15

Chronostratigraphy
and
Geologic
Time
15.1 INTRODUCTION
tinguished by lithology, magnetic
characteristics,

seismic

reflection

charac
teristics,

or

fossil

content.

s

such,
they
are

obser!able

or

measurable
material

reference

units

that
de"ict
the
descri"ti!e stratigra"hic
features

of

a

re
gion.
Definition

of

these

units

allo#s

the

!ertical

and

lateral
relationshi"s
bet#een
roc$

units

to

be
recogni%ed
and
"ro!ides
a

means

of
correlating
the

units

from

one
area

to

another.

s

&rumbein

and

'loss
(1)*+, "oint
out,

ho#e!er,
descri"ti!e
stratigra"hic
units

do

not

lend

themsel!es

to
inter"retation
of

the

local

strati
gra"hic
column

in

terms

of

-arth
history
To
inter"ret
-arth
history re.uires
that
stratigra"hic
units

be

related

to
geologic
time/

that

is,

the
ages
of

roc$

units

must
be

$no#n.
-stablishing
the

time
relationshi" among
roc$

units

is

called
chronostratigraphy,
and
stratigra"hic
units

defined

and

delineated

on

the

basis

of
time

are
geologic
time

units.

The
relationshi"
bet#een
chronostratigra"hy
and
other

branches

of
stratigra"hy
is

illustrated

in
0igure
15.1.
In

this
cha"ter,
#e

e1amine

the
conce"t
of
geologic
time

units

and
e1"lore
the
relationshi"
of

time

units

to

other
ty"es
of
stratigra"hic
units.

2e

#ill

also

see
ho#
geologic
time

units

are

used

to

create

the
3eologic
Time

'cale

and

#e

#ill
discuss

methods

of
calibrating
the

time

scale.
0inally,
#e

#ill

e1amine

methods
for

chronocorrelation4correlation

of

roc$

units

on

the

basis

of

their
ages.
15.5 3-O6O3IC TI7- UNIT'
3eologic
time

units

are
conce"tual
units

rather

than

actual

roc$

units,
although
most
geologic
time

units

are

based

on

roc$

units.

In

fact,

#e
recogni%e
t#o

distinct
ty"es
of

formal
stratigra"hic
units

that

can

be
distinguished by geologic age8
The stratigraphic units described in the preceding chapters are rock units
dis
units,

called
stratotypes,
based

on

actual

roc$

sections,

and

units
inde"endent
of
reference

roc$

sections

(see
""endi1
C,,.
Ideally,
the

reference

roc$

bodies

for
ge
ologic
time

units

are

isochronous

units.

That

is,
they
are

roc$

units

formed
during
the

same
s"an
of

time

and
e!ery#here
bounded
by synchronous
surfaces,

#hich
are

surfaces

on

#hich
e!ery "oint
has

the

same
age.
51+
514
Chapter
15

/
Chronostratigraph y
and
Geologic
Time
0igure
15.1
Di agr am illustrating
the
"roce
dures

and
"rocesses
in!ol!ed

in
chr onost r at i gr a"hy
and

t he

re
l at i onshi "
of
geol ogi c
t i me
Geochronometry
Dat es

In
years
units t o other $inds of strati9
gr a"hi c
units.

3ol den
s"i$e
refers

t o
i nt ernat i onal l y agreed
u"on "oi nt s
or

boundar i es

in
st r at ot y"e st rat i gra"hi c
sect i ons
sel ect ed t o ser!e as r ef erence
sect i ons

for
chr onost r at i gr a"hi c
units.
:fter ;oll and,
C.
;.,
Biostratigraphy
<l o%ones
Tectonic or Meta-
morphic Episodes
Magnetostratigraphy
Cyclostratigraphy
1))=, Chr onost r at i gr a"hy
(gl obal
standard
st rat i gra"hy,8

"ersonal "ers"ect i !e,

in
Doyle, >.,
and

7.

R.

<ennet t
(eds. ,. Unl oc$i ng
t he

strati9
gra"hi cal
record8

d!ances

in
modern
st rat i gra"hy, ?ohn
2iley
@
'ons, Chi chest er,
0ig. 1+. 1, ". +=A.B
Clironostratigraphy
Chrono
Corres"ond
stratigra"hic ing
Di!isions
Units of Time
-rathem -ra
'ystem
>eriod
'e9Ces
-"och
'tage ge
Chrono%one Chron
3olden Spil
itliostratigraphy
u"er gr ou"
rou"
ormati on
ember
Tlie

North

merican

'tratigra"hic
Code

and

The

International
'tratigra"hic
3uide

('al!ador,

1))A,
reco
gni%e
t#o

fundamental
ty"
es
of

isochronous
geologic
time

units8
chronostratigra"hi
c
units

and
geochronologic
u
nits.
Chronostratigraphic
units
(Table 15.1,
are
tangible
bodies

of

roc$

that

are

selected
by geologists
to
ser!e

as

reference

sections,

or

material

referents,

for

all

roc$s

formed
during
the
same

inter!al

of

time.

In

other

#ords,

a
"articular
section

of
sedimentary
roc$
ha!ing
a

$no#n
age s"an
is

selected

to
re"resent
that
"articular
inter!al

of
geo
logic
time.

0or
e1am"le,
the

inter!al

of

time

from

about

5D5955E

million
years ago
is

called

the

>ermian

>eriod

and

is
re"resented by
roc$s

of

the

>ermian
'ystem
lo
cated

in

the

>ro!ince

of

>erm,

Russia

(see

Table

15.5,.
Geochronologic
units,
by
contrast,

are

di!isions

of

time
distinguished
on

the

basis

of

the

roc$

record

as

e1
"ressed by chronostratigra"hic
units.
They
are

not

in

themsel!es
stratigra"hic
units.

If

the

distinction

bet#een

these

t#o
ty"es
of

units

seems

some#hat

confus
ing,
the
follo#ing
illustration
may hel"
to
clarify
the

difference.

Chronostrati
gra"hic
units

ha!e

been

li$ened

to

the

sand

that

flo#s
through
an
hourglass
during
a

certain
"eriod
of

time.
<y
contrast,
corres"onding geochronologic
units
can

be
com"ared
to

the

inter!al

of

time
during
#hich

the

sand

flo#s
(;edberg,
1)D*,.
The

duration

of

the

flo#

measures

a

certain

inter!al

of
time,
such

as

a
n
hour,
but

the

sand

itself

cannot

be

said

to

be

an

hour.
Traditional
internationally acce"ted chronostratigra"hic
units

#ere
"re!i
ously
based
"rimarily
on

the

time
s"ans
of
lithostratigra"hic
or
biostratigra"hic
units.

2e

no#

also
formally recogni%e
(as
chronostratigra"hic
units,
"olarity
chronostratigra"hic
units
(""endi1
C,,

#hich

are
geologic
time

units

based

on
the

remanent
magnetic
fields

in

roc$s
(Cha"ter 1+,.
The

characteristics

and

hierarchical
ran$ings
of
geologic
time

units

are
briefly
described

in

Table

15.1.
Chronostratigra"hic
units

are

discussed

first

in
this

table

because
they
are

the

reference
stratigra"hic
sections
u"on
#hich

time
(geochronologic,
units

are

based.

s

mentioned,
chronostratigra"hic
units

are
themsel!es

based
u"on designated biostratigra"hic, lithostratigra"hic,
or
mag9
neto"olarity
units
(Table 15.1,.
The

fundamental
chronostratigra"hic
unit

is

the
15.2
Geologi c
Time

Units 515
Tible

15.1
Geologic
time

units
Chronostratigraphic
Unitan

isochronous
body
of

roc$

that

ser!es

as

the

material

reference

for

all

roc$s

formed
during
the

same
s"ans
of

time/

it

is
al#ays
based

on

a

material

reference

unit,

or
stratoty"e,
#hich

is

a
biostratigra"hic,
lithostratigra"hic,
or
magneto"olarity
unit
Eonothemthe
highest ran$ing chronostratigra"hic
unit/

three
recogni%ed8
Phanerozoic,
encom"assing
the
>aleo%oic,

7eso%oic,

and

Ceno%oic

erathems,

and

the

Proterozoic

and

rchean,

#hich
together
ma$e
u"
the
>recambrian.
Erathemssub!i"isions

of

an

eonothem/

none

in

the

>recambrian/

the

>hanero%oic

erathems,

names
originally
chosen

to

reflect
maFor changes
in

the
de!elo"ment
of

life

on

-arth,

are

the

>aleo%oic

(Gold
lifeG,,
7eso%oic
(Gintermediate lifeG,,
and

Ceno%oic
(Grecent lifeG,
#ystemthe "rimary chronostratigra"hic
unit

of

#orld#ide
maFor
ran$
(e.g.,
>ermian
'ystem,
?urassic
'ystem,/
can

be

subdi!ided

into
subsystems
or
grou"ed
into
su"ersystems
but

most
commonly
are

di!ided
com"letely
into

units

of

the

ne1t

lo#er

ran$
(series,
#eriesa

subdi!ision

of

a
system/ systems
are

di!ided

into

t#o

to

si1

series
(commonly three,/ generally
ta$e

their

name

from

the
system by adding
the
a""ro"riate adFecti!e
G6o#er,G

G7iddle,G

or
GU""erG
to

the
system
name
(e.g..
6o#er

?urassic

'eries,

7iddle

?urassic

'eries,
U""er
?urassic
'eries,/
useful

for

chronos
tratigra"hic
correlation

#ithin
"ro!inces/ many
can

be
recogni%ed
#orld#ide
#tagesmaller sco"e
and

ran$

than

series/
!ery
useful

for
intraregional
and

intracontinental

classifica
tion

and

correlation/
many stages
also
recogni%ed
#orld#ide/
may
be

subdi!ided

into
substages
Chronozonethe

smallest
chronostratigra"hic
unit/

its

boundaries
may
be
inde"endent
of

those

of
ran$ed
stratigra"hic
units
Geochronologic
Unita

di!ision

of

time
distinguished
on

the

basis

of

the

roc$

record

as
e1"ressed by
chronostrati
gra"hic
units/

not

an

actual

roc$

imit,

but
corres"onds
to

the

inter!al

of

time
during
#hich

an

established

chronostrati
gra"hic
unit

#as
de"osited
or

formed/

thus,

the
beginning
of

a
geochronologic
unit
corres"onds
to

the

time

of
de"osi
tion

of

the

bottom

of

the
chronostratigra"hic
unit
u"on
#hich

it

is

based

and

the
ending corres"onds
to

the

time

of
de"osition
of

the
to"
of

the

reference

unit/

the
hierarchy
of
geochronologic
units

and

their
corres"onding geochronos9
y
tratigra"hic
units

are8
Geochronologic
Unit
Correspon!ing Geochronostratigraphic
Unit
51$
Chapter
15

%
Chronostratigraphy
an!
Geologic
Time
localities
for
"eriods
and

lo#er

ran$ed
geochronologic
units

are

identical

#ith

those

for
their
corres"onding chronostratigra"hic
units.

