est ed
a s
rega rds
so me
genera l c o nsist enc y [c o nvenient ia ]. Simil a rl y,
t h e
ph ysic ia n
first
derives fro m
experienc e
t h a t so me h erb, c o l l ec t ed bet ween t wo
[fest ive] da ys
. . . is
su ppo sed
t o be
go o d
fo r t h is o r t h a t
spec ific a il ment ; no w, sinc e a
very grea t
nu mber o f
su c h
o bserva t io ns, c ert a inl y fa l se, h a ve
no t h ing
t o do wit h t h e ma t t er . . . su c h a s t h e
fest ive-da ys
in t h emsel ves, su c h a h erb is u sed
effec t ivel y
a nd
c u ra t ivel y
bec a u se o f it s
o wn na t u re, o r bec a u se o f a
qu a l it y
t h a t it h a s in c o mmo n wit h
ma ny
o t h er h erbs ....
Th erefo re, in t h e c a se o f ma t eria medic a , experienc e
is no t
su spec t ,
bu t
dil igent
ph ysic ia ns kno w h o w t o c u l t iva t e t h is
empiric a l kno wl edge
so t h a t it is no
l o nger
mere
empiric ism
o r o l d wives' l o re, bu t
so met h ing t ru e, rel ia bl e. In
every wa y
it is a l so l ike
t h is wit h
a st ro l o gic a l experienc e.
. ... Th u s, ju st
a s t h ere is l it t l e c a u se t o exc l u de
"SAu gu st ine, Civit a t e dei 21.4-5; Th e Bo o k
o f Sec ret s
o f Al bert u s
Ma gnu s, ed. M. R. Best a nd
F. H.
Brigh t ma n (c a . 1550; Oxfo rd: Cl a rendo n Press, 1973), pp. 82, 104.
16Heinric h Co rnel iu s
Agrippa o f Net t esh eim, Th ree Bo o ks
o f Oc c u l t
Ph il o so ph y, t ra ns. J. Frenc h
(Lo ndo n, 1651), p.
24
(=
1.10) (insert ing ma t eria l fro m
p. 34).
'7Po wer, Experiment a l Ph il o so ph y, prefa c e. Cf. Sec ret s o f Al bert u s Ma gnu s, pp. 82-83.
'8See, e.g., Aqu ina s, Co mment a ry o n t h e
Met a ph ysic s, Vo l . I, p. 13; Th o rndike, Hist o ry, Vo l .
I,
p. 585; Vo l . II, pp. 71, 508-509, 769; Vo l . VI, p. 358.
239
KEITH HUTCHISON
medic ine fro m t h e nu mber o f t h e a rt s
by
rea so n o f fa l se o r defec t ive
experienc e,
so
t h ere is a s l it t l e c a u se t o dema nd t h is o f t h e ent ire a nd
perfec t a st ro l o gy.
... In it s
enqu iry
int o t h e kinds a nd
pro pert ies
o f
h erbs,
medic ine
init ia l l y
knew
no t h ing
o f
nec essa ry
a nd c ert a in
c a u ses,
bu t h a s
fina l l y
l ea rnt o f t h ese
t h ro u gh dil igenc e
a nd
ra t io na l
c o njec t u re,
a nd it is t o so me ext ent st il l
seeking.
. ..
9
Sensibil it y
a nd t h e Fo u r El ement s. Ano t h er
impo rt a nt
idea int ro du c ed in t h e
pa ssa ge
fro m
Agrippa
is t h e c l a ssific a t io n o f a
qu a l it y
a s o c c u l t if it c a nno t be
a c c o u nt ed fo r in t erms o f t h e fo u r el ement s o f Arist o t el ia n su bl u na r
c o smo l o gy.
Th is
defic ienc y
wa s
c o mmo nl y
h el d t o define a n o c c u l t
qu a l it y.20
Sinc e t h e fo u r
el ement s fu nc t io ned a s t h e ba sic
princ ipl es
o f
"perc ept ibl e bo dy"
in Arist o t el ia n
ph ysic s,
t h e definit io n is
effec t ivel y equ iva l ent
t o t h a t fo rmu l a t ed in t h e
qu o t a t io n
given
fro m Sennert . Arist o t l e h imsel f
present ed
t h e fo u r-el ement
t h eo ry
in t h e
c o u rse o f
a na l yzing
t h e sensibl e
qu a l it ies
o f ma t t er.
Aqu ina s
a l so rel a t es t h e fo u r-
el ement
t h eo ry
t o a
t h eo ry
o f
sensa t io n,
u sing
it t o
a rgu e
t h a t o u r senses a re
c o mpl et e: qu a l it ies
t h a t
migh t
be sensed
by a ny h ypo t h et ic a l
a ddit io na l
sense,
h e
seems t o
a rgu e,
wo u l d
requ ire
t h a t t h ere be a ddit io na l el ement s
beyo nd
t h e t ra di-
t io na l fo u r. He dismisses t h e idea
a bru pt l y.21
Idio sync ra sy o f
Insensibl e
Ac t io ns.Apa rt
fro m
c o nfirming
t h a t o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
c o u l d no t be h a ndl ed
by
h u ma n
rea so n,
c o nsigning
t h em o u t side t h e fo u r-el ement
syst em
a l so
su ppo rt ed
t h e view t h a t o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
were no t
u niversa l l y
dist ribu t -
ed in na t u re. Sinc e t h e
Peripa t et ic
idea l o f sc ient ia dea l t
o nl y
wit h c a u ses wh ic h
were u niversa l
(o r
nea r-u niversa l ), t h is wa s
yet
a no t h er
gro u nd
fo r
exc l u ding
o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
fro m t h e
pro vinc e
o f sc ient ific
kno wl edge. Indeed, a n o c c u l t
qu a l it y
wa s o ft en referred t o a s a
pro pert y
o r
idio sync ra sy,
t ec h nic a l t erms u sed t o
indic a t e t h a t it wa s
pec u l ia r
t o a
rel a t ivel y
na rro w c l a ss o f individu a l s, a s
o ppo sed
t o t h e ma nifest
qu a l it ies,
wh ic h refl ec t ed u niversa l c h a ra c t erist ic s o f t h e fo u r
el ement s
present
in a l l t errest ia l bo dies.
Every
individu a l
bo dy
in t h e
su bl u na ry
wo rl d wa s simil a r t o
every
o t h er
bo dy by
virt u e o f it s
being c o mpo sed
o f t h e
el ement s, bu t it wa s a l so a
u niqu e bo dy
t o t h e ext ent t h a t it h a d a n individu a l
c o mpo sit io n,
sh a red t o so me ext ent wit h o t h er bo dies o f it s
spec ies
a nd
genu s.
Th e
o c c u l t
pro pert ies
o f t h e
bo dy
were seen a s a t t a c h ed t o so me
ent it y represent ing
t h is
individu a l it y,
su c h a s t h e su bst a nt ia l fo rm o f t h e
bo dy,
o r it s
"c o mpl exio n,"
o r
"t empera ment ,"
o r t h e "wh o l e su bst a nc e," o r t h e ma t h ema t ic a l
pro po rt io ns o f t h e
el ement s.22
W e h a ve
a l rea dy
seen t h a t
Aqu ina s expl a ined
t h e fa c t t h a t sa int s' bo nes
per-
fo rmed c u res wh ic h were sel ec t ive in na t u re
by pro po sing
t h a t su c h c u res were in
fa c t
perfo rmed su perna t u ra l l y, bu t a na t u ra l ist ic
expl a na t io n
c o u l d a l so be
given
by pro po sing
t h a t sa int s' bo nes h a ve a n o c c u l t c u ra t ive virt u e t h a t
a ppl ies o nl y
t o
pa rt ic u l a r
individu a l
pa t ient s.
Th e mo st fa mo u s
pro po nent
o f t h is
a ppro a c h
t o
o c c u l t virt u es is Pa ra c el su s, wh o
rejec t ed
t h e
preva il ing t h eo ry
o f disea se a s
prima ril y
a diso rder o f t h e wh o l e
bo dy genera t ed by
a n imba l a nc e o f t h e fo u r
'9Th o ma s Ho bbes, Levia t h a n (Lo ndo n: Dent , 1973), p. 22; Jo h a nnes
Kepl er, Gesa mmel t e W erke,
Vo l . IV (Mu nic h : Bec k, 1941), pp.
163-164
(my
t ra nsl a t io n).
20Aqu ina s,
"Oc c u l t W o rks," p.
21. See a l so Th o rndike, Hist o ry, Vo l . II, pp. 664, 667, 892-893;
Vo l .
IIl , pp. 114, 130-139, 156, 240-245, 395, 408, 414, 440-441, 449, 483; Vo l . IV, p. 34.
2"Arist o t l e, On Genera t io n a nd
Co rru pt io n, 328b25-330a 30; Aqu ina s, Co mment a ry o n De a nima ,
pp. 352-353.
22Sennert , Na t u ra l
Ph il o so ph y, pp. 432, 436, 439; Th o rndike, Hist o ry, Vo l . 1, p. 643; Vo l . II, pp.
209-210, 535, 565-566, 854-855, 906, 910; Vo l . III, pp. 245-246, 395, 415, 429, 440-441, 448,
499, 543; Vo l . IV, pp. 190-191, 208, 532; Vo l . IV, pp. 369, 371; Sec ret s o f Al bert u s Ma gnu s, pp.
75-76.
240
OCCULT
QUALITIES
h u mo rs in fa vo r o f a
c o nc ept io n
o f disea se a s a
spec ific
a ffl ic t io n o f a
spec ific
sec t io n o f t h e
bo dy.
As su c h it wa s no t t o be a t t a c ked
by
u niversa l remedies a imed
a t
rest o ring bo dil y equ il ibriu m t h ro u gh
t h e ma nifest
qu a l it ies
o f t h e fo u r
el ement s,
bu t ra t h er
by spec ific
c h emic a l o r na t u ra l
a gent s
wit h a
spec ia l c a pa c it y
t o c u re t h e
pa rt ic u l a r
a ffl ic t io n in
qu est io n.
Th ese c u ra t ive virt u es were so
spec ific
t h a t
t h ey
were even
su bjec t
t o a
va ria bil it y
bo t h in t ime a nd bet ween individu a l
spec imens,
ju st
a s no t wo h u ma n bo dies a re ident ic a l :
If t h e
ph ysic ia n
is t o u fderst a nd t h e c o rrec t
mea ning
o f
h ea l t h ,
h e mu st kno w t h a t t h ere
a re mo re t h a n a
h u ndred,
indeed mo re t h a n a t h o u sa nd kinds o f
st o ma c h ; c o nsequ ent l y,
if
yo u ga t h er
a t h o u sa nd
perso ns,
ea c h o f t h em wil l h a ve a different kind o f
digest io n,
ea c h u nl ike t h e o t h ers. One
digest s
mo re,
t h e o t h er
l ess,
a nd
yet
ea c h st o ma c h is
su it a bl e t o t h e ma n it
bel o ngs
t o . ... It fo l l o ws t h a t no o ne drinks t h e sa me a mo u nt a s
a no t h er,
t h a t no o ne h a s t h e sa me t h irst a s a no t h er .. .23
Prec isel y
h o w h e
t h o u gh t
o ne c o u l d c o me t o kno w su c h
ra dic a l l y
individu a l
pro p-
ert ies Pa ra c el su s l ea ves u nc l ea r. He o ft en rec o mmends
experienc e, yet
rel ia nc e o n
experienc e presu ppo ses
so me
st a bil it y
in t h e virt u es
being
exa mined. Th e sa me
a ppl ies
a l so t o h is
a do pt io n
o f a do c t rine o f
"signa t u res," a c c o rding
t o wh ic h
na t u re h a s so
a rra nged t h ings
t h a t t h e o c c u l t c u ra t ive virt u e o f a
pl a nt
o r c h emic a l
wil l be indic a t ed
by
so me ma nifest ext erna l
"sign," ju st
a s a ma n's int erna l
c h a ra c t er is revea l ed
by
h is ext erna l
ph ysio gno my.
Th u s t h e
"Siegwu rz
ro o t is
wra pped
in a n
envel o pe
l ike a rmo u r; a nd t h is is a
ma gic sign sh o wing
t h a t l ike
a rmo u r it
gives pro t ec t io n a ga inst wea po ns.