0or
e1am"le,
the

?urassic

>eriod

is
the

time
during
#hich

the

?urassic
'ystem
of

roc$s

#as
de"osited.
>eriods

are

di
!ided

into
e"ochs. -"ochs re"resent
the

time
during
#hich

a

series

#as
de"osited.
They
ta$e

their

name

from

the
"eriod by adding
the
adFecti!e -arly
7iddle,

and
6ate
(e.g.. -arly
?urassic
-"och,
7iddle

?urassic
-"och,
6ate

?urassic
-"och,.
Note
from

Table

15.1

the

different
usage
of

6o#er,

7iddle,

and
U""er
for

subdi!ision

of
'ystem
name
Ty"e locality
Name
"ro"osed by
Date
"ro"osed
Remar$s
Huaternary
0rance
?ules Desnoyers
1=5) Defined
by lithology,
including
some

unconsoli
dated sediment
Tertiary Italy
3io!anni rduino 1D*E
Originally
defined
by
lithology/
redefined

#ith
ty"e
section

in

0rance

on
the basis of distincti!e
fossils
Cretaceous >aris <asin Omalius
dC;alloy
1=55 Defined
initially
on

the
basis

of

strata
com"osed
of distincti!e chal$ beds
?urassic ?ura 7ountains,
northern '#it%erland
le1ander !on ;umbolt 1D)5 Defined
originally
on

the
basis

of
lithology
Triassic 'outhern
3ermany
0rederic$ !on lberti 1=A+ Defined
lithologically
on
the basis of a distincti!e
threefold di!ision of
strata/

also

defined
by
fossils
>ermian >ro!ince

of
>erm,
Russia
Roderic$ 1. 7urchison 1=A1 Identified
by
distincti!e
fossils
>ennsyl!anian >ennsyl!ania,
United 'tates
;enry
'.

2illiams 1=)1 Not used outside the
United 'tates
7ississi""ian 7ississi""i Ialley,
United 'tates
le1ander 2inchell 1=DE Not used outside the
United 'tates
Carboniferous Central
-ngland
2illiam
Conybeare
and
2illiam
>hilli"s
1=55 Named

for
lithologically
distincti!e,
coal9bearing
strata

but
recogni%able by
distincti!e fossils
De!onian
De!onshire,
Roger
1.

7urchinson 1=AE <oundaries

based
mainly
southern
-ngland
and

dam
'edg#ic$
on fossils
'ilurian 2estern 2ales
Roger
1.

7urchinson 1=+5 Defined
by lithology
and
fossils
Ordo!ician 2estern 2ales Charles
6a"#orth
1=D) 'et
u"
as

an

intermediate
unit bet#een the
Cambrian and 'ilurian to
resol!e
boundary dis"ute/
boundary
defined
by
fossils
Cambrian 2estern 2ales dam
'edg#ic$
1=+5 Defined
mainly by
lithology
Note8

The

>recambrian

has

not
yet
been

di!ided

into
internationally acce"ted systems.
15.2
Geologic
Time

Units
series,
because

series

are

roc$
units,
not

units

of

time.

7ost

names

for

eons

and

eras
are

the

same

as

the

names

of

the
corres"onding
eonothems

and

erathems.
Geochronometric

units

are
"ure
time

units.
They
are

not

based

on

the

time
s"ans
of
designated chronostratigra"hic stratoty"es
but

are
sim"ly
time

di!isions
of

an
a""ro"riate magnitude
or

scale,

#ith
arbitrarily
chosen

boundaries.

t

this
time,

a
geochronometric
time

scale

is

used

to
e1"ress
the
ages
of

>recambrian
roc$s

(see
0ig.
15.5,

because

no
globally recogni%ed
and
acce"ted
chronostrati
gra"hic
scale

has

been
de!elo"ed
for

these

roc$s.

>recambrian

roc$s

ha!e

not
yet
"ro!en generally susce"tible
to
analysis
and

subd
i!ision
by su"er"osition
or
by
a""lication
of

other
lithologic
or
biologic "rinci"le
s
that

#e
commonly
use

in

sub
di!iding
the

>hanero%oic

roc$s/

ho#e!er,

a
chrono
stratigra"hic
scale

for

>recam
brian

roc$s
may
be
de!elo"ed
in

the

future.

'ubd
i!ision

of

>recambrian

roc$s

is
further discussed in the ne1t section.
51&
Proterozoic; however,
no

scheme

or

!rther

s!"#
division

o

the

Precam"rian

is
glo"ally accepted.
$onothem $rathem
%ystem
and
%!"system
%eries
&!merical
'ge ()a*
+!aternary
,olocene
Pleistocene
-.1
1..
Cenozoic
&eogene
Pliocene
)iocene
2/..
05.-
111.2
2-0
Tertiary
Paleogene
2ligocene
$ocene
Paleocene
Cretaceo!s Upper
3ower
)esozoic
4!rassic
Upper
)iddle
3ower
2
2
'
2
cc
(U
z
5
Triassic
Upper
)iddle
3ower
Permian
Upper
3ower
)
C( Car"on# Pennsylvanian Upper
iero!s
)ississippian 3ower
Paleozoic
6evonian
Upper
)iddle
3ower
%il!rian
Upper
3ower
2rdovician
Upper
)iddle
3ower
Cam"rian
Upper
3ower
z
5
cc
C*
*
*
+
o
cc
(U
1
o
cc
C(
&ot
ormally
s!"divided
5
o
(U
CC
C(
z
5
(U
,
o
cc
5
&ot
ormally
s!"divided
cam"rian roc7s are divided into the 'rchean and
51-
Chapter
15

%
Chronostratigraphy
an!
Geologi c
Time
15.. T/E GE*(*G)C T)+E #C(E
Purpose
an!
#cope
Classifying
roc$s

on

the

basis

of

time

in!ol!es
systematic organi%ation
of

strata
into

named

units,

each
corres"onding
to
s"ecific
inter!als

of
geologic
time.

These
units
"ro!ide
a

basis

for

time

correlation

and

a

reference
system
for
recording
and
systemati%ing s"ecific
e!ents

in

the
geologic history
of

-arth.

Thus,

the

ultimate
aim

of
creating
a

standardi%ed
geologic
time

scale

is

to

establish

a
hierarchy
of
chronostratigra"hic
units

of

international
sco"e
that

can

ser!e

as

a

standard

refer
ence

to

#hich

the
ages
of

roc$s
e!ery#here
in

the

#orld

can

be

related.

-stablish
ing
the

relati!e
ordering
of

e!ents

in

-arthCs
history
is

the

main

contribution

that
geology
ma$es

to

our
understanding
of

time.

standard
geologic
time

scale

should
e1"ress any age
in
any "lace,
and

it
should

be

understandable,

clear,

and
unambiguous.
It

should

also

be
inde"endent
of
o"inion
and

therefore

ha!e

some
obFecti!e
reference

that

is

accessible.
0inally,
it
should

be

stable,

that

is,

not
subFect
to
fre.uent change,
and

it

should

be
agreed
to
and

used
internationally
in

all
languages (e.g.,
;arland,
1)D=,.
0e"elopment
o1

the
Geologic
Time

#cale
Chronostratigraphic
Scale
3eologists
ha!e

been
#or$ing
for

more

than

5EE
years
to
de!elo"
a
systematic
scheme

for

a
global time9stratigra"hic
classification

of

roc$

units.

This

slo#
"rocess
has

e!ol!ed
through
t#o

fundamental
stages
of
de!elo"ment8
1.
Determining time9stratigra"hic relationshi"s
from

local
stratigra"hic
sections
by a""lying
the
"rinci"le
of
su"er"osition, su""lemented by
fossil

control
and,

more
recently,
radiometric
ages.
5.
Using
these

local
stratigra"hic
sections

as

a

basis

for
establishing
a
com"osite
international
chronostratigra"hic
scale,

#hich

ser!es

as

the

material

reference
for
constructing
a

standardi%ed

international
geologic
time

scale.
The

international
chronogra"hic
scale

has

e!ol!ed
gradually
o!er

the
"ast
t#o
centuries

into

its
"resent
form

(Table

15.1,
0ig.
15.5,.
0igure
15.5

sho#s

the

hierar
chy
of
maFor chronostratigra"hic
units

in
general
use
throughout
most

of

the
#orld.

more

detailed
chronostratigra"hic
scale

that

also

sho#s

subseries

and
stages
is
gi!en
in
""endi1
D/

this
chronostratigra"hic
and
geochronometric
scale
#as
com"iled by
'al!ador

(1)=5,

as
"art
of

the

CO'UN
(Correlation
of

'trati
gra"hic
Units

of

North

merica,
"roFect.
:Note8

The
ages
of

the

boundaries

be
t#een
chronostratigra"hic
units

sho#n

in
""endi1
D
may
not
agree
#ith

the
more

recent
age
determinations
gi!en
in

the

ne#
geologic
time

scale

sho#n

in
0igure
15.+.B

'ome

of

the
"ro!incial stage
names
commonly
used

in

North

meri
ca

are

also

sho#n

in
""endi1
D/

ho#e!er,

there

no#
a""ears
to

be

a
general
mo!ement
among
North

merican
stratigra"hers
to

abandon

these
"ro!incial
stage
names

and
ado"t
the
-uro"ean (global, stages
as

standards

for

North

mer
ica.
'tratigra"hers
in
-uro"e
and
many
other
"arts
of

the

#orld

ha!e

for
many
years
subdi!ided

the
Tertiary
into

t#o
subsystems,
the
Paleogene
and

the
'eogene,
#ith

the
to"
of

the
Oligocene
'eries

as

the
di!iding boundary
bet#een
the

t#o
(0ig.
15.5,.
3eologists
in

North

merica

ha!e

no#

also
ado"ted
this
"rac
tice.
They
ha!e

li$e#ise
ado"ted
the
-uro"ean usage
of

the

Carboni1erous

as

a %o!rce

o
ages8 Geological %ociety
o

'merica

1999
Geologic
Time

%cale.
2igure
15.2
&omenclat!re

o

Phanerozoic
chronostratigraphic
!nits
commonly
!sed
thro!gho!t
the

world.

Pre#
system
name,

but

#ith

subdi!ision

in

North

merica

into

the
+ississippian
and
Pennsyl"anian subsystems.
Other

!ersions

of

the
chronostratigra"hic
scale

e1ist
(e.g.,
Co#ie

and

<assett,

1)=)/

;arland

et

al.,

1))E,

that

differ

some#hat

from
15..

The
Geologic
Time

#cale 513
C$&2:2;C
1999 G$232G;C T
)$%2:2;C
)$ %C'3$
P'3$2:2;C P<$C')=<;'&
Ui
P$<;26
2U'T,<>
P;C?%
()a*
:7gfF-TiJ
'G$ >O6RITK
' s
I.?9
P$<;26$P2C,
P;C?%
()a*
6U
O
6
o
3-O6O3IC6 'OCI-TK
O0 7-RIC
)''%T<;C,T;'&
C$&2)'&;'&
%$<<'@'33;'&
'+U;T'&;'&
,'UT$<;@;'&
?;))$<;6G;'&
P3;$&%%'C,;'&
,$TT'&G;'&
o
(S)
E,
L
cc
GInternat ional
ages
ha!e

not

been

est ablished.

These

are
regional (6aurentian, only.
'our ces

for

nomenclat ure

and
ages8 >rimarily
from
3radst ein, R,
and
Ogg, F., 1))*, Episodes,
!.
1),
nos.

1

@
5/ 3radst ein, R,
et
al., 1))5,
'->7
'"ecial
>ub.
5A, ". )5915=/ <erggren,
2.
.,
et
al., 1))5,
'->7
'"ecial
>ub.
5A, ". 15)9515/
Cambr ian

and

basal

Ordo!ician
ages
ada"t ed
from
6anding, -., 1))=, Canadi an Journal
of
Earth Sciences,
!.
+5, ". +5)9++=/ and Da!ide$, &.,
et
al., 1))=. Geol ogi cal Magazine,
@.
1+5, ".
+E59+E).

Cambr ian
age
names

from
>almer,
.
R., 1))=,
Canadian

Jour nal

of

Earth
Sci ences, !. +5, ".
+5+9+5=,
2igure
15..
1)))
geol ogi c
t i me

scale
"ubl i shed by 3eol ogi cal 'ociet y
of

meri ca.
this

scale,
"articularly
in
naming
of

series

and
stages
and
"artial
subdi!ision

of
the

>recambrian

into

erathems

and
systems.
The
geologic community
has

not
yet
achie!ed

the

ideal

of

a
truly
international
chronostratigra"hic
scale

that

is
acce"t
ed

and

used
by
all
geologists
#orld#ide.
Geochronologic
(Time)

Scale
0igure
15.5

is

a
chronostratigra"hic
scale

#ith

units

and

boundaries

based

on
"hysical
di!isions

of

the

roc$

record,

but

it

is

not

in

itself

a

time

scale.

To

function
as

a
geologic
time

scale

for
e1"ressing
the
age
of

a

roc$

unit

or

a
geologic
e!ent,
the
chronostratigra"hic
scale

must

be

con!erted

to

a
geochronologic
scale

consist
ing
of

units

that
re"resent
inter!als

of

time

rather

than

bodies

of

roc$

that

formed
during
a
s"ecified
time

inter!al.

The
geologic
time

scale

is

deri!ed

from

the
chronostratigra"hic
scale
by substituting
for
chronostratigra"hic
units

the

corre
s"onding geochronologic
units
(Table 15.1,.
Thus,

the
geologic
time

scale

is

e1
"ressed
in

eras,
"eriods, e"ochs, ages,
and

chrons

rather

than

erathems,
systems,
series,
stages,
and

chrono%ones.

The

subdi!ision

boundaries

of

the
geologic
time
scale

are

calibrated

in

absolute
ages/
ho#e!er,

the
geologic
time

scale

differs

from
524
Chapter
15

%
Chronostratigraphy
an!
Geologic
Time
a

true
geochronometric
scale,

#hich

is

based
"urely
on

time

#ithout
regard
to

the
roc$

record.
<y
contrast,

the

subdi!isions

of

the

>hanero%oic

time

scale

are

of

un
e.ual length,
because
they
are

based

on
chronostratigra"hic
units

that

#ere

de
"osited during une.ual
inter!als

of

time.
The
geologic
time

scale

has

been

in

e1istence

for

se!eral

decades,

and
during
that

time

it

has

continued

to

e!ol!e,

#ith

refinements
being
made
"articularly
in
subdi!ision

of

the
e"ochs
and
ages
and
absolute9age
calibration

of

the

boundaries
bet#een
"eriods, e"ochs,
and
ages. 0igure
15.+

sho#s

the

most

recent

!ersion

of
the
geologic
time

scale
"ublished by
the
3eological 'ociety
of

merica

in

1))).
This

time

scale

is

subdi!ided

into
ages
based

on

the
-uro"ean stages,
and

bound
aries

bet#een
ages
are

calibrated

in

absolute

time.

bsolute
ages
are
gi!en
in

mil
lions

of
years
before

the
"resent (7a,,
#here

the
"resent
refers

to

1)5E.

7ethods
for

absolute
age
calibration

of

the
geologic
time

scale

are

discussed

belo#.

Note
that

the
magnetic "olarity
scale

for

the

most

recent
a""ro1imately
1*E

million
years
is

also

included

in

the

time

scale.

Note

also

the

use

of

a
geochronometri
c
scale

for

the

>recambrian,

#ith

the
di!iding boundary
bet#een

the

rchean

and
the

>rotero%oic

set
arbitrarily
at

55EE

million
years.
<o1

15.1
Calibrating
the
Geologic
Time

#cale
s

mentioned,

the
geologic
time

scale

has

e!ol!ed
slo#ly
o!er

a
long "eriod
of

time.

To
de!elo"
the

scale

to

its
"resent
le!el

of

usefulness

for
fi1ing
the
"o
sition

in

time

of

a
"articular
roc$

unit

or
geologic
e!ent,

t#o
ty"es
of

informa
tion

had

to

be

a!ailable

to
stratigra"hers8 (1,
some

method

of
arranging
roc$s
in

an
orderly
succession

on

the

basis

of

their

relati!e
"osition
in

time,

or

rela
ti!e
ages,
and
(5,
a

method

of
determining
the
ages
of

the

boundaries

bet#een
roc$

units

on

the

basis

of

their

absolute
"osition
in

time

#ith
res"ect
to

some
fi1ed

time

hori%on,

for
e1am"le,
the
"resent.
>lacing
strata

in
stratigra"hic
order

in

terms

of

their

relati!e
ages
has
been

the
guiding "rinci"le
used
by stratigra"hers
in
constructing
the
geologic
time

scale.

Relati!e
ordering
#as

determined
by a""lying
the
"rinci"le
of

su
"er"osition,
aided
by
use

of

fossils.

The
"rinci"le
of
su"er"osition
means

sim
"ly
that

in

a

normal

succession

of

strata

#hich

ha!e

not

been
tectonically
o!erturned

since
de"osition,
the
youngest
strata

are

on
to"
and

the
ages
of

the
strata

increase

#ith
de"th.
7ost

of

the

di!isions

in

the

current
global
chronos
tratigra"hic
scale

are

based

on

fossils,

and
early
efforts

to

create

an

international
chronostratigra"hic
scale

before

methods

of
absolute9age
determinations

#ere
de!elo"ed
#ould

ha!e

been
im"ossible
#ithout

the

use

of

fossils.
0ortunately,
methods

are

no#

a!ailable

not
only
for
determining
the

rel
ati!e
ages
of

strata

but

also

for
fi1ing
#ithin

reasonable

limits

of
uncertainty
the

absolute
ages
of

some

strata.
De!elo"ment
of

these

methods

of

absolute9
age
estimation

ha!e

made

it
"ossible
to
"lace a""ro1imate
absolute
ages
on
boundaries

of

the
chronostratigra"hic
scale
initially
established
by
relati!e9
age
determination

methods.

bsolute
age
data

can

also

be

used

for

determin
ing ages
of
"oorly
fossiliferous

>recambrian

roc$s

that

cannot

be
"laced
in
stratigra"hic
order
by relati!e9age
determination

methods.

The
"rinci"al
method

for
determining
the

absolute
ages
of

roc$s

is

based

on
decay
of

ra
dioacti!e
isoto"es
of

elements

in

minerals.

Other

methods

of
determining
the
bsolute
"assa
ge
of
geologi
c
time

inclu
de
counting/
la$e9sediment

!ar!es,
#hich

are
"resumed
to
re"resent
annual

sediment

accumulations/
gro#th
in
crements

in

the

shells

of

some

in!ertebrate
organisms/ gro#th rings
in

trees/
and

7ilan$o!itch

climate
cycles
in

sediments.

These

alternati!e

methods

are
15..

The
Geologi c
Time

#cale
useful
only
for
mar$ing
the
"assage
of

short
"eriods
of

time

in

local

and

re
gional
areas

and

are

not

of
im"ortance
in
calibrating
the
geologic
time

scale,
e1ce"t "ossibly
some
"arts
of

the

>leistocene

and

>liocene.
Thus,

the
maFor
tools

for
finding ages
of

sediments

to

calibrate

the
geolog
ic

time

scale

are
relati!e9age
determinations
by
use

of
fossils4 biochronology4
and

absolute
age
estimates

based

on
isoto"ic decay4radiochronology.
These
tools
may
be

used

both

for
calibrating
the
chronostratigra"hic
scale
directly
and

for
calibrating
the

succession

of

re!ersals

of

-arthCs
magnetic
field/

this
succession

constitutes

the
magnetostratigra"hic
time

scale

discussed

in
Cha"ter
1+.