And t h e
Syderic a
bea rs t h e
ima ge
a nd
fo rm o f a sna ke o n ea c h o f it s l ea ves, a nd t h u s, a c c o rding
t o
ma gic ,
it
gives
pro t ec t io n a ga inst a ny
kind o f
po iso ning.
"24
Perh a ps
t h e
t ru l y idio sync ra t ic
virt u es
in na t u re c o u l d
o nl y
be
rec o gnized by
t h e
su pra ra t io na l
int u it io ns o f individu a l
a dept s. Onl y dependenc e
o n
experienc e
rema ined c u rrent a s a so l u t io n o f Mo n-
t a igne's epist emo l o gic a l impa sse
a t t h e end o f t h e sevent eent h
c ent u ry,
bu t t h e
su rviva l o f t h a t so l u t io n
requ ired exil ing
o c c u l t virt u es t h a t were no t u niversa l in
sc o pe.
Al l Ac t io ns
Ul t ima t el y
Sensibl e in Kind. So me Arist o t el ia ns
rec o gnized
t h e fo rc e
o f t h e
a rgu ment
fro m
experienc e,
a nd
a c kno wl edged
t h a t t h ere were
signific a nt
insensibl e a c t io ns in t h e ma t eria l wo rl d. Bu t t o rec o nc il e t h is
a c c ept a nc e
wit h t h eir
t h eo ret ic c o mmit ment t o
sensibil it y, t h ey
reso rt ed t o wh a t
migh t
be c a l l ed a "ma n-
ifest iza t io n" o f o c c u l t
qu a l it ies. Al t h o u gh ,
fo r
exa mpl e, Agrippa
del inea t es o c c u l t
virt u es a s t h o se wh ic h exc eed t h e el ement a l
po wers,
a
go o d
dea l o f h is disc u ssio n
prio r
t o t h e
pa ssa ge qu o t ed gives
el ement a l a c c o u nt s o f
ma ny pro pert ies
o f
o bjec t s
t h a t o t h ers wo u l d
t ypic a l l y
h a ve c l a ssified a s o c c u l t .
Agrippa c l a ims,
fo r
exa mpl e,
t h a t t h e
st ra nge
beh a vio r o f
qu ic kl ime
no t ed
by Au gu st ine
do es in fa c t "fo l l o w t h e
na t u re, a nd
pro po rt io n
o f t h e mixt io n o f t h e. . . vert u es" o f t h e el ement s. Su c h
ma nifest iza t io n o f o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
wa s
rea so na bl y
c o mmo n.25 It
a c c ept s
t h a t c er-
t a in a c t io ns in na t u re
ma y
be insensibl e a nd do es no t
int erpret
t h is
insensibil it y
a s
evidenc e t h a t t h e a c t io ns a re
su perna t u ra l ,
bu t it insist s t h a t t h e
insensibil it y
is
mo re o r l ess inc ident a l , a nd t h a t t h e a c t io ns a re
rea l l y
sensibl e in kind. Th e
23Pa ra c el su s, Sel ec t ed
W rit ings,
ed. Jo l a nde Ja c o bi, t ra ns. No rbert Gu t erma n (Lo ndo n: Ro u t l edge
&
Kega n Pa u l , 1951), p.
161. See a l so
pp. 102-103, 152-153, 170-171,
203.
241bid., p. 197.
25Agrippa ,
Oc c u l t
Ph il o so ph y, pp. 22-23; c f. Sec ret s
o f
Al bert u s
Ma gnu s, pp. 78-79; Sennert ,
Na t u ra l
Ph il o so ph y, pp.
433-438. See a l so Th o rndike, Hist o ry,
Vo l . II, pp. 564, 908;
Vo l . III, pp.
481-483, 531; Vo l .
IV, p. 228; Vo l .
VI, p.
358.
241
KEITH HUTCHISON
a ppro a c h a c c ept s
o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
a s effec t s t o be a c c o u nt ed
fo r,
a nd
a t t empt s
t o
a c c o u nt fo r t h ese effec t s in t erms o f
qu a l it ies
wh ic h a re
preeminent l y int el l igibl e.
Bu t o t h er
ph il o so ph ers
insist ed t h a t so me
qu a l it ies
were
genu inel y
o c c u l t .
Sennert ,
fo r
exa mpl e, a rgu ed
t h a t if
po iso ns rea l l y
did a c t
by
c o l d,
t h en ic e wo u l d be a
po iso n pa r
exc el l enc e: a nd no c o mbina t io n o f
h o t , c o l d, mo ist ,
a nd
dry
wo u l d ever
pro du c e ma gnet ic a t t ra c t io n,
ju st
a s no mixt u re o f
pigment s
wo u l d ever
pro du c e
a nyt h ing
bu t a
c o l o r,
even wh en mixed
by
t h e mo st skil l ed
pa int er.
Th e
ph il o s-
o ph er
h a d no
righ t
t o
expec t
t h a t
every
effec t h e finds in na t u re wo u l d be
rea dil y
int el l igibl e,
a nd h e h a d t o
a c c ept
effec t s a s h e fo u nd
t h em,
wh et h er
expl ic a bl e
o r
no t :
. . it is a ridic u l o u s
t h ing
t o
deny
t h a t wh ic h is ma nifest
by Experienc e,
bec a u se we
c a nno t t el t h e rea so n t h ereo f. As if it were
impo ssibl e a ny t h ing migh t h a ppen
in
Na t u re o f wh o se c a u se we a re
igno ra nt .
W e a re
igno ra nt
o f mo st
t h ings.
And t h erefo re
t h ey
t h a t wo u l d in Na t u ra l
Ph il o so ph y
find o u t t h e
Tru t h ,
a nd no t fa l int o wil d a nd
so ph ist ic a l Opinio ns, t h ey
mu st
begin
wit h
t h ings
kno wn t o t h e
Sense,
a nd so
pro c eed
t o t h e Ca u ses a nd
h a ving
fo u nd t h em
rejo yc e
in t h e W o rks o f
Na t u re;
a nd no t
finding
t h em,
c o nfess t h eir o wn
igno ra nc e;
bu t
by
no mea ns
deny t h ings
t h a t a re ma nifest . Fo r
it is l ess sh a mefu l
h a ving
fo u nd o u t t h e effec t t o be
igno ra nt
o f t h e
Ca u se,
wh ic h is
frequ ent l y
h id fro m t h e mo st
expert Ph il o so ph ers,
t h a n
t o get h er
wit h t h e c a u se t o be
igno ra nt
o f t h e effec t .26
OCCULT
QUALITIES
IN THE NEW PHILOSOPHIES
Th e Arist o t el ia ns wh o m Sennert a t t a c ks a re o ft en
"pra ised"
in
sec o nda ry
l it era -
t u re fo r t h eir
"mo dernit y"
in
denying
t h e exist enc e o f o c c u l t
a genc ies,
bu t t h is is a
very
du bio u s
ju dgment . Apa rt
fro m t h e
qu est io n
wh et h er t h ere is mu c h
po int
in t h e
h ist o ria n's
dist ribu t ing
su c h
l a u rel s,
it is
h a rdl y
a mo dern
po sit io n
t o insist t h a t t h e
so l e na t u ra l a c t io ns in t h e wo rl d a re
h o t , c o l d, mo ist ,
a nd
dry qu a l it ies. Despit e
t h eir va rio u s
differenc es,
a l l a dh erent s o f t h e new sc ienc e o f t h e sevent eent h
c ent u ry
were a t l ea st
a greed
t h a t a c t io ns
beyo nd
t h ese fo u r
perva ded
t h e
u niverse,
a nd t h a t su c h "o c c u l t " a c t io ns were wit h in t h e
sc o pe
o f t h e h u ma n int el l ec t .
Fu rt h ermo re,
su c h
a greement
wa s no t
merel y impl ic it
in t h eir
wo rk,
visibl e
o nl y
t o
t h e
ret ro spec t ive ga ze
o f t h e
h ist o ria n,
bu t it wa s
expl ic it
a nd sel f-c o nsc io u s.
Th ese inno va t o rs
o penl y a rgu ed
t h a t t h e
a bil it y
t o a c c o mmo da t e o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
wa s o ne o f t h e
signs
o f t h e
su perio rit y
o f t h eir new sc ienc e.
Insensibil it y
No To ken
o fl nc o rpo rea l it y:
Desc a rt es. Ju st a ft er h is
l o ng
disc u ssio n
o f t h e c a u se o f
ma gnet ism
in t h e
Princ ipl es,
Desc a rt es a nno u nc es h is c o nfidenc e
t h a t simil a r mec h a nic a l
expl a na t io ns
wil l
event u a l l y
be fo u nd fo r a l l o t h er o c c u l t
qu a l it ies:
t h ese h a ve
fina l l y
been
bro u gh t
wit h in t h e
sc o pe
o f sc ienc e: ". . . t h ere
a re no
qu a l it ies
wh ic h a re so
o c c u l t ,
no effec t s o f
sympa t h y
o r
a nt ipa t h y
so
ma rvel o u s o r so
st ra nge,
no r
a ny
o t h er
t h ing
so ra re in na t u re
(gra nt ed
t h a t it is
pro du c ed by pu rel y
ma t eria l c a u ses dest it u t e o f
t h o u gh t
a nd free
wil l ),
t h a t it s
rea so n c a nno t be
given by [t h e
princ ipl es
o f t h e mec h a nic a l
ph il o so ph y.]"27
Un-
l ike t h e
Arist o t el ia ns,
Desc a rt es do es no t h a ve t o
po sit
a n u nkno wa bl e
qu a l it a s
beh ind ea c h o c c u l t
qu a l it y.
Inst ea d h e c a n
give
a n
expl a na t io n
ba sed o n a n insensi-
bl e mec h a nism.
Fu rt h ermo re,
h e do es
exa c t l y
t h e sa me wit h ma nifest
qu a l it ies.
Th ere a re no
qu a l it a t es
beh ind t h em
eit h er,
a nd t h e
a ppa rent l y
sensibl e
qu a l it ies
o f
26Sennert ,
Na t u ra l
Ph il o so ph y, p. 435;
c f.
Bo yl e,
W o rks,
Vo l .
III,
pp.
294,
297-301.
27Desc a rt es, Princ ipia ph il o so ph ia e,
Pt .
IV, ?187 (Oeu vres,
Vo l .
IX,
p. 309).
242
OCCULT
QUALITIES
bo dies a re a l so
genera t ed by
insensibl e mec h a nisms. Th ere rema ins t h u s no st ric t
dist inc t io n in Desc a rt es's
ph il o so ph y
bet ween t h e o c c u l t a nd t h e ma nifest . Al l
qu a l it ies
h a ve bec o me
o c c u l t ,
fo r t h ere a re no
pro pert ies
o f bo dies t h a t
direc t l y
ent er t h e int el l ec t in t h e ma nner o f t h e sensibl e fo rms o f t h e
Peripa t et ic s.
In
Desc a rt es's
view,
t h e fu nc t io n o f o u r
perc ept io ns
is no t t o
give
u s a direc t
pic t u re
o f
rea l it y,
bu t
simpl y
t o
sa fegu a rd
o u r bo dies. It is t h en ma nifest
qu a l it ies,
no t
o c c u l t
o nes,
t h a t Desc a rt es
rejec t s.
'Th is
rejec t io n
o f ma nifest
qu a l it ies
is in fa c t
c o mmo nl y rec o gnized
a s a n
impo r-
t a nt fea t u re o f t h e Sc ient ific
Revo l u t io n, t h o u gh
t h e fa c t t h a t it is
u su a l l y
referred
t o in Lo c kea n
t ermino l o gy,
a s "t h e dist inc t io n bet ween
prima ry
a nd
sec o nda ry
qu a l it ies,"
o bsc u res it s c o nnec t io n wit h t h e
pro bl em
o f o c c u l t c a u ses. To
insist ,
a s
a dh erent s t o t h is dist inc t io n
did,
t h a t o ne's
psyc h o l o gic a l perc ept io n
o f a sensibl e
qu a l it y
is o f a different o rder o f
rea l it y
fro m t h e
ph ysic a l
c a u se o f t h a t
qu a l it y
is
t a nt a mo u nt t o
dec l a ring
t h a t c a u se o c c u l t . So
a c c ept ing
Lo c ke's dist inc t io n is
equ iva l ent
t o
denying
t h e exist enc e o f ma nifest
qu a l it ies,
a nd o n t h is
po int
a l l
pro po nent s
o f
a ny
fo rm o f t h e mec h a nic a l
ph il o so ph y
were
a greed, t h o u gh
few
expressed
it t h is
wa y.