2e

shall

no#

discuss

each

of

these
dating
methods,
beginning
#ith
biochronology.
C()56T)'G T/E GE*(*G)C T)+E #C(E 57
U#E *2 2*##)(#8 5)*C/6*'*(*G7
5iochronology
is

the
organi%ation
of
geologic
time
according
to

the

irre
!ersible
"rocess
of

e!olution

in

the
organic
continuum
(Cha"ter 1A,.
Useful
fossil

hori%ons

are

more
#ides"read
and

abundant

in

>hanero%oic

roc$s

than
are

hori%ons

#hose
ages
can

be

estimated
by radiochronology
0urthermore,
biologic
e!ents

can
commonly
be

correlated

in

time

more
"recisely
than

can
radiometric

data

in

all

but

Ceno%oic

roc$s.

<ecause

of

these
factors,
fossils
ha!e
con!entionally "ro!ided
the

most
readily
a!ailable

tool

for
dating
and
long9distance
correlations

of

>hanero%oic

roc$s.

It

is
necessary,
ho#e!er,

to
ma$e

a

clear

distinction

bet#een
biochronology
and
biostratigra"hy.
<ios9
tratigra"hy (Cha"ter 1A,
aims
sim"ly
at
recogni%ing
the

distincti!e

fossils

that
characteri%e

a

$no#n
stratigra"hic
le!el

in

a
sedimentary
section

#ithout

re
gard
to

the

inherent

time
significance
of

the

fossils.

0or
e1am"le,
2illiam
'mith

#as

able

to

use

fossils
!ery effecti!ely
for
identifying
and
correlating
strata,

e!en
though
he

had

little

or

no

idea

of

the

time
relationshi"s
or

time
sig
nificance

of

the

fossils.
<iochronology,
on

the

other

hand,

is

concerned

#ith
the
recognition
of

fossils

as
ha!ing ages
that

fall

at

$no#n
"oints
in

the
s"an
of
e!olutionary
time,

as

measured
by
fossils

of

a

reference
biostratigra"hic
sec
tion.

Therefore,
by establishing
identifiable

hori%ons

in

reference

sections
based

on

fossils,
biochronology "ro!ides
a

tool

both

for

international

correla
tion

and

for

#orld#ide
age
determination.
The

aim

of
biochronology
is

to

ma$e
"ossible
correlation

and
dating
of
the
geologic
record
beyond
the

limits

of

local
stratigra"hic
sections.

To

do

this
most
effecti!ely, stratigra"hers
use

features

or

e!ents

in

the
"aleontologic
record

that

are
#ides"read
and
easily
identifiable

and

that

occurred
during
short
"eriods
of
geologic
time.

These

e!ents

are

considered

to

be

biochrono9
logic
!atum

e"ents

because
they
mar$

a
"articular
short
"eriod
of

time

in

the
geologic "ast.
The

datum

e!ents

most
commonly
used

are

the
immigrations
(first a""earances,
and

e1tinctions
(last a""earances,
of

a

fossil
s"ecies
or
ta1on.

The

first
a""earance
of

a
s"ecies
as

a

result

of
immigration
from

anoth
er

area
commonly
occurs
!ery ra"idly
after

its

initial
a""earance, o#ing
to
e!olution

from

its

ancestral
mor"hoty"e.
The

first
a""earance
is

so
ra"id,
in
fact,

that

geological
ly s"ea$i
ng
#e

co
nsider
s"
eciation
a
nd
immig
ration
as

es
sentially
synchron
ous
e!ent
s.

-1tinct
ion

of

a

t
a1on
may
also

occur

!ery ra"id

ly, althou
gh comm
only
not

as
ra"idly
as
s"eciat
ion.
'tra
tigra"hers
s"ea$
of

the

first

and

last

a""earanc
es
of

a

t
a1on

as

t
he
1irst
appe
arance
!
atum
(0
D,
and

t
he

last
a
ppearance
!atum
(6
D,.
The
se
0Ds

and

6Ds

are

not
totally synchronous o#ing
to

the

fact

that

e!en
though
immigrations
and

e1tinctions

can

ta$e
"lace .uite ra"idly,
as

mentioned,
they
521
522
Chapter
15

%
Chronostratigraphy
an!
Geologic
Time
are

not
actually
instantaneous

e!ents.

'ome
"lan$tonic s"ecies
ha!e

been

re
"orted
to
s"read
#orld#ide

in

1EE

to

1EEE
years/
ho#e!er,

bioturbation

of
sediment

after
de"osition
can

mi1

fossils
through
a

%one

se!eral

centimeters
thic$,

and

accidents

in
"reser!ation
as

#ell

as

bias

in

collection

and
analytical
methods

can

combine

to

create

uncertainties

in

the
age
of

the

0Ds

and

6Ds
that

can

amount

to

thousands

of
years.
Ne!ertheless,

the

duration

of

the
0Ds

of
many "lan$tonic s"ecies may
be

as

little

as

1E,EEE
years/
that

is,

the
ages
of

the

first
a""earance
datum

of

a
s"ecies
#ill

not
!ary by
more

than
1E,EEE
years
in

different
"arts
of

the

#orld
(<erggren
and

Ian
Cou!ering,
1)D=,.

The

error

caused
by
an
age discre"ancy
of

this
magnitude
becomes

in
significant
#hen
a""lied
to

estimation

of

the
ages
of

roc$s

that

are

millions

to
hundreds

of

millions

of
years
old.

Thus,

the

0Ds

and

6Ds

of
many
fossil
s"ecies
can

be

considered
essentially synchronous
for

the

utilitarian
"ur"oses
of
biochronology
0Ds

and

6Ds

are

the

most
easily
utili%ed

and

communicated
ty"es
of
fossil

information
u"on
#hich

to

base
biochronology,
and
they
can

be

used
across
great
distances

#ithin

the
range
of

the
defining
ta1a.

Therefore,
they
ha!e

come

to

dominate
global biochronological
subdi!ision.

The
"rocedure
for
establishing
the
biochronology
of
any
fossil
grou"
based

on

0Ds

and
6Ds

in!ol!es

the
follo#ing ste"s
(described
by ;a.
and
2orsley,
1)=5,

and
is

illustrated
gra"hically
in
0igure
15.1,18
1.
Identify
and

locate

in

local
biostratigra"hic
units

the

0Ds

and

6Ds

of
distincti!e

fossil

ta1a

that

ha!e

#ide
geogra"hic
distribution.
249
#
</>
g
AE
o
$4
T
0D
(,
M

DE

7a

from

radiometric

data
0D
(<,
M

D5

7a

calculated

from

sedimentation

rate
;nterval

"etween

A'6
('*
and

3'6
(6*
B

15
m;
age
dierence

B

15

)a.
Th!s,
the

sedimentation
rate
B
15 m/15 )a
B
/ m/)a.
IND
(C,
M

=5

7a

calculated

from

sedimentation

rate
6D
(D,
M

=5

7a

from

radiometric

data
-4
2igure
15.1.1
#chematic

illustration

o1

the
application
o1
biochronology
to
age
cal:
ibration

o1

a

local
stratigraphic
section.

The
ages
o1

the

20

1or
#pecies

an!

the

(0

1or
#pecies
0

are

establishe!
by
ra!iometric
!ating
o1

some
closely
associate!
physical
1eature
;e.g.,
an

ash
be!<.
The

20

1or
#pecies
5

an!

the

(0

1or
#pecies
C

cannot

be

!ate!
ra!iometrically=
ho>e"er,

the
ages
can

be

calculate!

1rom

the

se!i:
mentation

rate

!etermine!

bet>een

20
;<
an!

(0
;0<,
This

rate
;. m%+a<
can

then

be

use!

to

!etermine

the
age
!i11erence

be:
t>een

20
;<
an!

20
;5< ;.
m%+a

?

15

m

@

5
+a<
an!

be:
t>een

(0
;0<
an!

(0
;C< ;.
m%+a

?

14

m

@

.
+a<.
15..

The
Geologic
Time

#cale
5.

If
"ossible, assign ages
to

these

e!ents
by
direct

or

indirect

calibration
through radiochronology
or
magnetostratigra"hy.
If
ages
can

be
assigned
to
any
t#o

e!ents,

the

sedimentation

rates

for

strata

bet#een

these

e!ents
can

be

calculated
by di!iding
the
age
difference

bet#een

the

t#o
by
the
thic$ness

of

sediment
se"arating
them.

The

sedimentation

rates

can

then
be

used

to

calculate

the
a""ro1imate age
of

each

e!ent

enclosed

#ithin

the
dated

succession
(0ig.
15.1.1,.
+.

If

radiometric

or
magnetostratigra"hic
calibration

of

0Ds

or

6Ds

in

the
local

section

cannot

be
accom"lished,
then

the
ages
of

the

datum

le!els
must

be

found

in

a

different
#ay.
Under

these

conditions,
ages
of

the
0Ds

and

6Ds

are

estimated

on

the

basis

of

their
stratigra"hic "osition
#ith
res"ect
to

calibrated

dat um

le!els

of

other

fossil
grou"s
that

also
occur

in

the
sedimentary
succession

and

#hose
ages
ha!e

been

found
by
study
of

one

or

more

successions

else#here.
n
e1am"le
of
biochronologic
calibration

is

illustrated

in
0igure
15.1.5,
#hich

sho#s

the

use

of

calcareous
nanno"lan$ton
to

establish

a

biochronol9
ogy
for

the

>leistocene
by
direct

correlation

#ith
magnetostratigra"hic
units.
C()56T)'G 57 5#*(UTE GE#8 60)*C/6*'*(*G7
General
Principles
Radiochronology
is

based

on

the
"rinci"le
that
radiogenic
minerals

such

as
uranium95+5

and
"otassium9AE decay s"ontaneously
at

a

fi1ed

rate

to

a
Gdaugh
terG
"roduct.
Thus,

the
age
of

a
radiogenic
mineral

can

be

calculated

from

the
measured

ratio

of
"arent
radionuclide

to
daughter "roduct
in

the

mineral,
by
use

of

the

$no#n
decay
rate

of

the
"arent
material.

The
decay
rate

is

common
ly e1"ressed
as

the

half9life

of

the

radioacti!e
isoto"e (i.e.,
the

time
re.uired
for

one9half

of

the
"arent
material

to
decay
to

the
daughter "roduct,.
The
number

of

atoms

of

the
"arent
radioacti!e

material

and

the

inert
daughter
"roduct
are

measured
by
a

mass
spectrometer,
#hich

is

an

instrument

that
se"arates
and

counts

atoms

of

different

masses

or
charges
in

a
radiogenic
min
eral

such

as

%ircon
(Table 15.1.1,.
The
e.uation
for
calculating
radiometric
age
is
52.
t
M
9In

D

9
Dc
N
(15.1.1,
#here

N

is

the

number

of
"arent
atoms

of

an

element
(e.g.,
uranium,
"resent
in
any gi!en
amount

of

the

element.

In

is
log
base

e,

D

is

the

total

number

of
daughter
atoms
(e.g., lead,, Dg
is

the

number

of
original daughter
atoms,

and

is

the
decay
constant,

#hich

is

calculated

from

the
relationshi"

M

(15.1.5,
#here
O5
is

the

half9life

of

the

radioacti!e

element

(0aure,

1)=*,
Cha"ter
A,.

N
and

D

are
measurable/ Dg
is

a

constant

#hose

!alue

is

either

assumed

or

cal
culated

from

data

for
cognetic sam"les
of

the

same
age.
6a!iometric +etho!s
Principal
+etho!s.

'ome

of

the

most

useful

radionuclides

for
estimating
ab
solute
ages
and

the

minerals,

roc$s,

and
organic
materials

most

suitable

for
h/2
524
Chapter
15

%
Chronostratigraphy
an!
Geologic
Time
2igure
15.1.2
n
e?ample
o1
biochronoiogical !ating by
use

o1

nanno1ossil

!atum
e"ents

correlate!

>ith
magnetic polarity
e"ents.
A1ter
Gartner,

#.,
13&&,
Calcareous

nanno1ossil
biostratigraphy
an!

re"ise!

zonation

o1

the

Pleis:
tocene8

+arine
+icropaleontology,
".
2, 2ig. 5, reprinte! by permission
o1

Else"ier

#cience
Publishers.B
age
determination

are

sho#n

in

Table

15.1.1.

The

carbon914

method

is
a""lied
to

direct
dating
of
!ery young
sediments.

The
protactinium92.1
and

thorium9
2.4

methods

are

also
a""lied
to

direct
dating
of

sediments
ranging
in
age
to
about

55E,EEE
years.
The

usefulness

and

limitations

of

these

methods

for

direct
dating
of

sediments

are

discussed

further

in
succeeding
sections.
7ost

radiometric
dating
methods

cannot

be
a""lied
to

direct
dating
of
sedimentary
roc$s.
They
are

used

to

determine

the
ages
of
igneous
and

meta9
mor"hic
roc$s,

#hich
indirectly "ro!ide ages
for

associated
sedimentary
roc$s
(to

be

discussed,.

The
potassium%argon
metho!

is
#idely
used

because

it

can
be
a""lied
to

a

number

of

minerals

that

are

common

in
igneous
and

metamor9
"hic
roc$s,

and

it
gi!es generally
reliable

results.

It

can

be

used

for
dating "lu9
tonic,
igneous,
!olcanic,

and
metamor"hic
roc$s
(metamor"hism
resets

the
radioacti!e
cloc$,,
and

e!en

some
sedimentary
minerals
(e.g,, glauconite,.
The
"rinci"al "roblem
#ith

the
"otassiumOargon
methods

is

that

the
decay "rod
uct,
argon9AE,
is

a
gas
that

can

lea$

out

of

a
crystal.
The
argon944%argon9.3
method

is

a

related
techni.ue
in

#hich
"otassi9
um9+)

is

con!erted

to
argon9+) by
irradiation

#ith

fast

neutrons

in

a

nuclear
15..

The
Geologic
Time

#cale
Table

15.1.1 #i+u9
miCs

1or
princip!l
niiClhi"ls

otC

i+ilioiniCli

ir
525
PNot

used

in
calculating
radiometric
ages.
PPCan

be

used

for
dating
older

roc$s

under

fa!orable

circumstances.
reactor.

The

ratio

of
"otassium9+)
to
"otassium9AE
is

$no#n,

so
argon9+)
can
ser!e

as

a
"ro1y
for
"otassium9AE.
This
relationshi" "ermits
the
"otassium
de
termination

for

a
"otassium9argon age
to

be

made

as
"art
of

the
argon isoto"e
analysis.
In

other

#ords,

measurement

of

the

amo1mt

of
argon9+)
(#hich
"ro1
ies

for
"otassium9AE,
renders

it
unnecessary
to
se"arate "otassium
from

a

min
eral

and

measure

the

amount

of
"otassium9AE.
<oth
argon9+)
and
argon9AE
are
cige
!etermination
""ro1imate
7aterials
useful
commonly
>arent
Daughter
;alf9life
dating range
used for
nuclide nuclide
(years, (years
5.P.< dating
Carbon91A
PNitrogen91A
5D+E
GGL9CAE,EEE 2ood, charcoal,
CaCO shells
>rotactinium CCctinium955D
+5,A=E <150,000
Dee"9sea
sediment,
95+1
(daughter aragonite
corals
nuclide of
uranium95+5,
Thorium45+E PRadium955* D5,5EE <-250,000
Dee"9sea
sediment,
(daughter
nuclide
aragonite
corals
of

uranium
5+=O5+A,
Uranium95+= 6ead95E* A5EE 1E9QA5EE Rircon,
million million
mona%ite,
s"hene,
urani umO thorium
minerals
Uranium95+=
'"ontaneous
4
**<-65 Iolcanic
glass,
fission trac$s million
%ircon,
a"atite,
s"hene, garnet
Uranium95+5 6ead95ED D1E 1E9QA5EE Rircon, mona%ite,
million million
s"hene,
uraniumO
thorium minerals
>otassium9AE
rgon9AE
155E l 9 QA5EE 7usco!ite, biotite,
million million
felds"ars,
glauconite,
#hole
!olcanic roc$
Rubidium9=D 'trontium9=D A= billion 1E9QA5EE
million
7icas,
&9felds"ar,
#hole
metamor"hic
roc$,
glauconite
'amarium91AD
Neodymium
1E* Q5EE million
>yro1ene,
91A+ billion
"lagioclase, garnet,
a"atite, s"hene
6utetium91D* ;afnium91D* +5 billion Q5EE million
>yro1ene,
"lagioclase, garnet,
a"atite, s"hene
;alf9life

data

from

<o#en
(1))=,.
measured
during
the
argon analysis.
n
age
can

be

determined

from

the
argon9AEOargon9+)
ratio

once

the

con!ersion

rate

of
argon9AE
to
argon9+)
has
been

determined
by irradiating
a

standard

of

$no#n
age along
#ith

the
52$
Chapter
15

%
Chronostratigraphy
an!
Geologi c
Time
sam"le (e.g.,
<o#en,

1))=,.

The

method

is

so

sensiti!e

that
!ery
small

sam
"les
can

be

used,

and

it

has

the

further
ad!antage
that

it

allo#s

correction
for

loss

of
argon by lea$age.
<ecause

of

these
ad!antages,
it

is
being
in
creasingly
used.
6i$e

the
"otassiumOargon
method,

the

rubi!ium%strontium

metho!

can
also

be
a""lied
to

a

number

of

common

minerals/

ho#e!er,

it

is

less

common
ly
used.

Rubidium

is

so

rare

that

a
long decay "eriod
is
re.uired
to
generate
a
measurable amount of strontium. The uranium%lea! metho!s ma$e use of
minerals

such

as

%ircon,
s"hene,
and

mona%ite

as

#ell

as

some

less

common
urani umO t hori um

minerals.

These

methods
gi!e generally
reliable
ages
for
older

roc$s

and

can

be

used

for
dating
some

roc$s

as
young
as

about

1E

million
years.
2ission9tracD
dating
is

a
techni.ue
that

relies

on
counting
fission

trac$s
in

minerals

such

as

%ircon
(e.g., 2agner
and

Ian

den

;aute,

1))5,.

-mission

of
charged "articles
from
decaying
nuclei

causes
disru"tion
of
crystal
lattices,

cre
ating
the

trac$s,

#hich

can

be

seen

and

counted

under

a
microsco"e.
The

older
the

mineral

the

more

trac$s

are
"resent.
The
samarium%neo!ymium
and
lutetium%ha1nium

methods

are

less
commonly
used
dating techni.ues
that
may
be
a""lied
to

some

roc$s

that

are

less

amenable

to
dating by
con!ention
al

methods.

'amarium

and

lutetium

are

rare

earth

elements

#ith
long
half9
li!es,
ma$ing
them

useful

for
dating !ery
old

(>recambrian,

roc$s.
dditional,
s"eciali%ed dating
methods
(e.g.,
amino9acid

racemi%ation
method,

obsidian
hydration
method,

are

a!ailable

also

(0aure,

1)=*/
3eyh
and
'chleicher,
1))E,.
Details

of
radiochronologic
methods

and

discussions

of

er
rors

and

uncertainties

in

radiometric
age
determinations

are

a!ailable

in

se!
eral
"ublished
!olumes
(e.g.,
<o#en,

1)==,

1))=/

Dic$in,

1))5/

-asterbroo$,
1)==/

0aure,

1)=*/
3eyh
and

'chleicher,

1))E/
7ahoney,
1)=A/
7cDougall
and
;arrison, 1)==/ Odin, 1)=5/
>arrish

and
Roddic$, 1)=5/ 2illiams, 6erche,
and
0ull, 1)==,.
pplication
to
0ating #e!imentary
6ocDs.
lthough radiochronologic
methods

can

be
a""lied
to

a
!ariety
of

roc$

materials

and
organic
substances
(Table

15.1.1,,
they
ha!e

limited
a""lication
to

the

direct

estimation

of
ages
of
sedimentary
roc$s.

7ost

of

the
"otentially
usable

minerals

in
sedimentary
roc$s

are
terrigenous
minerals

that

#hen
analy%ed yield
the
age
of

the
"arent
source

roc$

(see
""endi1
<,,

not

the

time

of
de"osition
of

the
sedimentary
roc$,
although
a

fe#

marine

minerals

such

as
glauconite
can

be

used

for

direct
dating
of
sedimentary
roc$s.

Therefore,

much

of

the
geologic
time

scale

has
been

calibrated
by
indirect

methods

of
estimating ages
of
sedimentary
roc$s
on

the

basis

of

their
relationshi"
to
igneous
or
metamor"hic
roc$s

#hose
ages
can

be

determined
by radiochronology
The
ty"es
of

roc$s

that

are

most

useful
for
isoto"ic
calibration

of

the
geologic
time

scale

are

described

in

Table

15.1.5.
2e

#ill

no#

e1amine

in
greater
detail

the

most

common

methods

used

to

find
ages
of

the
sedimentary
roc$s

of

the

international
chronostratigra"hic
scale.
These

methods

are

not,

of

course,

restricted

to
determining
the
ages
of

sedi
mentary
roc$s

that

ma$e
u"
the

international
chronostratigra"hic
scale.
They
can

be
a""lied
to
determining
the
ages
of
sedimentary
roc$s

in
general.
2in!ing ges
o1
#e!imentary
6ocDs
by nalysis
o1

)nterbe!!e!