On t h e
c o nt ra ry, ma ny
ret a ined t h e
t ermino l o gy
o f t h e
Arist o t el ia n
dist inc t io n,
bu t
reint erpret ed
t h a t
t ermino l o gy, perh a ps
no t t o o c o n-
sc io u sl y,
t o a c c o rd wit h t h eir o wn
o u t l o o k. Bu t t h e
persist enc e
o f
t h e o l d
t ermino l o gy
sh o u l d no t
prevent
u s fro m
rec o gnizing
t h a t t h e new
ph il o s-
o ph y
did no t a l l o w t h a t bo dies h a d a t t ribu t es t h a t were ma nifest in t h e Arist o t el ia n
sense. Th e
o nl y
a t t ribu t es t h a t bo dies h a ve a re t h o se wh ic h
sa t isfy
t h e Arist o t el ia n
c rit erio n fo r
being
o c c u l t .
Th is
rejec t io n
o f ma nifest
qu a l it ies
is
impl ic it
in mo st o f Desc a rt es's wo rk. Le
Mo nde
begins
wit h a direc t a t t a c k o n ma nifest
qu a l it ies,
a nd Desc a rt es
c o nst a nt l y
reit era t es h is
rejec t io n
o f t h em in t h e Medit a t io ns, wh ere h e
pa rt ic u l a rl y
wish es t o
deny
t h a t t h ere is
a nyt h ing espec ia l l y int el l igibl e
a bo u t t h e sensibl e, sinc e t h e a im
o f t h e wo rk is t o reverse
Peripa t et ic c o nc ept io ns
o f t h e rel a t ive
st rengt h s
o f na t u ra l
t h eo l o gy
a nd na t u ra l
ph il o so ph y.
Desc a rt es wish es t o sh o w t h a t na t u ra l
rea so ning
a l o ne c a n l ea d t o a
kno wl edge
o f Go d
su perio r
t o t h e
kno wl edge
it
gives
u s o f t h e
sensibl e wo rl d.28
No t
o nl y
do es Desc a rt es a t t a c k t h e
preva il ing
bel ief in t h e
espec ia l int el l igibil it y
o f t h e sensibl e, bu t h e a l so
c o nsc io u sl y
insist s o n t h e exist enc e o f insensibl e
ent it ies. He
rejec t s
t h e idea t h a t l a c k o f a sense
ima ge
o f t h ese
t h ings prevent s
u s
fro m
u nderst a nding
t h em a nd u ses h is mec h a nic a l
ph il o so ph y
t o
expl a in
h o w it is
t h a t su c h
t h ings
do no t
regist er
o n o u r senses:
. . .
[M]a ny
men a re u na bl e t o bel ieve t h a t t h ere is
a ny
su bst a nc e u nl ess it is
ima gin-
a bl e a nd
c o rpo rea l
a nd even sensibl e. . . .
[T]h ey
persu a de
t h emsel ves ... t h a t t h ere
is no
bo dy
wh ic h is no t sensibl e. ... I c o nsider t h a t t h ere a re
ma ny pa rt ic l es
in ea c h
bo dy
wh ic h c a nno t be
perc eived by
o u r senses, a nd t h is wil l
perh a ps
no t be
a ppro ved
by
t h o se wh o t a ke t h eir senses a s a mea su re o f t h e
t h ings t h ey
c a n kno w. . . .
[I]t
sh o u l d no t be wo ndered a t t h a t we a re u na bl e t o
perc eive very
minu t e bo dies, fo r t h e
nerves wh ic h mu st be mo ved
by o bjec t s
in o rder t o c a u se u s t o
perc eive,
a re no t
very
minu t e . .. a nd t h u s c a nno t be mo ved
by
t h e minu t est o f bo dies.29
28Desc a rt es, Th e
Ph il o so ph ic a l W o rks
o f Desc a rt es, t ra ns. E. S. Ha l da ne & G. R. T. Ro ss (Ca m-
bridge: Ca mbridge Univ. Press, 1931), Vo l . I,
pp.
133-134.
29Ibid., pp. 209, 251, 297. Cf.
Bo yl e, W o rks, Vo l . I, p. 516; Ch a rl et o n, Ph ysio l o gia Epic u ro -
Ga ssendo Ch a rl t o nia na (1654; New Yo rk: Jo h nso n, 1966), pp. 113-116; Fra nc is Ba c o n, W o rks,
t ra ns. a nd ed. J.
Spedding,
R. L. El l is, a nd D. D. Hea t h , 14 vo l s. (Lo ndo n, 1858-1861), Vo l . IV, p.
26.
243
KEITH HUTCHISON
Sensibil it y
No To ken
o f
Int el l igibil it y:
Ch a rl et o n. Th e mo st
expl ic it
disc u ssio n
t h a t I h a ve c o me a c ro ss o f t h e idea t h a t bo dies do no t h a ve ma nifest a t t ribu t es
o c c u rs in W a l t er Ch a rl et o n's
Ph ysio l o gia Epic u ro -Ga ssendo -Ch a rl t o nia na .
Th is
bo o k c o nt a ins a n
il l u mina t ing c h a pt er
ent it l ed "Oc c u l t
Qu a l it ies
Ma de
Ma nifest ,"
t h o u gh
"Ma nifest
Qu a l it ies
Ma de Oc c u l t " wo u l d
perh a ps
be a mo re a c c u ra t e
desc ript io n.
In t h is
c h a pt er
Ch a rl et o n
a t t empt s,
l ike
Desc a rt es,
t o
give
a "sc ient i-
fic " t rea t ment o f o c c u l t
qu a l it ies by dra ft ing
mec h a nic a l
expl a na t io ns
fo r t h em.
Ch a rl et o n
begins by expl ic it l y rejec t ing
no t t h e exist enc e o f o c c u l t
qu a l it ies,
bu t
ra t h er t h e
Peripa t et ic
dist inc t io n bet ween t h e o c c u l t a nd t h e ma nifest . Al l
qu a l it ies,
redness
ju st
a s mu c h a s
ma gnet ism,
h e
a rgu es,
a re
o c c u l t ,
fo r t h e c a u ses o f wh a t
t h e Arist o t el ia ns see a s a
simpl e
a c t o f sense
perc ept io n
a re
rea l l y qu it e c o mpl ex,
a nd
dependent u po n
t h e h idden mec h a nic a l st ru c t u re o f ma t t er:
. . . t h e Sc h o o l s ... t o o
bo l dl y pra esu ming,
t h a t a l l t h o se
Qu a l it ies
... wh ic h
bel o ng
t o t h e
ju risdic t io n
o f t h e
senses,
a re
dependent u po n
Kno wn
Ca u ses,
a nd
depreh ended
by
Kno wn
Fa c u l t ies,
h a ve t h erefo re t ermed t h em
Ma nifest :
a nd a s
inc irc u msc ript l y
c o nc l u ding,
t h a t a l l t h o se
Pro priet ies
o f
Bo dies,
wh ic h fa l l no t u nder t h e
Co gniza nc e
o f eit h er o f t h e
Senses,
a re derived fro m o bsc u re a nd u ndisc o vera bl e
Ca u ses,
a nd
perc eived by
Unkno wn
Fa c u l t ies;
h a ve
a c c o rdingl y
det ermined t h em t o be
Imma nifest
o r Oc c u l t . No t t h a t we da re be
gu il t y
o f su c h
u npa rdo na bl e Va nit y
a nd
Arro ga nc e,
a s
no t mo st
wil l ingl y
t o c o nfess, t h a t t o Ou rsel ves a l l t h e
Opera t io ns o f
Na t u re a re meer
Sec ret s; t h a t in a l l h er
a mpl e c a t a l o gu e
o f
Qu a l it ies,
we h a ve no t met wit h so mu c h a s
o ne, wh ic h is no t
rea l l y
Imma nifest a nd Abst ru se, wh en we c o nvert o u r
t h o u gh t s
eit h er
u po n
it s Genu ine a nd Pro xime Ca u ses, o r
u po n
t h e Rea so n a nd Ma nner o f it s
perc ep-
t io n
by
t h a t Sense, wh o se
pro per Objec t
it is: a nd
c o nsequ ent l y,
t h a t a s t h e
Sensibil it y
o f a
t h ing
do t h no e
wa y pra esu ppo se
it s
Int el l igibil it y,
bu t t h a t
ma ny t h ings,
wh ic h a re
mo st o bvio u s a nd
o pen
t o t h e Sense, a s t o t h eir
Effec t s, ma y yet
be remo t e a nd in t h e
da rk t o t h e
Underst a nding,
a s t o t h eir Ca u ses ...
30
To
sa y
t h a t Ch a rl et o n a nd Desc a rt es
rejec t ed
qu a l it ies
bu t
a c c ept ed
o c c u l t o nes is no t , o f c o u rse, t o
sa y
t h a t
t h ey a c c ept ed
t h e exist enc e
o f
every a genc y pu t
int o t h is c l a ssific a t io n
by
o ne o r a no t h er o f t h eir
o ppo nent s.
Ac c o rdingl y,
mo st o f Ch a rl et o n's
c h a pt er
is a n a t t a c k o n t h e no t io ns o f
sympa t h ies
a nd
a nt ipa t h ies, "windy
t erms" (a s Ch a rl et o n c a l l s t h em) referring,
no t t o rea l
a c t io ns a t a dist a nc e, bu t t o t h e mere visibl e effec t s o f insensibl e mec h a nism:
Th e mea ns u sed in
every
c o mmo n a nd Sensibl e At t ra c t io n . . . o f o ne Bo die
by
a no t h er, every
ma n o bserves t o be Ho o ks, Lines, o r so me su c h int ermedia t e Inst ru -
ment c o nt inu ed fro m t h e At t ra h ent t o t h e At t ra c t ed; a nd in
every Repu l sio n
. . . t h ere
is u sed so me Po l e, Lever, o r o t h er
Orga n.
. ...
W h y
t h erefo re sh o u l d we no t c o nc eive,
t h a t in
every
Cu rio u s a nd Insensibl e At t ra c t io n o f o ne bo die
by
a no t h er, Na t u re ma kes
u se o f c ert a in sl ender Ho o ks, Lines, [a nd] Ch a ins . . . a nd l ikewise . . . in
every
Sec ret
Repu l sio n.
. . . Bec a u se, a l beit t h o se Her Inst ru ment s be invisibl e a nd
imper-
c ept ibl e; yet
a re we no t t h erefo re t o c o nc l u de, t h a t t h ere a re no ne su c h a t a l l . . . . [F]o r
u s t o a ffirm, t h a t
no t h ing
Ma t eria l is emit t ed fro m t h e Lo a dst o ne t o Iro n . . .
o nl y
bec a u se o u r sense do t h
depreh end no t h ing
. . . is a n
Argu ment
o f
equ a l weigh t
wit h
t h a t o f t h e Bl ind ma n, wh o denied t h e
Being
o f
Ligh t
a nd Co l o u rs, bec a u se He c o u l d
perc eive
no ne.31
Simil a rl y,
if a vio l t u ned wit h so me
st rings
o f
sh eep gu t
a nd so me o f wo l f
gu t
refu ses t o
pl a y
in
perfec t c o nso na nc e, t h e rea so n is no t a n o c c u l t
a nt ipa t h y
be-
30Ch a rl et o n, Ph ysio l o gia , pp.
341-342.
3Ibid.,
p.
344.
244
OCCULT
QUALITIES
t ween
sh eep
a nd wo l ves bu t ra t h er a n o c c u l t
mec h a nism,
"t h e a er
be[ing] u nequ a l -
l y perc u ssed
a nd
impel l ed by [t h e
t wo
st rings,
so
t h a t ]
t h e so u nds c rea t ed
by
o ne
. . . c o nfo u nd a nd dro wn t h e so u nds
resu l t ing
fro m t h e o t h er."32
Th e fa c t t h a t
Ch a rl et o n,
in c o mmo n wit h
ma ny
o f h is fel l o w mec h a nic a l
ph il o s-
o ph ers, rejec t s sympa t h ies
a nd
a nt ipa t h ies,
is evidenc e t h a t
migh t
be u sed t o
su ppo rt
t h e
desc ript io n
o f t h e sevent eent h
c ent u ry
a s
rejec t ing
t h e o c c u l t . In t h e
mo dern sense o f t h e
t erm,
t h is
desc ript io n
is
pro ba bl y qu it e
a c c u ra t e,
bu t it mis-
represent s
Ch a rl et o n's rea l a t t it u de. Ano t h er
po ssibl e piec e
o f evidenc e is a c l ea r
a t t a c k
by
Ch a rl et o n o n wh a t h e t erms "t h a t il l -c o nt rived
sa nc t u a ry
o f
igno ra nc e,
c a l l ed o c c u l t
qu a l it ies."
Th e Arist o t el ia ns wh o fo u nded t h is
sa nc t u a ry,
h e
sa ys,
t h o u gh t
it a su ffic ient Sa l vo fo r t h eir
Igno ra nc e, simpl y
t o a ffirme a l l su c h
Pro pert ies
t o be Oc c u l t ; a nd wit h o u t du e refl ec t io n
u po n
t h e
Inva l idit y
o f t h eir Fu nda ment a l s
t h ey
bl u sh ed no t t o
c h a rge
Na t u re Hersel f wit h t o o mu c h Cl o seness a nd
Obsc u rit y,
in t h a t
po int ,
a s if sh e int ended t h a t a l l
Qu a l it ies,
t h a t a re
Insensibl e,
sh o u l d a l so be
Inexpl ic a -
bl e. ...
[I]nst ea d
o f
set t ing
t h eir
Cu rio sit y
o n wo rk t o
invest iga t e
t h e Ca u ses
[o f
a
diffic u l t
pro bl em], t h ey l a y
it in a
deep sl eep,
wit h t h a t
infa t u a t ing o piu m
o f
Igno t e
Qu a l it ies:
a nd
yet expec t
t h a t men sh o u l d bel ieve t h em t o kno w a l l t h a t is t o be
kno wn,
a nd t o h a ve
spo ken
l ike Ora c l es . . .
t h o u gh
a t t h e sa me
inst a nt ,
t h ey
do a s mu c h
c o nfess,
t h a t indeed
t h ey
kno w
no t h ing
a t a l l o f it s Na t u re a nd Ca u ses.
Fo r,
wh a t
differenc e is
t h ere,
wh et h er we
sa y,
t h a t su c h a
t h ing
is
Oc c u l t ;
o r t h a t we kno w
no t h ing
o f it .33
In t h is
pa ssa ge
Ch a rl et o n
migh t
seem t o be
rejec t ing
o c c u l t
qu a l it ies,
bu t c l o se
sc ru t iny
revea l s a
su bt l y
different a t t it u de: wh a t Ch a rl et o n
rea l l y o bjec t s
t o is a
do c t rine o f o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
u sed a s a n int el l ec t u a l
refu ge,
a s t h e t ermina t io n ra t h er
t h a n init ia t io n o f a n
enqu iry.
Insensibl e
a genc ies c ert a inl y exist , in Ch a rl et o n's
view, a nd t h e na t u ra l
ph il o so ph er
h a s t o do a l o t mo re t h a n
simpl y designa t e
t h em:
h e mu st
invest iga t e
a nd
expl a in
t h em. Ch a rl et o n is
a t t a c king
no t o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
bu t t h e Arist o t el ia ns. Th e sa me
a ppl ies
t o
ma ny
o t h er
a ppa rent
a t t a c ks o n o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
in t h e sevent eent h
c ent u ry. Ho bbes,
fo r
exa mpl e,
ma kes a l mo st t h e sa me
po int
a s Ch a rl et o n:
in
ma ny
o c c a sio ns [t h e Arist o t el ia ns] pu t
fo r c a u se o f Na t u ra l l event s, t h eir o wn
Igno ra nc e;
bu t
disgu ised
in o t h er wo rds . . . a s wh en
t h ey
a t t ribu t e
ma ny
Effec t s t o
o c c u l t
qu a l it ies;
t h a t is, qu a l it ies
no t kno wn t o t h em; a nd t h erefo re a l so (a s t h ey
t h inke)
t o no Ma n el se. And t o
Sympa t h y, Ant ipa t h y, Ant iperist a sis Spec ific a l l Qu a l i-
t ies, a nd o t h er l ike Termes, wh ic h
signifie
neit h er t h e
Agent
t h a t
pro du c et h t h em, no r
t h e
Opera t io n by
wh ic h
t h ey
a re
pro du c ed.34
Ch a rl et o n's rema rks a l so
po int
t o a no t h er
ma jo r
t h eme o f t h e Sc ient ific Revo l u -
t io n: t h e
rec o gnit io n
t h a t na t u re is
permea t ed
wit h sec ret s t o wh ic h ma n h a s
rea so na bl e a c c ess. Like t h e
c l o sel y
rel a t ed exist enc e o f o c c u l t
pro pert ies,
t h is is
a c c ept ed
a s
c o mmo npl a c e t o da y.
Bec a u se it h a s bec o me a
h a c kneyed met a ph o r,
t h e int el l ec t u a l a dva nc e it
represent s
is o ft en
u na pprec ia t ed,
bu t t h e Sc ient ific
321bid., p.
357.
33Ibid., pp.
342-343.
34Ho bbes, Levia t h a n, pp.
371-372. Ano t h er wel l -kno wn "a t t a c k" is t h a t in Ga l il eo , Dia l o gu e
Co nc erning
t h e Two
Ch ief
W o rl d
Syst ems,
t ra ns. St il l ma n Dra ke
(Berkel ey:
Univ. Ca l ifo rnia Press,
1953), pp. 445, 462, wh ere Sa l via t i
sa ys
t h a t h e "c a nno t
bring
h imsel f t o
give
c redenc e t o su c h c a u ses
[o f t h e t ides] a s
l igh t s,
wa rm
t empera t u res
. . ., o c c u l t
qu a l it ies,
a nd simil a r idl e
ima ginings."
To
a rgu e
fro m t h is t h a t Ga l il eo sa w o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
a s "idl e
ima ginings"
is no mo re va l id t h a n t o
a rgu e
t h a t h e a l so sa w
l igh t
a nd h ea t a s "idl e
ima ginings."
Ga l il eo is in fa c t
rejec t ing
a l l c el est ia l infl u -
enc es, o c c u l t a nd ma nifest , o n t h e t ides.
245
KEITH HUTCHISON
Revo l u t io n,
wit h it s
emph a sis
o n
t h o ro u gh ness
a nd a c t ive
experiment a t io n
in
pl a c e
o f u nc rit ic a l
pa ssive
o bserva t io n,
depended
o n su c h a
rec o gnit io n. Virt u a l l y
a l l
sevent eent h -c ent u ry
sc ient ist s dra w a t t ent io n t o t h is issu e. Th u s
Ga l il eo ,
dis-
c u ssing
t h e
u nexpec t ed
resu l t s h e h a s disc o vered in h is
st u dy
o f t h e
st rengt h s
o f
ma t eria l s a nd t h e
st ra nge
effec t s o f
sc a l e,
o bserves "h o w c o nc l u sio ns t h a t a re t ru e
ma y
seem
impro ba bl e
a t a first
gl a nc e,
a nd
yet
wh en
o nl y
so me sma l l
t h ing
is
po int ed
o u t ,
t h ey
c a st o ff t h eir
c o nc ea l ing
c l o a ks
[l e
vest i c h e l e o c c u l t a va no ] a nd,
t h u s na ked a nd
simpl e, gl a dl y
sh o w o ff t h eir sec ret s." Ba c o n
simil a rl y
writ es o f
t h e need "t o
penet ra t e
int o t h e inner a nd fu rt h er rec esses o f
na t u re,"
a nd c rit ic izes
exist ing "spec u l a t io n"
fo r
c ea sing
"wh ere
sigh t
c ea ses. . . . Henc e a l l t h e wo rk-
ings
o f t h e
spirit s
enc l o sed in
t a ngibl e
bo dies l ies h id a nd u no bserved . . . u nl ess
t h ese . . .
t h ings
. . . be sea rc h ed o u t a nd
bro u gh t
t o
l igh t , no t h ing grea t
c a n be
a c h ieved in na t u re. .. ." To
get
a t t h e t ru t h Na t u re mu st be
int erro ga t ed
u nder
t o rt u re a nd
fo rc ed
t o revea l h er sec ret s. Ho o ke
u rged
a
st u dy
o f t h e
"ma ny
exc el -
l ent
Experiment s
a nd Sec ret s" o f t h e mec h a nic a l
a rt s,
a nd in t h e
Opt ic ks
Newt o n
a l so writ es o f t h e sea rc h fo r "t h e mo re sec ret a nd no bl e wo rks o f na t u re." It
is,
I
su ggest , impo rt a nt
no t t o disc o u nt t h ese
pa ssa ges
a s mere rh et o ric .
Th ey
a re
sympt o ms
o f a new
a ppro a c h
t o
na t u re,
new a t l ea st
a mo ng
men wh o m we
c l a ssify
a s na t u ra l
ph il o so ph ers
ra t h er t h a n
ma gic ia ns. Th o u gh
t h ere were nu mero u s
"bo o ks o f sec ret s"
c irc u l a t ing
befo re t h e sevent eent h
c ent u ry,
t h ese
genera l l y
h a d
a
po o r repu t a t io n,
a nd were no t
pa rt
o f o ffic ia l sc ienc e. One o f t h e mo st
widel y
kno wn o f su c h wo rks, t h e Bo o k
o f
Sec ret s
o f
Al bert u s
Ma gnu s,
fo r
exa mpl e,
expl ic it l y
c o nnec t s it sel f wit h t h e "sc ienc e o f ma gic "
a nd dec l a res t h a t it dea l s
wit h ma rvel s "in wh ic h we kno w no rea so n."35
Sensibil it y No To ken
o f Effec t iveness: Bo yl e. Like Desc a rt es a nd
Ch a rl et o n,
Ro bert
Bo yl e
t o o k a
st a nc e t h a t a ssu mes no u l t ima t e dist inc t io n
bet ween t h e o c c u l t a nd
seemingl y
ma nifest . Bu t
Bo yl e
o ft en a vo ided
emph a sizing
t h is
c o nsequ enc e
o f h is
a do pt ing
t h e mec h a nic a l
ph il o so ph y;
h e
frequ ent l y
u sed
t h e o l d
t ermino l o gy
o f o c c u l t a nd ma nifest
qu a l it ies
wit h o u t
c o nst a nt l y reminding
h is rea der t h a t h e did no t bel ieve ma nifest
qu a l it ies
were
rea l l y ma nifest , ju st
a s h e
did no t
c o nst a nt l y
remind h is rea der t h a t h e did no t bel ieve in
qu a l it a t es.
He wa s,
h e sa id, int erest ed in
t h ings,
no t wo rds, a nd h e wa s
frequ ent l y
c o nt ent t o u se a n
o l d fo rm o f wo rds, so
l o ng
a s t h e
c o nc ept io ns
t o be a t t a c h ed t o t h ese wo rds were
no t t h e o l d
misc o nc ept io ns.
Yet o n o c c a sio n h e did c o nfro nt t h e issu e a s t o wh a t
h is
t ermino l o gy
sh o u l d be t a ken t o mea n, a nd h e t h en endo rsed t h e idea s we h a ve
a l rea dy
met a bo ve. In t h e
Origin o f
Fo rms a nd
Qu a l it ies,
h e
expl ic it l y
denied t h e
exist enc e o f ma nifest
qu a l it ies-"t h ere
is no dist inc t
qu a l it y
in [a ] pin
a nswera bl e
t o wh a t I a m
a pt
t o
fa nc y pa in"-wh il e
t h e wh o l e o f t h e
Sc ept ic a l Ch ymist
c a n be
int erpret ed
a s a n el a bo ra t e
a rgu ment a ga inst
t h e exist enc e o f t h ese
qu a l it ies.
In t h is
wo rk
Bo yl e rejec t ed
t h e fo u r-el ement
t h eo ry by sh o wing
h o w
impo ssibl e
it wa s t o
u se t h a t
t h eo ry
t o a c c o u nt fo r o bserved effec t s: even c o l o rs, pa ra digma t ic ma nifest
qu a l it ies,
c o u l d no t be a c c o mmo da t ed. So
Bo yl e
sh o wed t h a t a l l
qu a l it ies
exc eed
t h e po wers
o f t h e el ement s a nd t h u s, l ike Desc a rt es a nd Ch a rl et o n, effec t ivel y
demo l ish ed t h e Arist o t el ia n dist inc t io n bet ween t h e o c c u l t a nd t h e ma nifest
by
a rgu ing
t h a t a l l
qu a l it ies
a re o c c u l t .36
35Ga l il eo , Two New Sc ienc es, t ra ns. St il l ma n Dra ke (Ma diso n:
Univ. W isc o nsin Press, 1974), p.