Contem
poraneousE
Folcanic

6ocDs.

6a!a

flo#s

and
"yroclastic de"osits
such

as

ash
falls

can

be
incor"orated !ery .uic$ly
into

an
accumulating sedimentary
succes
ion

#ithout
sig
nificantly inter
ru"ting
the

sed
imentation
"ro
cess.
Iolcanic

mate
rials
may
be
eru"ted
onto

GsoftG

unconsolidated

sediment

and

then

buried
during subse.uent,
continued

sedimentation,
leading
to

a

succession

of

interbed
ded
sedimentary
roc$s

and

!olcanic

roc$s

that

are
essentially contem"oraneous
15..

The
Geologic
Time

#cale
Table

15.1.2
Categories
o1

rocDs

most

use1ul

1or
geochronologic
calibration

o1

the
geologic
time

table
52&
Ty"e
of

roc$
'tratigra"hic relationshi" Reliability
of
age
data
Iolcanic roc$
(la!a
flo#s

and
ash
falls,
>lutonic
igneous
roc$s
7etamor"hosed
sedimentary
roc$s
'edimentary
roc$s
containing
contem"orary
organic
remains
(fossils, #ood,
'edimentary
roc$s
containing
Interbedded #ith
Gcontem"oraneousG
sedimentary
roc$s
Intrude
(cut across,
sedimentary
roc$s
6ie
unconformably
beneath
sedimentary
roc$s
Constitute the roc$s #hose
ages
are
being
determined
6ie
unconformably
beneath
non9metamor"hosed
sedimentary
roc$s
3i!e

actual
ages
of
sedimentary
roc$s

in

close
stratigra"hic "ro1imity
abo!e
and

belo#

!olcanic
layers
3i!e

minimum
ages
for

the

roc$s
they
intrude
3i!e

ma1imum
ages
for
o!erlying sedimentary
roc$s
3i!e

minimum
ages
for
metamor"hosed sedimentary
roc$s
3i!e

ma1imum
ages
for

the
o!erlying non9metamor"hosed
sedimentary
roc$s
3i!e

actual
ages
of
sedimentary
roc$s
3i!e

minimum
ages
for
sedimentary
roc$s
authigenic
minerals such
as
glauconite
in
age.
Thus,

estimates

of

the
ages
of

such

associated

!olcanic

roc$s

also

estab
lish

the
ages
of
contem"oraneous sedimentary
roc$s.
ges
of

#hole

!olcanic

roc$

can

be

estimated
relati!ely easily by
the
"otassium9argon
method,

and
ages
of

minerals

in

these

roc$s

can

be

deter
mined
by
the
"otassium9argon
or

other

methods.

Iolcanic

roc$s

that

occur

in
association

#ith
nearly contem"oraneous sedimentary
roc$s

#hose
ages
can
also

be

determined
by
fossils
"ro!ide e1tremely
useful

reference
"oints
for

cal
ibration.

In

fact,
establishing
the

absolute
ages
of

fossiliferous
sedimentary
roc$s
by
association

#ith
contem"oraneous
!olcanic

flo#s

#hose
ages
can

be
radiometrically
estimated

has
"robably
been

the
single
most
im"ortant
method

of
calibrating
the
geologic
time

scale.
0or

this

method

to

#or$,

the
contem"oraneity
of

the

interbedded

!ol
canic

and
sedimentary
roc$s

must

first

be

established.

If

a
"yroclastic
flo#
such

as

an

ash

fall

or

a

la!a

flo#
eru"ts
o!er

an

older,
e1"osed sedimentary
roc$

surface

#here

erosion

is
ta$ing "lace
or

sedimentation

is

inacti!e,

the
flo#

is

not
conte m"oraneous
#ith

the
underl
ying sedimentary
r oc$.

The
age
calculated

for

suc h

a

flo#

indicates
only
that

the

roc$

belo#

the

flo#

is

older
and

the

roc$

abo! e
younger
than

the

flo#.

g
eologist
can

establi sh
contem"o
raneity by determi ning
if

fossils

in
sedimenta
ry layers
abo!e

a nd

belo#

the
flo#
belong
to

th e

same
biostratigra"hic
%on
e

or
by loo$ing, a long
the

basal
contact

of

the

flo#

unit,

for
"hysical
e!idence

t
hat
may
sho#

that

the
underly
ing
sediment

#as

still

soft

at

the

time

of

the

!olcanic
eru"tion.
0or
e1am"le,
ash

fall

material
m ay
be

mi1ed
by
bioturbatio
n

into
underlying
s ediment,

soft
52-
2igure
15.1.
0iagram illustrating
ho>

the
contemporaneity
o1
se!imentary
rocDs
to

an
associate!,
!atable

"olcanic
layer
can

be

establishe!.

The
shale

be!s

belo>

an!

abo"e

the

"olcanic

ash

be!
belong
to

the
same 2oramini1eral biozone an! the base o1 the ash be! has been
bioturbate!, in!icating
that

the
un!erlying
se!i ment

>as

still

so1t
at

the

time

o1

the

ash

1all.

There1ore,

the

shale

be!s

are
appro?i:
mately
the

same
age
as

the

ash

be!
;-4 +a<.
sediment
may
be

mi1ed

into

the

base

of

a

submarine

la!a

flo#,

or

other

such
relationshi"s may
e1ist
(0ig. 15.1.+,.
5racDete!
ges
1rom

ssociate!
)gneous
or
+etatnorphic
6ocDs.

The

ra
diometric
ages
of
igneous
roc$

that

are

not
contem"oraneous
#ith

associated
sedimentary
roc$s

can

be

used

to

estimate

the
ages
of

associated
sedimentary
roc$s

if

t#o

or

more
igneous
bodies

Gbrac$etG

the
sedimentary
unit.

In

this

case,
the
age
of

the
sedimentary
unit

can

be

established
only
as
lying
bet#een

those
of

the
brac$eting igneous
bodies.

The
sedimentary
unit

#ill

be

older

than

an
igneous body
that

intrudes

it,

but
younger
than

an
igneous body u"on
#hich
(Clo"otr!ncanita elevata :one
9
'hale =E 7a
I
Q

s
C!
Q!
C!
I

Q
I

I
i-

sh

bed

=E

7a

A

A

-1

I
SS
"iot!r"ation
'hale =E 7a
4
Glo"otr!ncanita elevata :one
9
Chapter
15

%
Chronostratigraphy
an!
Geologic
Time
it

rests
unconformably (0ig.
15.1.A,.

0or
e1am"le,
a
sedimentary
succession
de"osited
on

the

eroded,

#eathered

surface

of

a
granite
batholith
may
subse
.uently
be

intruded
by
a

di$e

or

a

sill.

The
sedimentary
unit

is
ob!iousl
y
younger
than

the

batholith

but

older

than

the

di$e

or

the

sill.
Unfortunately,
there

is

no
#ay
to

determine

ho#

much
younger
or

older

unless

other

e!i

dence

is

a!ailable.

<ecause

erosional

and
de"ositional "rocesses
are
relati!ely
slo#,

the

time
re"resented by
a

brac$eted
age may
be

so
long
as

to

be

of

rela
ti!ely
little

use

in
calibrating
the
geologic
time

scale.
Only
a

fe#
"oints
on

the
time

scale

ha!e

been

calibrated
by
this

method.
7etamor"hic
minerals

that
de!elo"
in
sedimentary
roc$s
o#ing
to

re
gional
or

contact
metamor"hism
can

be

studied

also

to
"ro!ide
a

method

of
brac$eting
the
ages
of
sedimentary
roc$s
(0ig.
15.1.A<,.

The

radiometric
age
of
metamor"hic
minerals
gi!es
a

minimum
age
for

the
metamor"hosed
sedi
ment/

that

is,

the
metamor"hosed sedimentary
roc$s

are

older

than

the

time

of
metamor"hism.
If

a

succession

of
metamor"hic
roc$s

is

o!erlain

uncon

formably by nonmetamor"hosed sedimentary

roc$s,

the
nonmetamor"hosed
roc$s

are
ob!iously younger
than

the
age
of
metamor"hism.
15.+

The
3eologic
Time

'cale 523
2igure
15.1.4
0etermi ni ng
the
ages
o1
se!i mentary
rocDs
in!irectly by ;< bracDeting
bet >een

t >o
i gneous
bo!i es

an!
;5< bracDeting
bet >een
regionally
met amorphos e! se!i mentary
rocDs

an!

an

intrusi"e
i gneous bo!y.
0irect
6a!iochronology
o1
#e!imentary
6ocDs
The

calibration

methods

discussed

abo!e

allo#

the

estimation

of
ages
of

sedi
mentary
roc$s
only through
their

association

in

some

manner

#ith
igneous
or
metamor"hic
roc$s

#hose
ages
can

be

determined
by
radiometric

methods.
Clearly
the

uncertainties

in!ol!ed

in
finding ages
of
sedimentary
roc$s
by
these

indirect

methods

could

be

a!oided

if
ages
could

be

estimated
directly.
s
mentioned,
terrigenous
minerals

in
sedimentary
roc$s

are

not

useful

for

ra
diochronology
because
they yield ages
for

the
"arent
roc$s,

not

the

time

of

de
"osition
of

the

sediment.

The
only
materials

in
sedimentary
roc$s

that

can

be
used

for

direct
radiochronology
are
organic
remains

(#ood,

calcium

carbonate
fossils,

and

other

such
remains,
that

#ere
de"osited
#ith

the

sediment

and

au9
thigenic
minerals

that

formed

in

the

sediment

#hile

still

on

the

seafloor

or
shortly
after

burial.

The
"rinci"al
methods

that

ha!e

been

used

for

direct

ra
diochronology
of
sedimentary
roc$s

are
(1,
the

carbon91A
techni.ue
for
organic
materials,
(5,
the
"otassium9argon
and

rubidium9strontium
techni.ues
for
glauconites, (+,
the

thorium95+E
techni.ue
for

ocean

floor

sediments,

and
(A,
the
thorium95+EO"rotactinium95+1 techni.ue
for

fossils

and

sediment.

short

discussion

of

the
ad!antages
and
disad!antages
of

each

of

these
methods

follo#s.