14; Ba c o n, No vu m o rga nu m, 1. 18, 50, 98; Ro bert Ho o ke, Po st h u mo u s W o rks, ed. R. W a l l er (1705;
New Yo rk: Jo h nso n, 1969), pp. 27, 36, 43; Isa a c Newt o n, Opt ic ks (1730;
New Yo rk: Jo h nso n, 1952),
p. 262; Sec ret s
o f
Al bert u s Ma gnu s, pp. xi, 3, 82.
36Bo yl e, W o rks, Vo l . II, pp. 83-96, Vo l . III, pp. 23-26, 41, 292-293, Vo l . IV, p.
340.
246
OCCULT
QUALITIES
Su c h
a rgu ment s, expl ic it
a nd
impl ic it , a ga inst
qu a l i-
t ies
Bo yl e su ppl ement ed
wit h o vert
su ppo rt
fo r o c c u l t
qu a l it ies. Perh a ps
h is fu l l est
disc u ssio n o f t h ese
qu a l it ies
t a kes
pl a c e
in a medic a l
c o nt ext ,
in a review o f t h e
c o nt ro versia l Pa ra c el sa n
t h eo ry
o f
spec ific
c u res.
Bo yl e
do es no t
rejec t
Pa ra c el -
su s's idea o f o c c u l t c u ra t ive virt u es bu t
spec ific a l l y
c o mmends t h e mec h a nic a l
ph il o so ph y
a s
being
a bl e t o a c c o mmo da t e su c h idea s.
"Amo ng
t h e severa l kinds o f
o c c u l t
qu a l it ies,"
h e
writ es, "[t h o se]
a ffo rded
by
t h e
spec ific
virt u es o f medic ines
? . .
a ppea r
t o be o f mu c h
grea t er impo rt a nc e,
t h a n . ..
c o mmo nl y t h o u gh t
. . .
bec a u se divers l ea rned
ph ysic ia ns
do . . . disfa vo u r t h e
c o rpu sc u l a r ph il o so ph y
[bec a u se]
t h ey
t h ink it c a nno t be rec o nc il ed t o t h e virt u es o f
spec ific
remedies.
. ." Indeed no t
o nl y
do es
Bo yl e
see o c c u l t
pro pert ies
a s rec o nc il a bl e wit h t h e
mec h a nic a l
ph il o so ph y,
bu t h e
expl ic it l y
a t t a c ks t h e Arist o t el ia ns fo r
refu sing
t o
rec o gnize
su c h virt u es. He a sc ribes t h eir refu sa l t o a n o u t wo rn t h eo ret ic a l c o mmit -
ment t o t h e view t h a t ma nifest effec t s c a n
o nl y
be
pro du c ed by
ma nifest
a genc ies:
[Th e rea so n] ph ysic ia ns
a re wo nt t o
rejec t ,
if no t
deride,
t h e u se o f su c h
spec ific ks,
a s
seem t o wo rk a ft er a sec ret a nd u nkno wn
ma nner,
a nd no t
by visibl y eva c u a t ing
pec c a nt
h u mo u rs
(o r by
o t h er
su ppo sedl y
ma nifest
qu a l it ies) [is] genera l l y
t h is;
t h a t
t h ey
see
no t ,
h o w t h e
pro mised
effec t s c a n wel l be
pro du c ed by
bo dies,
t h a t mu st wo rk
a ft er so
pec u l ia r
a nd u ndisc erned a ma nner. . . .
[T]h e
na t u ra l ist s
ma y
do mu c h
t o wa rds t h e remo va l o f t h is
impediment by sh ewing
. . . a s
st ra nge o pera t io ns,
a s a re
a sc ribed t o t h ese
spec ific ks,
a re no t wit h o u t
exa mpl e
in na t u re; a nd
c o nsequ ent l y
o u gh t
no t t o be
rejec t ed, ba rel y
a s
being impo ssibl e.
And indeed t h e
ph ysio l o gy
. . .
[o f] t h e sc h o o l s, h a s do ne . . . no sma l l disservic e, by a c c u st o ming [ph ysic ia ns]
t o
gro ss a ppreh ensio ns
o f na t u re's
wa ys
o f
wo rking.
W h enc e it c o mes t o
pa ss, t h a t no t a
few even l ea rned do c t o rs wil l never
expec t ,
t h a t
a ny grea t
ma t t er sh o u l d be
perfo rmed
in disea ses, by
su c h remedies, a s a re neit h er o bvio u s t o t h e sense, no r eva c u a t e
a ny
gro ss,
o r a t l ea st sensibl e ma t t er. W h erea s, very grea t
a l t era t io ns
ma y
be
wro u gh t
in a
bo dy, espec ia l l y
if
l iqu id,
a s is t h e bl o o d a nd
pec c a nt h u mo u r, wit h o u t t h e
ingress
o r
egress
o f
a ny
visibl e ma t t er, by
t h e int est ine c o mmo t io n o f t h e
pa rt s
o f t h e sa me
bo dy
a c t ing u po n a no t h er. . . . Ho w mu c h a n
u nperc eived
rec ess o f a few su bt il e
pa rt s
o f a
l iqu o r ma y
a l t er t h e na t u re o f it , ma y
be
gu essed a t , by
t h e o bvio u s
c h a nge
o f wine int o
vinega r;
wh erein
u po n
t h e a vo l a t io n (o r perh a ps
bu t t h e
mispl a c ing)
o f so l it t l e o f t h e
spirit u o u s
a nd
su l ph u reo u s pa rt ,
t h a t it s
presenc e, a bsenc e, o r new c o mbina t io n wit h
t h e o t h er
pa rt s
is no t disc ernibl e t o t h e
eye,
t h e sc a rc e dec rea sed
l iqu o r bec o mes o f a
qu it e differing
na t u re fro m wh a t it wa s. . . . Th a t . . . invisibl e
c o rpu sc l es ma y pa ss
fro m a mu l et s, o r o t h er ext erna l remedies, int o t h e bl o o d a nd h u mo u rs, a nd t h ere
pro du c e grea t c h a nges,
wil l sc a rc e seem
impro ba bl e
t o h im, t h a t c o nsiders, h o w
perspira bl e
... a
l iving bo dy
is. ....
And t o demo nst ra t e t h a t t h e mec h a nic a l
ph il o so ph y
c a n a c c o mmo da t e su c h a c -
t io ns, Bo yl e a rgu es
t h a t even in
o rdina ry ma c h ines, it is
qu it e
c o mmo n fo r ma ni-
fest effec t s t o h a ve h idden, o r a t l ea st
t iny,
c a u ses:
Th e fa int mo t io n o f a ma n's l it t l e
finger u po n
a sma l l
piec e
o f iro n, t h a t were no
pa rt
o f
a n
engine,
wo u l d
pro du c e
no c o nsidera bl e effec t ; bu t wh en a mu sket is
rea dy
t o be sh o t
o ff, t h en su c h a mo t io n
being a ppl ied
t o t h e
t rigger by
virt u e o f t h e c o nt riva nc e o f t h e
engine
. . . t h ro ws o u t t h e
po ndero u s l ea den-bu l l et , wit h vio l enc e
eno u gh
t o kil l a ma n
a t seven o r
eigh t
h u ndred fo o t dist a nc e.
And t h e sa me is t ru e o f t h e h u ma n
bo dy,
. . .t h a t sc a rc e sensibl e
qu a nt it ies
o f ma t t er, h a ving
o nc e o bt a ined a c c ess t o t h e ma ss
o f bl o o d . . .
ma y
. ..
give
su c h a new a nd u nna t u ra l
impediment
o r det ermina t io n t o
t h e mo t io n o f t h e bl o o d, a s t o
disc o mpo se
. . . it s t ext u re . . .
(a s a
spa rk
o f fire
redu c et h a wh o l e ba rrel o f
gu npo wder
. . .) need be ma nifest ed
by no t h ing,
bu t t h e
247
KEITH HUTCHISON
o pera t io ns
o f su c h
po iso ns,
a s wo rk no t
by a ny
o f t h o se
(wh ic h ph ysic ia ns
a re
pl ea sed
t o
c a l l ) Ma nifest
Qu a l it ies. Fo r
t h o u gh
I mu c h
fea r,
t h a t mo st o f
t h o se,
t h a t h a ve
writ t en
c o nc erning po iso ns, su ppo sing
t h a t men wo u l d ra t h er bel ieve t h a n
t ry
wh a t
t h ey rel a t e,
h a ve a l l o wed t h emsel ves t o del iver
ma ny t h ings
mo re
st ra nge
t h a n
t ru e;
yet
t h e kno wn effec t s o f a
very
sma l l
qu a nt it y
o f
o piu m,
o r o f
a rsenic k,
o f t h e sc a rc e
disc erna bl e h u rt ma de
by
a
viper's
t o o t h ,
a nd
espec ia l l y
o f t h e
bit ing
o f a ma d
do g,
(wh ic h so met imes, by
l ess o f h is
spit t l e
t h a n wo u l d
weigh
h a l f a
gra in,
su bdu es a
wh o l e
grea t
o x int o t h e l ike
ma dness,
a nd
pro du c et h t ru l y
wo nderfu l
sympt o ms
bo t h in
mens bo dies a nd
bea st s)
a re su ffic ient t o evinc e wh a t we
pro po sed.37
In t h is disc u ssio n o f
Bo yl e's
we c a n o bserve a
repet it io n
o f t h e idea t h a t we
enc o u nt ered in
Agrippa ,
t h a t o c c u l t
a genc ies pro du c e dispro po rt io na t el y l a rge
effec t s. Fra nc is Ba c o n t o o k su c h
"inequ a l it y"
bet ween c a u se a nd effec t a s o ne o f
t h e
defining
c h a ra c t erist ic s o f
ma gic .
It is t h en t h e
po o r h a ndl ing
o f su c h inst a nt ia e
ma gic a e by
Arist o t el ia nism t h a t
Bo yl e
is
c o mpa ring u nfa vo ra bl y
wit h t h e ea se o f
t h eir a c c o mmo da t io n
by
t h e mec h a nic a l
ph il o so ph y.38
No To kens
o f Int el l igibil it y
At Al l : Co nst ru c t ive
Skept ic ism. Bo yl e,
l ike Ch a rl e-
t o n,
wa s a
figu re
a c t ive in
a c h ieving
a rec o nc il ia t io n bet ween t h e new na t u ra l
ph il o so ph y
a nd t h e
skept ic ism
o f t h e l a t e sixt eent h
c ent u ry.
Th is
skept ic ism
wa s a
c o nt inu a t io n o f t h e medieva l deba t es o ver t h e ro l es o f revel a t io n a nd
rea so n,
a nd
t h e
pro bl em
o f
del inea t ing
t h e do ma in o f
c o mpet enc e
o f t h e h u ma n mind. La t e
sixt eent h -c ent u ry skept ic s
h a d ma int a ined t h a t t h e h u ma n mind wa s
t o t a l l y
inc o m-
pet ent , l ea ving
revel a t io n a s t h e
o nl y
so u rc e o f
kno wl edge.
In
respo nse
t o t h is
pa ra l yzing st a nc e, t h e do c t rine o f
"mit iga t ed"
o r "c o nst ru c t ive"
skept ic ism
wa s
devel o ped by Mersenne, Ga ssendi, a nd t h eir
Engl ish fo l l o wers, wh il e t h e Ca rt e-
sia ns ret rea t ed t o a new
do gma t ism. Ac c ept ing
t h a t t h e
Peripa t et ic
idea l o f
epis-
t eme wa s u na t t a ina bl e, t h e
mit iga t ed skept ic s
set t l ed fo r a n "inferio r" sc ienc e o f
a ppea ra nc es
a nd effec t s, in wh ic h t h e sea rc h fo r definit ive
kno wl edge
a bo u t u l t i-
ma t e
rea l it y
wa s a ba ndo ned. Sensa t io ns were
a c c ept ed (a ppa rent l y
o n t h e t h e-
o l o gic a l gro u nds
t h a t Go d is no dec eiver) a s
being genera l l y rel ia bl e, a nd
c a pa bl e
o f effec t ive sel f-c o rrec t io n in c a ses o f il l u sio n, bu t a t t empt s
t o
gl impse
t h e
Ding
a n
sic h beh ind t h ese
perc ept io ns
were seen a s fu t il e. Fo r
t h ings
o t h er t h a n int erna l
sensa t io ns, a do c t rine o f
"degrees
o f
c ert a int y"
wa s
a do pt ed,
a nd a ssent wa s
o nl y
t o be
gra nt ed pa rt ia l l y,
in
pro po rt io n
t o t h e evidenc e a va il a bl e.39
Su perfic ia l l y,
it
migh t
seem t h a t t h is c o nst ru c t ive
skept ic ism
wo u l d h a ve been
h o st il e t o t h e o c c u l t . It denied t h a t we wo u l d ever kno w t h e u l t ima t e sec ret s o f
na t u re, a nd in
denying
fu rt h er t h a t
a nyt h ing bu t t h e immedia t e sensa t io n is
c ert a in,
it seemed t o
su ppo rt
t h e
Peripa t et ic
c o nt ent io n t h a t t h e insensibl e is
u nint el l igibl e.
Bu t t h e skept ic s a rgu ed
t h a t
everyt h ing
el se wa s
equ a l l y u nint el l igibl e,
a nd h enc e
a ga in pu t
t h e ma nifest int o t h e sa me ba sket a s t h e o c c u l t : t h e c a u se o f redness wa s
ju st
a s
u nint el l igibl e
a s t h e c a u se o f
ma gnet ism,
a nd t h e effec t s o f
ma gnet ism
were
ju st
a s sensibl e a s t h e effec t s o f redness.40 As so o n a s t h e
nega t ive
side o f
skept i-
c ism wa s
sidest epped,
t h e o c c u l t bec a me
a c c ept a bl e t h ro u gh
t h e
pro c ess
we h a ve
37Ibid., Vo l . II, pp. 170-171, 175, 183; Vo l . V, p.
77.
38Ba c o n, No vu m o rga nu m, 11.51. Cf. Th o rndike, Hist o ry, Vo l . Il I, p.
441.
39See Ric h a rd H.
Po pkin,
Th e Hist o ry o f Sc ept ic ism fro m
Era smu s t o Spino za (Berkel ey:
Univ.
Ca l ifo rnia Press, 1979), esp. pp. 129-150; Henry
G. Va n Leeu wen, Th e Pro bl em
o f Cert a int y
in
Engl ish Th o u gh t 1630-1690 (Th e Ha gu e:
Nijh o ff,
1963).
40See
Jo seph Gl a nvil l , Sc epsis sc ient ific a (Lo ndo n, 1885), pp. 145-148; Sennert , Na t u ra l Ph il o s-
o ph y, p. 431.
248
OCCULT
QUALITIES
wit nessed: t h e dest ru c t io n o f t h e Arist o t el ia n dist inc t io n bet ween t h e o c c u l t a nd
t h e
ma nifest ,
a nd t h e a ba ndo nment o f t h e idea t h a t bo dies h a ve
genu inel y
ma nifest
qu a l it ies.
Th e
ra nge
o f h u ma n int el l ec t is t h u s
pa ra do xic a l l y
ext ended
by
a n
int el l ec t u a l mo vement
st ressing
it s
impo t enc e, t h ro u gh
a redu c t io n in t h e st a nda rds
o f wh a t c o nst it u t es ra t io na l
t h inking.
Th e inc o nc l u siveness o f t h e
h ypo t h et ic o -
dedu c t ive
met h o d,
fo r
exa mpl e,
c ea sed t o be a ba rrier
a ga inst
it s u se in
sc ienc e,
a nd t h e met h o d wa s
sel f-c o nsc io u sl y a do pt ed
a s a mea ns o f
expl o ring
t h e insensi-
bl e rea l m o f na t u re.
Fu rt h ermo re,
t h e
skept ic a l a rgu ment s
were u sed t o refu t e
Peripa t et ic o bjec t io ns
t o su c h o c c u l t
ph eno mena
a s a c t io ns a t a dist a nc e: it is
beyo nd
t h e
po wer
o f ma n's rea so n t o kno w t h a t t h ese a re
impo ssibl e,
t h e
skept ic s
sa y,
so
t h ey ma y
wel l exist . Th u s
Gl a nvil l ,
o ne o f t h e
l ea ding
c o nst ru c t ive
skep-
t ic s in t h e
Ro ya l So c iet y,
writ es:
... t o sh ew h o w
ra sh l y
we u se t o c o nc l u de
t h ings impo ssibl e;
I'l e inst a nc e in so me
repu t ed Impo ssibil it ies,
wh ic h a re
o nl y st ra nge
a nd diffic u l t
perfo rma nc es
.... Th a t
Men sh o u l d c o nfer a t
very
dist a nt remo ves
by
a n
ext empo ra ry
int erc o u rse,
is . . . a
repu t ed impo ssibil it y;
bu t
yet
t h ere a re so me h int s in Na t u ra l
o pera t io ns,
t h a t
give
u s
pro ba bil it y
t h a t it is
fea sibl e,
a nd
ma y
be
c o mpa st
wit h o u t u nwa rra nt a bl e
c o rrespo n-
denc e wit h t h e
peo pl e
o f t h e Air. Th a t a
c o u pl e
o f Needl es
equ a l l y
t o u c h ed
by
t h e sa me
ma gnet , being
set in t wo
Dya l s exa c t l y pro po rt io n'd
t o ea c h
o t h er,
a nd c irc u msc ribed
by
t h e Let t ers o f t h e
Al ph a bet , ma y
effec t t h is
Ma gna l e,
h a t h c o nsidera bl e a u t h o rit ies
t o a vo u c h it . ... No w
t h o u gh
t h is
pret t y
c o nt riva nc e
po ssibl y ma y
no t
yet
a nswer t h e
expec t a t io n
o f
inqu isit ive experiment ; yet
't is no
despic a bl e it em, t h a t
by
so me o t h er
su c h
wa y
o f
ma gnet ic k
effic ienc y,
it
ma y
h erea ft er wit h su c c ess be
a t t empt ed,
wh en
Ma gic a l Hist o ry
sh a l l be
enl a rged by riper inspec t io ns
. ...41
Even Desc a rt es enl ist ed
skept ic ism
a s a n
a l l y
in t h e
figh t
t o a c h ieve
a c c ept a nc e
o f o c c u l t ent it ies in na t u ra l
ph il o so ph y.
W h en we
invest iga t e
t h e remo t er
regio ns
o f na t u re, h e
sa ys,
we do no t need t o insist o n
rigo ro u s
demo nst ra t io n. Th e
c ert a int y
t o be
requ ired
o f su c h
expl a na t io ns
a s t h a t h e h a s given fo r
ma gnet ism
is
o nl y
mo ra l
c ert a int y, c o mpa ra bl e
in kind t o t h a t o f t h e ma n wh o
ma na ges
t o
dec iph er
a c o de
by
t ria l a nd erro r. Ot h er
expl a na t io ns ma y
wel l exist in bo t h c a ses,
bu t t h e
ph il o so ph er
h a s do ne h is
du t y
wh en h e h a s fo u nd a
po ssibl e expl a na t io n.42
Th e view
pro po sed
a bo ve o f t h e l ea ders o f t h e mec h a nic a l
ph il o so ph y, Bo yl e,
Ch a rl et o n, a nd Desc a rt es, t h a t
t h ey a c c ept ed
t h e
impo rt a nc e
o f o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
in
na t u ra l
ph il o so ph y
a nd c rit ic ized t h e Arist o t el ia ns fo r fa il u re t o
give
a wide
eno u gh rec o gnit io n
t o o c c u l t
a genc ies,
do es no t a c c o rd wit h
preva il ing desc rip-
t io ns o f t h e
sevent eent h -c ent u ry
sc ient ific mo vement . Even rec ent st u dies o f t h e
"h ermet ic "
c o mpo nent
o f t h e Sc ient ific Revo l u t io n h a ve no t c o nfro nt ed t h is view,
fo r
t h ey
h a ve
emph a sized
t h e su rviva l a nd infl u enc e o f
seemingl y
irra t io na l a t t a c h -
ment s t o
pre-sevent eent h -c ent u ry
bel ief in o c c u l t
qu a l it ies,
a nd t h is
emph a sis
h a s
t ended t o o bsc u re t h e essent ia l so u ndness o f t h e o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
t h emsel ves. Yet it
wa s a
c o nsequ enc e
o f t h e a c c o mmo da t io n o f o c c u l t
qu a l it ies by
o ffic ia l sc ienc e
t h a t t h ese "irra t io na l "
t ra ppings
c o u l d be
dispensed wit h , fo r ra t io na l
t ec h niqu es
t o dea l wit h t h e insensibl e h a d
fina l l y
bec o me a va il a bl e.
Ma ny
h ist o ria ns h a ve
po int ed
o u t t h e a ffinit ies bet ween na t u ra l
ma gic
a nd
po st -sevent eent h -c ent u ry
sc ienc e,
bu t t h e
preva il ing misu nderst a nding
o f t h e ro l e o f o c c u l t virt u es in t h e
Sc ient ific Revo l u t io n h a s l ed t o t h e erro neo u s view t h a t bel ief in t h ese virt u es o n
t h e
pa rt
o f t h e na t u ra l
ma gic ia n
ma rks a n irrec o nc il a bl e differenc e bet ween t h e t wo
4'Gl a nvil l , Sc epsis sc ient ific a , pp.
171-176: c f. Va n
Leeu wen,
Pro bl em
o f Cert a int y, p.
88.
42Desc a rt es, Princ ipia ph il o so ph ia e, IV.204-205; Ph il o so ph ic a l W o rks,
Vo l .
I,
pp.
300-301.
249
KEITH HUTCHISON
syst ems
o f
t h o u gh t .
Bu t in fa c t t h e t wo
syst ems
h a ve in c o mmo n a
wil l ingness
t o
dea l wit h o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
a nd a refu sa l t o
a c c ept
t h a t
insensibil it y impl ies spirit u a l -
it y:
it is wit h in na t u ra l
ma gic
t h a t we c a n find
prec edent s
fo r t h e c o nfidenc e wit h
wh ic h
sevent eent h -c ent u ry ph il o so ph y
insist ed t h a t t h e insensibl e rea l ms o f na t u re
c o u l d be
pro fit a bl y
ent ered
by
h u ma n
t h o u gh t . Onl y
in t h e c a se o f Newt o n h a s
t h ere been
signific a nt rec o gnit io n
t h a t
so met h ing
l ike o c c u l t
a genc ies event u a l l y
a c h ieved
a c c ept a nc e
in t h e c o u rse o f t h e Sc ient ific Revo l u t io n. Bu t even h ere t h e
Newt o nia n
po sit io n
is
st ro ngl y
c o nt ra st ed wit h t h e ea rl ier mec h a nic a l
ph il o so ph y,
a nd
ma ny
h ist o ria ns do no t in
a ny
c a se
a c c ept
t h e
desc ript io n
o f
gra vit y
a s o c c u l t .
If, h o wever,
my
evidenc e is
a c c ept ed,
t h en a l l t h ese
desc ript io ns c l ea rl y requ ire
mo dific a t io n.
Unint el l igibil it y
No To ken
o f No neffec t iveness:
Th e
Dispu t e
o ver
Gra vit y.