0or

a
descri"tion
of

other
"ossible
direct
dating
methods,

such
as

amino9acid

racemi%ation

and

other

methods

based

on

radioacti!e
dise.uilib
rium

of

uranium,

thorium,

and
"rotactinium,
see
3eyh
and

'chleicher

(1))E,.
5.4
Chapter
15

%
Chronostratigraphy
an!
Geologi c
Time
Carbon914

+etho!.

The

carbon91A

method

can

be
a""lied
to

the

radiochronol9
ogy
of

materials

such

as

#ood,
"eat,
charcoal,

bone,

lea!es,

and

the

CaCO
shells

of

marine
organisms.
The

method

has

been

used
e1tensi!ely
for

estimat
ing ages
of
archaeological
materials,

but

its
a""lication
in
geology
is

limited

to
Huaternary geology
because

of

the
!ery
short

useful
age range
of

the

method.
Carbon91A

is
"roduced
in

the
atmos"here o#ing
to

the
im"act
of
cosmic9ray
neutrons

on
ordinary nitrogen91A
atoms.

The
nitrogen
atoms

lose

a
"roton
and
are

thus

con!erted

to

carbon91A,

#hich,

in

turn,
decays
bac$s

to
nitrogen91A
#ith

a

half9life

of

5D+E
years.
Carbon91A

is
incor"orated
into

carbon

dio1ide
(CO5,,
#hich

is

assimilated
by "lants
and

animals
during
their

life
cycles.
2hen
organisms
die,

their

tissue

no
longer
assimilates

ne#

radioacti!e

car
bon/

thus,

the

amount

of

radiocarbon

in

the
organisms
diminishes

#ith

time.
The
age
of

a
sam"le
is

determined
by measuring
the

amount

of

radiocarbon
"er gram
of

total

carbon

in

a
sam"le
and
com"aring
this

amount

#ith

the

ini
tial

amount

at

the

time

the
organism
died.

The
age e.uation
is
(15.1.+,
#here

is

the

measured
acti!ity
of

the
sam"le
at

the
"resent
moment

in

dis
integrations "er
minute
"er gram
of

carbon
(d"mO g,
and

.

is

the

initial

ac
ti!ity (e.g.,
<o#en,

1))=,.
<urning
of

trees

and

fossil

fuels

in

the
"ast
fe
#
centuries

has
"roduced
a

relati!e

decrease

in

radioacti!e

carbon

in

the

atmo
s"here
#hereas

detonation

of

thermonuclear

bombs

has

caused

a
slight
in
crease.

Corrections

must

be

made

for

these
changes
to

obtain

corre
ct
radiocarbon
ages.
<ecause

of

the

short

half9life

of

radioacti!e
carbon,
the

carbon91A

method
is
commonly
used
only
for

materials

less

than

about

AE,EEE
years
old/

older
materials

contain

too

little

carbon91A

to

be

determined
by
standard
analytical
methods.
'"ecial techni.ues
that

ma$e

use

of

mass
s"ectrometers
that

allo#
analysis
of

smaller

amounts

of

carbon91A,

or
s"ecial "ro"ortional
counters
#ith
high counting
efficiencies
(e.g.,
<o#en,

1)==,,

ma$e

it
"ossible
to

e1tend
he

usable
ages
i
n

some

cases

to

as

much

as

*E,E
EE9=E,EEE
years.
These
s"ecial
ethods

are
!ery
e1"ensi!e
and

ha!e

not

been

#idely
used

in

the
"ast.
lso,
hey
are
e1ce"ti
onally subFect
t
o
systematic
err
or

because

of

c
ontamination

of
sam"les
#ith
young
carbon.
The

carbon91A

method

has

been

used
successfully
for

such
a""lications
as
estimating ages
of
!ery young
sediment

in

cores

of
dee"9sea
sediment

and
unra!eling
recent
glacial history by analysis
of

#ood

in
glacial de"osits.
Its

e1
tremely
short
range
renders

the

method

of

little

!alue

in
calibrating
the
geo
logic
time

scale
e1ce"t
for
!ery
recent
Huaternary
e!ents.
6a!iochronology
o1

Glauconites
by
Use

o1
Potassium944%rgon944
an!
6ubi!ium9-&%#trontium9-&.

Radioacti!e
"otassium9AE !!"#
is
incor"orated
into
glauconite grains (green clay
minerals
com"osed
of
com"le1 "otassium9
aluminum9iron
silicates,
as
they
e!ol!e
by
alteration
"rocesses
on

the

seafloor.
2hen

the
glauconite grains
are
fully
formed,
they theoretically
become

closed
systems
#ith
res"ect
to
gain
or

loss

of
"otassium
or
argon/
that

is,

no

addi
tional

radioacti!e
"otassium
is

ta$en

into

the
grains
and

the

!$r

that

forms
by
gradual decay
of
"otassium
remains
tra""ed
#ithin

the
glauconite grains
(e.g.,
Odin

and

Dodson,

1)=5,.

7easurement

of

the

"%$r

ratio

in

the
glau
conite
grains
thus

allo#s

the
age
of

the
grains
to

be

estimated.

The

half9life

of
"otassium9AE
is

155E

million
years/
therefore,

it

is
theoretically "ossible
to
15..

The
Geologic
Time

#cale
a""ly
the

&9r

method

to
radiochronology
of

roc$s
ranging
in
age
from

about
one

million
years (less
in

some

cases,

to

the
age
of

-arth.
'e!eral

#or$ers

ha!e
re"orted
that
glauconite ages
tend

to

be

1E95E
"ercent
too
young o#ing
to

some
argon
loss.

On

the

other

hand,

calculated
glauconite ages may
be

too

old

in

some

cases
o#ing
to

the
"resence
of

inherit
ed
radiogenic argon
that

#as
already
in

sediment

at

the

time

the
glauconite
grains
formed.

lso,

the

formation

of
glauconite grains
and

their

closure

to
loss

of
argon
do

not

occur
simultaneously
#ith
de"osition
of

the
enclosing
sediment.

3lauconite
grains,
therefore,

must
yield
a
slightly younger age
than
the

sediment

in

#hich
they
occur,

e!en

if

uncertainties

about

inherited

or

lost
argon
are

not

a
"roblem.
Odin

and

Dodson
(1)=5, suggest
that

the

time

re
.uired
for
glauconites
to

e!ol!e

and

become

closed
systems may range u"
to
55,EEE
years
or

more.

Thus,

in

relation

to
biostratigra"hic
%onation,

the
glau
conite

&9r
ages
are

closer

to

those

of

fossils

in

the

hori%on
immediately
abo!e
the
glauconites
than

to

the

fossils
de"osited
#ith

the
glauconites.
The
ages
of
glauconites
can

also

be

estimated
by
the

rubidium9strontium
method
(Table
15.1.1,.

Radioacti!e

rubidium
&b#
is
incor"orated
into
glau
conites

as
they
form,
along
#ith
"otassium9AE.
The
long
half9life

of

rubidium9
=D

limits

the

use

of

the

rubidium9strontium

method

to
radiochronology
of
roc$s

older

than

about

1E

million
years.
Details

of

the

Rb9'r

method

as
a""lied
to

the
radiochronology
of
sedimentary
roc$s

are
gi!en by
Clauer

(1)=5,.
Estimating Piges
o1
#e!imentary
6ocDs
by
Use

o1

*ther
uthigenic
+inerals.
In

addition

to
glauconite,
se!eral

other
authigenic
minerals

ha!e

been

used

in
direct
radiochronology
of
sedimentary
roc$s
by
the

&9r

and

Rb9'r

methods.
These

minerals

include
clay
minerals

such

as

illite,

montmorillonite,

and

chlo
rite/

%eolites/

carbonate

minerals/

and

siliceous

minerals

such

as

chert

and
o"al.
<ecause

of

uncertainties

about

their
origin4that
is,
authigenic
or

detrital4and
time

of

closure

to

sea#ater

interactions,

none

of

the
clay
minerals
e1ce"t glau
conite

ha!e

so

far
"ro!en
to
yield
reliable
ages.
Reolites,

carbonate

minerals,
and

siliceous

minerals

ha!e

been

used

for

direct
radiochronology
of

sedimen
tary
roc$s

#ith

some

success,

but

the

o!erall

usefulness

and
reliability
of

meth
ods

based

on

these

minerals

ha!e

not
yet
been
ade.uately in!estigated.
Thorium92.4

an!

Thorium92.4%Protactinium92.1

+etho!s

1or
Estimating
ges
o1

6ecent

#e!imen
ts.

Ura
nium9
5+=
dec
ays thro
ugh
se!
eral

inte
rmedi
ate
daug
hter "ro
ducts, in
cluding
uranium
95+A,

to

thorium9
5+E.

Ura
nium9
5+=

is
fairly
so
luble

in

sea#ater

and

is
"
resent
i
n

detect
able

am
ounts

in

sea#ater
.
<y
contrast,

the

thorium95+E
daughter "roduct "reci"itates .uic$ly
from

sea#a
ter
by adsor"tion
onto

sediment

or

inclusion

in

certain
authigenic
minerals
and

becomes
incor"orated
into
accumulating
sediment

on

the

seafloor.

Thori
um95+E

is

an

unstable
isoto"e
and

itself
decays
#ith

a

half9life

of

D5,EEE
years
to

still

another

unstable
daughter "roduct,
radium955*.
O#ing
to

this
fairly
ra"id decay
of

'h,

cores

of

sediment

ta$en

from

the

ocean

floor

e1hibit

a
measurable

decrease

in Th

content

#ith
increasing de"th
in

the

cores.

If

#e
assume

that

sedimentation

rates

and

the

rates

of
"reci"itation
of

'h

ha!e

re
mained
fairly
constant
through
time,

the

concentration

of

'h

should

de
crease
e1"onentially
#ith
de"th.
The
ages
of

the

sediments

at

!arious
de"ths
in

a

core

can

be

calculated
by com"aring
the

amount

of
remaining
'h

at
any
de"th
to

the

amount

in

the
to" layer
of

the

core

(surface

sediment,.