Th e
o ne
impo rt a nt
o bst a c l e t o
rec o gnizing
t h a t t h e Sc ient ific Revo l u t io n a c c o mmo -
da t ed o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
is t h e
dispu t e
bet ween t h e Newt o nia ns a nd t h e Ca rt esia ns
o ver
gra vit y,
in wh ic h t h e Ca rt esia ns c l a imed t h a t
gra vit y
is o c c u l t . If t h e me-
c h a nic a l
ph il o so ph y
c o u l d
o penl y a c c ept
o c c u l t
a genc ies, wh y
did t h is a c c u sa t io n
a ppa rent l y
h a ve fo rc e? To reso l ve t h is
dil emma ,
we mu st rec a l l t h e drift in mea n-
ing
t h a t t h e wo rd "o c c u l t " h a s su ffered sinc e t h e l a t e sixt eent h
c ent u ry,
t h e drift I
h a ve
a l rea dy
l a bel ed a s
respo nsibl e
fo r mu c h o f
exist ing misu nderst a nding
o f t h e
ro l e o f o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
in t h e Sc ient ific Revo l u t io n. Fo r t h e
dispu t es
o ver
gra vit y
revea l t h a t a
signific a nt pa rt
o f t h is drift
a c t u a l l y
t o o k
pl a c e
wit h in t h e sevent eent h
c ent u ry,
so t h a t wh en a Ca rt esia n in 1700 refu sed t o
a c c ept
u niversa l
gra vit a t io n
o n t h e
gro u nds
t h a t it wa s o c c u l t , h e a l mo st
c ert a inl y
did no t mea n t h e sa me
t h ing
by
t h is a c c u sa t io n a s
migh t
h a ve been mea nt so me h a l f
c ent u ry
ea rl ier. W h en t h e
sevent eent h
c ent u ry o pened,
"o c c u l t " h a d t h e do u bl e c o nno t a t io n o f "insensibl e"
a nd
"u nint el l igibl e,"
t h e t wo idea s
being
bo u nd
t o get h er by
t h e bel ief t h a t na t u ra l
rea so n c o u l d no t a c c o mmo da t e t h e insensibl e. Over t h e c o u rse o f t h e Sc ient ific
Revo l u t io n, t h e
int el l igibil it y
o f
ma ny
insensibl es wa s
rec o gnized,
a nd t h e dist inc -
t io n bet ween t h e sensibl e a nd t h e insensibl e l o st mo st o f it s ea rl ier fo rc e, so t h e
c o nno t a t io n "insensibl e" bec a me so mewh a t va c u o u s.
Ac c o rdingl y,
t h e bo nd be-
t ween t h e t wo idea s wa s bro ken, a nd "o c c u l t " l o st t h e c o nno t a t io n o f "insensi-
bl e," t o ret a in
o nl y
t h a t o f
u nint el l igibil it y.
Th e mo st evident
sympt o m
o f t h is drift is t h e fa c t t h a t t h e
dispu t e
o ver
gra vit y
wa s
c l ea rl y
a bo u t
int el l igibil it y,
no t a bo u t
sensibil it y: everyo ne a greed
t h a t
gra vi-
t a t io n a c t ed
insensibl y.
Bu t t h e Ca rt esia ns were
wil l ing
t o int ro du c e o c c u l t
qu a l i-
t ies in t h e o l d sense o f t h e wo rd int o t h eir sc ienc e
o nl y
o n c o ndit io n t h a t
t h ey
were
no t o c c u l t in t h e new sense, t h a t is, t h a t mec h a nic a l
expl a na t io ns
c o u l d be fra med
fo r t h em. To t h e Newt o nia ns, o n t h e o t h er h a nd, int el l igibil it y
wa s no t essent ia l ,
a nd
t h ey
were
h a ppy
t o dea l wit h o c c u l t ent it ies
t h ey
c o u l d no t u nderst a nd, so
l o ng
a s t h o se o c c u l t ent it ies sa t isfied o t h er c rit eria , no t a bl y
t h a t
t h ey
h a d been
rel ia bl y
det ec t ed, a nd t h a t
t h ey
were free o f t h e
idio sync ra sy
so
c o mmo nl y
a t t a c h ed t o
o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
in t h e Arist o t el ia n era .
Th u s t h e Newt o nia ns did no t ma int a in t h a t
t h ey
h a d ba nish ed o c c u l t ent it ies, in
eit h er t h e o l d o r t h e new sense o f t h e wo rd, bu t
o nl y
t h a t
t h ey
h a d ba nish ed
o bjec t io na bl e
fea t u res o f ea rl ier
a ppro a c h es
t o su c h ent it ies.
Ec h o ing
Sennert a nd
Ch a rl et o n, Newt o n's
spo kesma n
Sa mu el Cl a rke insist s t h a t o bserved effec t s mu st
be
a c c ept ed
even if t h eir c a u ses a re u nkno wn. He
repl ies
t o Leibniz's
c h a rge
t h a t
gra vit y
is a "c h imeric a l
t h ing,
a sc h o l a st ic o c c u l t
qu a l it y,"
wit h a rh et o ric a l
250
OCCULT
QUALITIES
qu est io n
t h a t a l l o ws t h e
po ssibil it y
t h a t
gra vit y ma y
h a ve a n o c c u l t c a u se:
"[Is]
a
ma nifest
qu a l it y
t o be c a l l ed . .. o c c u l t bec a u se t h e immedia t e effic ient c a u se o f it
(perh a ps)
is o c c u l t ?" Newt o n h imsel f desc ribes
gra vit y
a nd o t h er "a c t ive Princ i-
pl es"
a s "ma nifest
Qu a l it ies [wh o se]
Ca u ses
o nl y
a re o c c u l t ." Jo h n Keil l sees t h e
su c c essfu l Newt o nia n
ph il o so ph y
a s a n ec l ec t ic
o ne,
ba sed o n
bo rro wings
fro m t h e
o t h er ma in
ph il o so ph ers:
wh a t it h a s bo rro wed fro m Arist o t el ia nism is t h e idea o f a
qu a l it y.
"If t h e t ru e c a u ses be h id fro m
u s,"
h e
a sks,
"wh y ma y
we no t c a l l t h em
o c c u l t
Qu a l it ies?"43
Al t h o u gh
it is so mewh a t u nc ert a in wh a t Newt o n a nd Cl a rke mea nt
by
a ma nifest
qu a l it y
h ere,
it is
qu it e
evident t h a t neit h er o f t h em h a d
a ny o bjec t io n
t o Newt o ni-
a n
gra vit a t io n's h a ving
a c a u se t h a t
migh t
be c a l l ed o c c u l t . Bu t
t h ey
did insist o n
a n
epist emic sepa ra t io n
bet ween a disc u ssio n o f effec t s a nd a disc u ssio n o f
c a u ses,
a nd
t h ey
ma int a ined t h a t o ne c a n det ec t effec t s
rel ia bl y,
wh et h er o r no t o ne
u nderst a nds c a u ses. Th is
met h o do l o gic a l po int
wa s
by
no mea ns
o rigina l
wit h
Newt o n
(indeed
we h a ve
a l rea dy
seen Sennert a nd
Kepl er a rgu e
t o t h e sa me effec t
in ea rl ier defenses o f o c c u l t
c a u ses),
bu t Newt o n sh o wed mo re t h a n
a nyo ne
el se
h o w
po werfu l
t h e new met h o d c o u l d be. As t h e a t t it u des o f t h e
o ppo nent s
o f
Newt o n,
Kepl er,
a nd Sennert
indic a t e,
t h is wa s a rea l int el l ec t u a l a dva nc e.
No t
o nl y
did Newt o n
disa ppro ve
o f t h e Ca rt esia n rel u c t a nc e t o endo rse t h e
ma nifest effec t s o f c a u ses wh ic h a re
o c c u l t ,
bu t h e
disa ppro ved
o f t h e
wa y
t h e
Ca rt esia ns dea l t wit h t h e o c c u l t c a u ses t h emsel ves.
Al t h o u gh
Desc a rt es
rejec t ed
t h e Arist o t el ia n t h esis t h a t t h e insensibl e wa s o u t side
ph il o so ph y,
h is
a t t empt s
t o
redu c e a l l o c c u l t
qu a l it ies
t o t h e effec t s o f
pec u l ia r
c o mbina t io ns o f ext ensio n a nd
mo t io n h a d ended in
pa t ent fa bric a t io n, a nd it wa s
impo ssibl e
t o feel c o nfidenc e in
t h e
rea l it y
o f t h e
spec u l a t ive
mec h a nisms h is
ima gina t io n
h a d devised. In New-
t o n's view
pa rt
o f t h e rea so n fo r t h is fa il u re wa s t h a t Desc a rt es's
expl a na t io ns
h a d
been devised
individu a l l y,
wit h a new mec h a nic a l c a u se
po st u l a t ed
fo r ea c h new
effec t :
Co u l d a l l t h e
ph a eno mena
o f na t u re be dedu c ed fro m
o nl y
t h re o r fo u r
genera l su ppo si-
t io ns t h ere
migh t
be
grea t
rea so n t o a l l o w t h o se
su ppo sit io ns
t o be t ru e: bu t if fo r
expl a ining every
new Ph a eno meno n
yo u
ma ke a new
Hypo t h esis
if
yo u su ppo se yt ye
pa rt ic l es
o f Air a re o f su c h a
figu re
size a nd fra me, t h o se o f wa t er o f su c h a no t h er,
t h o se o f
Vinegre
o f su c h a no t h er, t h o se o f sea sa l t o f su c h a no t h er,
t h o se o f nit re o f
su c h a no t h er. .... If
yo u su ppo se
t h a t
l igh t
c o nsist s in su c h a mo t io n
pressio n
o r fo rc e
& t h a t it s va rio u s c o l o u rs a re ma de o f su c h & su c h va ria t io ns o f t h e mo t io n & so o f
o t h er
t h ings: yo u r Ph il o so ph y
wil l be
no t h ing
el se t h a n a
syst em
o f
Hypo t h eses.
And
wh a t
c ert a int y
c a n t h ere be in
Ph il o so ph y
wc h c o nsist s in a s
ma ny Hypo t h eses
a s t h ere
a re Ph a eno mena t o be
expl a ined.
Prec isel y
t h e sa me
o bjec t io n
c o u l d be ra ised
a ga inst
t h e
idio sync ra t ic
virt u es o f t h e
Arist o t el ia n era :
To t el l u s t h a t
every Spec ies
o f
Th ings
is endo w'd wit h a n o c c u l t
spec ific k Qu a l it y by
wh ic h it a c t s a nd
pro du c es
ma nifest Effec t s, is t o t el l u s
no t h ing.44
Here is a sense in wh ic h it
migh t
be sa id t h a t Newt o n ba nish ed o c c u l t
qu a l it ies,
bu t
43Th e Leibniz-Cl a rke
Co rrespo ndenc e,
ed. H. G. Al exa nder (Ma nc h est er: Univ. Press, 1956), pp.
94, 118; Newt o n, Opt ic ks, p. 401; Jo h n Keil l , An Int ro du c t io n t o Na t u ra l
Ph il o so ph y (Lo ndo n,
1745), p.
4.
44Isa a c Newt o n, Ca mbridge Universit y Libra ry
MS. Add. 3970.3, fo l . 479, qu o t ed
fro m Ric h a rd S.
W est fa l l , Fo rc e in Newt o n's
Ph ysic s (Lo ndo n: Ma c Do na l d, 1971), p. 386; Newt o n, Opt ic ks, p.
401.
251
KEITH HUTCHISON
it is no t t h eir o c c u l t ness t h a t h e
o bjec t s
t o .
Ra t h er,
it is t h e ea rl ier
pra c t ic e
o f
po sit ing
individu a l
qu a l it ies-o r
even mec h a nisms-t o
expl a in
individu a l effec t s.
To t h e
Peripa t et ic s
t h is wa s rea so na bl e bec a u se t h e
qu a l it a t es
were seen a s "rea l "
a nd
sepa ra t e
fro m t h e effec t s
t h ey pro du c ed,
a nd t o a t t ribu t e t h e effec t o f a
dru g,
fo r
exa mpl e,
t o a
"so po rific
virt u e" served t h e fa r fro m t rivia l t a sk o f
l o c a t ing
t h e
c a u se o f dro wsiness in t h e
dru g
it sel f ra t h er t h a n in so me
su perna t u ra l a genc y
su mmo ned
by
t h e
dru g.
To t h e
mo derns,
by
c o nt ra st ,
t h e
sea t ing
o f t h e c a u se o f
dro wsiness wit h in t h e
dru g
wa s no t t h e
o nl y
a l t erna t ive t o
su perna t u ra l
c a u sa t io n.
Th e a c t io n o f t h e
dru g,
t o
t h em,
represent ed
so me
spec ia l rel a t io nsh ip
bet ween t h e
mec h a nic a l
pro pert ies
o f t h e
dru g
a nd t h e fra me o f t h e h u ma n
bo dy,
so t h a t t o
l o c a t e it in t h e
dru g
it sel f wa s mere
no mina l ism,
a n
a c c ept a bl e wa y
o f
spea king,
bu t no c a u sa l
expl a na t io n.
Fu rt h ermo re,
even if it were t ru e t h a t t h e a c t io n o f t h e
dru g
wa s
su perna t u ra l
in
o rigin,
a s Newt o n a t t imes
t h o u gh t gra vit y migh t
be,
su c h
no mina l ism a l l o wed o ne t o c o nt inu e t o
spea k
o f t h e a c t io n a s a t t a c h ed t o t h e
dru g,
a nd o ne c o u l d
st u dy
it s effec t s
exa c t l y
a s o ne wo u l d
st u dy
t h e effec t s o f
no nsu per-
na t u ra l
a c t io ns,
so
l o ng
a s
t h ey
were
regu l a r.
So t h e a u t o ma t ic
po sit ing
o f a
qu a l it a s
beh ind ea c h o bserved
po wer
wa s
po int l ess,
bec a u se su c h
desc ript io ns
c o u l d
o nl y
be
genera l l y
t ru e in a no mina l ist ic sense. And
given
t h a t ea c h
qu a l it a s
wa s a n iso l a t ed individu a l , no
expl a na t o ry
redu c t io n t o
genera l
l a ws wa s even
effec t ed. Oc c u l t
qu a l it ies
were
c ert a inl y
ba nish ed in t h is sense, bu t
o nl y
bec a u se
t h ey
were rea l a nd individu a l . Th eir
being
o c c u l t wa s
qu it e
irrel eva nt h ere: it wa s
ju st
a s
u na c c ept a bl e
t o Newt o n t o
expl a in
individu a l c o l o rs
t h ro u gh
ma nifest
qu a l it ies.45
As a n
a l t erna t ive, Newt o n
so u gh t
"t wo o r t h ree" u niversa l o c c u l t c a u ses,
a s
exempl ified
in t h e
gra vit a t io na l
fo rc e h e disc o vered a nd in t h e c h emic a l a nd
o pt ic a l
fo rc es h e
c o nt inu a l l y
sea rc h ed fo r. No t
o nl y
do su c h c a u ses h a ve rea l
expl a na t o ry po wers,
even if
int erpret ed no mina l ist ic a l l y,
bu t t h eir exist enc e c a n
be
so u ndl y
c o nfirmed
by
t h e a c c u mu l a t io n o f evidenc e.
Th o u gh
t h e sevent eent h
c ent u ry
sa w remo ved
a ny o bjec t io n
o f
princ ipl e
t o o c c u l t virt u es, t h e sa me
c ent u ry
a l so sa w a ba ndo ned
ma ny
o c c u l t virt u es
previo u sl y
bel ieved in, bec a u se so u nd
evidenc e fo r t h ese
pa rt ic u l a r
virt u es c o u l d no t be a c c u mu l a t ed. Th e
skept ic ism
perva ding
t h e sevent eent h
c ent u ry impo sed
new st a nda rds o f evidenc e
u po n
c l a im-
a nt s t o t h e t it l e o f est a bl ish ed fa c t . Sc ienc e bec a me int o l era nt o f event s wh ic h
c o u l d no t be
widel y o bserved, a nd
fo l l o wing
Ba c o n's l ea d, rejec t ed
t h e idea o f
"u nl evel wit s," men wh o se
su bjec t ive experienc es
were mo re va l id t h a n o t h ers.
Experiment s
were
expec t ed
t o be
repea t a bl e,
o r el se t h e evidenc e
pro vided by
t h em wo u l d be t o o wea k t o c o mma nd
signific a nt
a ssent .46
To t a l l y idio sync ra t ic
o c c u l t virt u es in t h e Pa ra c el sa n mo l d c o u l d no t be
a c c ept ed
int o sc ienc e, bec a u se it
wa s
impo ssibl e
t o a c c u mu l a t e evidenc e fo r t h em. Universa l o c c u l t a c t io ns su c h a s
Newt o n's
gra vit y, by c o nt ra st , c o u l d be
repea t edl y
det ec t ed
by a nyo ne,
a nd evi-
denc e fo r t h em c o u l d be su bst a nt ia l . Th e l ess
spec ific
a virt u e is, t h e mo re a ssent it
c a n c o mma nd, a nd t h e mo re it c a n
expl a in.
Oc c u l t virt u es a re
a c c ept a bl e
t o t h e
c o nst ru c t ive
skept ic ,
bu t
o nl y
a ft er
t h ey
h a ve been sh a ved
by
Oc kh a m's ra zo r.
45A. I. Sa bra , Th eo ries o f Ligh t fro m Desc a rt es t o Newt o n (Lo ndo n: Ol dbo u rne, 1967), pp. 290,
294.
46Jo seph Gl a nvil l , Essa ys o n Severa l
Impo rt a nt Su bjec t s (1676; New Yo rk: Jo h nso n, 1970), pp. xv,
49; Jo h n Lo c ke, An
Essa y Co nc erning Hu ma n Underst a nding (Lo ndo n, 1690) 4.15-16; Ba c o n,
W o rks, Vo l . IV, p. 26; Ja c qu es Ro h a u l t , A
Syst em o f Na t u ra l Ph il o so ph y,
t ra ns. Sa mu el Cl a rke, 2
vo l s. (1723; Lo ndo n: Jo h nso n, 1969), Vo l . I, pp.
13-14. See Pa o l o Ro ssi, Fra nc is Ba c o n: Fro m
Ma gic t o Sc ienc e, t ra ns. S. Ra bino vit c h (Lo ndo n: Ro u t l edge
&
Kega n Pa u l , 1968), pp.
27-35.
252
OCCULT
QUALITIES
Al t h o u gh
t h e su c c ess o f t h e Newt o nia n
pro gra m pa rt ia l l y ec l ipsed
c o nst ru c t ive
skept ic ism,
wit h Newt o n h imsel f
giving
mu c h
su ppo rt
t o t h is new
do gma t ism,
t h ere rema ins a
l a rge
mea su re o f
skept ic ism
in Newt o n's
a t t it u des,
even h is c o n-
sc io u s o nes. Like h is
skept ic a l predec esso rs,
Newt o n insist ed t h a t fu nda ment a l
t ru t h is
beyo nd
o u r
rea c h ,
sinc e Go d h a s t h e freedo m a nd
po wer
t o
pro du c e
t h e
sensibl e
a ppea ra nc e
o f t h e wo rl d
t h ro u gh a ny
o f a
va riet y
o f u nkno wa bl e mea ns.47
Newt o n
a do pt ed
t h e no t io n o f different l evel s o f
verific a t io n,
a nd h e
a c c ept ed
effec t s wit h o u t
u nderst a nding
t h eir c a u ses. It is u nc l ea r wh et h er h e
rega rded gra v-
it y
a s
beyo nd u nderst a nding
o r
simpl y
a s no t
yet
u nderst o o d. His vo l u nt a rism
wo u l d h a ve a l l o wed h im t o
a c c ept gra vit y's inc o mpreh ensibil it y,
wh il e h is a t -
t empt ing
t o devise mec h a nisms fo r it
su ggest s
h e
t h o u gh t
it wit h in t h e
gra sp
o f
rea so n. Bu t fo r a
skept ic a l l y
inc l ined mind t h e issu e is no t
u rgent :
it is t h e effec t
ra t h er t h a n t h e c a u se t h a t t a kes
prio rit y.
Th e Ca rt esia ns
int erpret ed
t h e Newt o ni-
a ns'
wil l ingness
t o desc ribe t h e c a u se o f
gra vit y
a s o c c u l t a s a dec l a ra t io n t h a t
gra vit y
c o u l d no t be
u nderst o o d,
t h a t it wa s so me so rt o f
prima ry qu a l it y impo sed
direc t l y by
divine
pa rt ic ipa t io n.
It wa s t h is
t ype
o f o c c u l t ness t h a t Leibniz
o bjec t ed
t o ,
no t o c c u l t ness in
genera l :
. . t h e a nc ient s a nd mo derns wh o a vo w t h a t
gra vit y
is a n o c c u l t
qu a l it y,
a re
righ t
if
t h ey
mea n
t h ereby
t h a t t h ere is a c ert a in mec h a nism u nkno wn t o
t h em, by
wh ic h
bo dies a re
impel l ed
t o wa rd t h e c ent er o f t h e ea rt h . Bu t if t h eir no t io n is t h a t t h is
t ra nspires
wit h o u t
a ny mec h a nism, by
a
simpl e primit ive pro pert y,
o r
by
a l a w o f Go d
wh ic h
brings
a bo u t t h is effec t wit h o u t
u sing a ny int el l igibl e mea ns, t h en it is a sense-
l ess o c c u l t
qu a l it y
...
48
It wa s t h u s Newt o n's vo l u nt a rism, a nd t h e a t t a c h ed
skept ic ism,
o r
perh a ps
c a ric a -
t u res o f t h ese a t t it u des, t h a t t h e Ca rt esia ns a t t a c ked u nder t h e ba nner o f o c c u l t
qu a l it ies.
Unl ike Newt o n, t h e Ca rt esia ns refu sed t o ba se t h eir
ph il o so ph y u po n
a ny
ent it ies t h a t were l ess t h a n
perfec t l y int el l igibl e,
a nd fo r t h em,
o r o t h ers wh o
sh a red t h eir insist enc e o n
int el l igibil it y,
t h e wo rd "o c c u l t " c o u l d be
a ppl ied
in it s
new sense a s a t erm o f a bu se. So me wh o sh a red t h is insist enc e did no t
a gree
t h a t
t h e Ca rt esia n o r Leibnizia n idea s were a s
perfec t l y int el l igibl e
a s t h eir
pro po nent s
ma de o u t . To t h em, t h e Leibnizia n inh erent
a c t ivit y
o f ma t t er, o r t h e ba sic mec h a -
nism o f t h e Ca rt esia n
syst em,
t h e
impa c t int era c t io n, c o u l d be
ju st
a s o c c u l t a s
Newt o nia n fo rc es were t o a Ca rt esia n.49 Co nsidera bl e
dispu t e
t h u s
emerged
fro m
t h e sevent eent h
c ent u ry
a s t o wh a t wa s t o be c o u nt ed a s
int el l igibl e,
t h a t is, a s t o
wh a t c o nst it u t ed t h e referenc e o f t h e wo rd "o c c u l t ." Bu t t h ere wa s
widesprea d
a greement
o ver it s sense o f
"beyo nd u nderst a nding."
Mo re
impo rt a nt l y,
t h ere wa s
u niversa l
a greement
t h a t t h e Arist o t el ia n c rit erio n fo r
int el l igibil it y-sensibi-
l it y-wa s ina dequ a t e.
Th e a ba ndo nment o f t h is c rit erio n a nd t h e
expl o it a t io n
o f
t h e
epist emo l o gic a l
idea s t h a t
l a y
beh ind t h is a ba ndo nment were
u ndo u bt edl y
ma jo r c o mpo nent s
o f t h e Sc ient ific Revo l u t io n.
47See, e.g., Isa a c Newt o n, Ma t h ema t ic a l
Princ ipl es o f Na t u ra l
Ph il o so ph y,
t ra ns. A. Mo t t e (1729),
rev. F.
Ca jo ri, 2 vo l s.
(Berkel ey:
Univ. Ca l ifo rnia Press, 1966), Vo l . II, p. 546; a nd Newt o n,
Unpu bl ish ed Sc ient ific Pa pers,
ed. a nd t ra ns. A. R. a nd M. B. Ha l l
(Ca mbridge: Ca mbridge
Univ.
Press, 1962), pp.
138-145.
48As
qu o t ed by
Ca jo ri
in Newt o n, Ma t h ema t ic a l
Princ ipl es, Vo l . II, pp.
668-669.
49See, e.g.,
Leo nh a rd Eu l er, Opera o mnia , Series II, Vo l . III, ed. C. Bl a nc
(Leipzig: Teu bner;
Zu ric h : Fiissl i, 1948), p. 50; Berkel ey
a nd
Ma u pert u is,
a s c it ed a nd disc u ssed o n
pp.
159-160 o f
Th o ma s Ha nkins, Jea n d'Al embert (Oxfo rd: Cl a rendo n Press, 1970); Leibniz-Cl a rke
Co rrespo n-
denc e, p. 116; a nd Pet er va n Mu ssc h enbro ek, Th e El ement s o f Na t u ra l Ph il o so ph y,
2 vo l s., t ra ns. J.
Co l so n
(Lo ndo n, 1744), Vo l . I, prefa c e.
253

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What Happened to Occult Qualities in the Scientific Revolution?

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