This
method

can

be
a""lied
to

the
dating
of

sediments
younger
than

about

55E,EEE
years
old,

#hich

ma$es

it

useful

for
bridging
the
ga"
bet#een

ma1imum

car9
bon91A
ages
and

mini mum

&9r
ages.
5.1
5.2
Chapter
15

%
Chronostratigraphy
an!
Geologic
Time
>rotactinium95+1

is

the

unstable
daughter "roduct
of

uranium95+5

and
itself
decays
#ith

a

half9life

of

about

+A,EEE
years
to

actinium955D.

>rotactini
um95+1,

li$e

thorium95+E,
"reci"itates .uic$ly
from

sea#ater

and

becomes
incor"orated
into

sediment
along
#ith

thorium95+E.

<ecause
"rotactinium95+1
decays
about

t#ice

as
ra"idly
as

thorium95+E,

the

(a%'h

ratio

in

the

sed
iments
changes
#ith

time.

Thus,

in

a

sediment

core,

this

ratio

is
largest
in

the
surface
layer
of

the

core

and

decreases
"rogressi!ely
#ith
de"th
in

the

core.
The
age
of

the

sediment

at
any de"th
in

the

core

is

determined
by com"aring
the

(a%!'h

ratio

at

that
de"th
to

the

ratio

in

the

surface

sediment.

The

re
liability
of

the
ages
determined
by
this

method

rests

on

the
assum"tion
that
"rotactinium95+1
and

thorium95+E

are
"roduced e!ery#here
in

the

ocean

at

a
constant

rate

and

that

the
starting
ratio

of

these

t#o
isoto"es
in

surface

sedi
ment

is

constant
throughout
the

ocean.

('ee

0aure,

1)=*,

and

<o#en,

1))=,

for
details,,
n

alternati!e

method

for
calculating ages
of

sediment

based

on
"rotac
tinium95+1

and

thorium95+E

in!ol!es
measuring
the

ratio

of

these
daughter
"roducts
to

their
"arent isoto"es
in

the

s$eletons

of

marine

in!ertebrates

such
as

corals.

Dissol!ed

uranium95+=

and

uranium95+5

in

sea#ater

are
incor"orat
ed

into

corals

as
they gro#,
#hereas

sea#ater

contains

no
a""reciable "rotac
tinium95+1

and

thorium95+1,

because

of

the
ra"id "reci"itation
of

these
daughter "roducts.
Therefore,
any "rotactinium95+1
or

thorium95+E
"resent
in
corals

results

from
decay
of

the
"arent
uranium
isoto"es
#ithin

the

corals.

The
ratio

of
"arent isoto"e
to
daughter "roduct
decreases
systematically
#ith

time,
"ro!iding
a

method

for
dating
the

corals.

These

ratios
a""roach
an
e.uilibrium
!alue

#ith
increasing "assage
of

time,
o#ing
to

the

fact

that

the
daughter
"roducts
themsel!es

continue

to
decay
Thorium95+E

reaches

a
steady
state
after

about

55E,EEE
years
and
"rotactinium95+1
after

about

15E,EEE
years.
Thus,

these

methods

can

be

used
only
for
radiochronology
of

roc$s
younger
than

these
ages.
<ecause

corals

and

other

s$eletal

materials

tend

to
recrystal9
li%e

#ith

burial

and
diagenesis,
the

method

has

se!ere

limitations.
Recrystalli%ation may o"en
the
initially
closed
system
and

allo#
esca"e
of

the
daughter
or
"arent isoto"es.
Therefore,

this

method

cannot

be
a""lied
to

esti
mating ages
of

s$eletal

materials

that

ha!e
undergone recrystalli%ation.
#U++67
Radiochronology
of
sedimentary
roc$s

#hose

relati!e
"ositions
in

the

strati9
gra"hic
column

are
already
established

can

be
accom"lished by
se!eral

meth
ds.

The

choi
ce

of

method

de"ends u"o
n
the
age
of

the

roc$s

an
d

the
ty"es
of
aterials
"res
ent
in

them.

In
general,
c
alibration

of

the

time

scal
e
by
estimat
ng ages
of

!
olcanic

roc$
s

associated

#ith
essentia
lly contem"
oraneous
sed
i
entary
roc$s

that

can

be
e
asily
correlat
ed
by
marine

fossils

is

the

most

useful
nd

reliable
a
""roach. Ra
diochronolog
y
of
sedimen
tary glaucon
ites
or

brac$

ting
the
age
s
of
sedime
ntary
roc$s

from

associa
ted
"lutonic
intrusi!e

roc
$s
ay
also
yield
usable
ages
4the only
ages
a!ailabl
e

in

some

ca
ses.

Therefor
e,
different

methods
may
ha!e

to

be
a""lied
to
estimating ages
of

roc$s

in

each
geologic system.
Details

of

the

methods

used

for
estimating ages
of

bound
aries

bet#een

and

#ithin

the

different
systems
are
gi!en
in

Odin

(1)=5,,
'nelling (1)=5a,,
and

;arland

et

al.

(1))E,.
0igure
15.+

sho#s

the

calibration

of

the
3eological 'ociety
of

merica
1)))
3eologic
Time

'cale

on

the

basis

of

absolute
ages
obtained

from

a

num
ber

of

different

sources.

Readers

should

be

a#are,

ho#e!er,

that

other
"ub
lished
geologic
time

scales

ha!e
slightly
different

!alues

for

some

of

these
15.4 Chronocorrelation
boundaries
(e.g.,
Odin,

1)=5/
Curry
et

a6,

1)=5/
'nelling,
1)=5b/

;arland

et

a6,
1))E,,
indicating
differences

in
o"inion
about

the
ages
of

the

boundaries.

Cali
bration

of

the
geologic
time

table

has
changed steadily through
the
years
as

ra9
diochronologic
methods

ha!e
im"ro!ed
and

more

absolute
ages
ha!e

become
a!ailable.
lthough
the
ages
no#

used

to

calibrate

the
maFor
boundaries

of

the
geologic
time

scale

are
unli$ely
to
undergo maFor
re!ision

in

the

future,

it

is
safe

to

assume

that

refinements

in

these
ages
#ill

continue

for

some

time.
15.4 C/6*'*C*66E(T)*'
Chronostratigra"hic
units

are
e1tremely im"ortant
in
stratigra"hy
because
they
form

the

basis

for
"ro!incial
to
global
correlation

of

strata

on

the

basis

of
age
e.ui!alence.
2e

ha!e
already
established

that
chronostratigra"hic
correlation

is
correlation

that
e1"resses corres"ondence
in
age
and
chronostratigra"hic "osition
of
stratigra"hic
units.

To
many geologists,
correlation

on

the

basis

of
age e.ui!a
lence

is
by
far

the

most
im"ortant ty"e
of

correlation

and,

in

fact,

it

is
commonly
the
only ty"e
of

correlation
"ossible
on

a
truly global
basis.

7ethods

of

establish
ing
the
age e.ui!alence
of

strata
by magnetostratigra"hic
and
biologic techni.ues
ha!e
already
been

discussed
(Cha"ters
1+,
1A,.
'e!eral

other

methods

of

time9
stratigra"hic
correlation

are

also

in

common

use,
including
correlation
by
short9
term
de"ositional
e!ents,

correlation

based

on
transgressi!e9regressi!e
e!ents,
correlation
by
stable
isoto"e
e!ents,

and

correlation
by
absolute
ages.
These

meth
ods are discussed belo#.
E"ent

Correlation

an!

E"ent
#tratigraphy
-!ent

correlation

constitutes
"art
of

#hat

has

come

to

be

$no#n

as

e"ent
stratig:
raphy.
-!ent
stratigra"hy
focuses

on

the
s"ecific
e!ents

that
generate
a

strati9
gra"hic
unit

or

succession

rather

than

on

the
"hysical
or
biological
characteristics
of

the

unit.

0or
e1am"le,
a

eustatic

rise

in

sea

le!el

can

affect

sedimentation
"at
terns

#orld#ide.

s

a

result

of

this

e!ent,
sedimentary
facies

are
generated
in

a
!ariety
of

en!ironments

in

!arious
"arts
of

the

#orld.

These

facies
may
not

be
e.ui!alent
in

terms

of

their
"hysical
characteristics/

ho#e!er,
they
are
e.ui!alent
in

the

sense

that
they
#ere
"roduced
as

a

result

of

the

same

e!ent.

Thus,
they
are
chronological e.ui!alents.
-!ents

can

be

considered

to

ha!e

different

scales
de"ending u"on
their

du
ration
(0ig.
15.A,,
intensity,
and
geologic
effect.

'ome

con!ulsi!e

e!ents

are

e1tra
ordinarily energetic,
occur
.uic$ly,
and

ha!e
regional
influence
(e.g., e1"losi!e
!olcanic
eru"tions, im"act
of
large
e1traterrestrial

bodies

(bolides,,
great
earth
.ua$es, catastro"hic
floods,
large
!iolent

storms,
large
tsunamis,.

These

e!ents
may "roduce #ides"read
effects,
including
mass

e1tinctions.

<ecause

of

their
magnitude,
the
de"osits
of

such

e!ents
may
form
im"ortant "arts
of

the
geologic
record/

in

fact,

the
stratigra"hic
record

tends

to
o!erem"hasi%e e1traordinary "er
turbations
('chleicher, 1))5,.
On

the

other

hand,

the
"roducts
of

a
"articular
e!ent
may
not

be

#ell
enough "reser!ed
in

the
geologic
record

to

be
recogni%ed
as

an
e!ent

mar$er
(Clifton,
1)==,,

and
synchroneity
of

e!ent
de"osits
from

one
region
to

another
may
not

be
easily recogni%ed.
Other

e!ents

occur

more
slo#ly
and
"roduce im"ortant stratigra"hic
successions

that
may
be

#ell
"reser!ed
and

rec
ogni%ed
o!er
large
areas,

such

as

the

rise

and

fall

of

sea

le!el

that
generates
a
transgressi!e9regressi!e stratigra"hic
succession.
5..
Chapter
15

%
Chronostratigraphy
an!
Geologic
Time
'ge
"eore
present (years*
'pproDimate
d!ration

o
,
,olocene
,,
.
,
E
$Dperimental>,istorical
Pleistocene

Tert
F)esoz
certain

classes

o

events
o
signiicance
to

the
1- 10 10 1-G 1-H 1-H 10 1-H
geological
record
1

ho!r;
Ts!nami, gravity
low
1

>

1-
days8 'shall,
lava

low
1
year8
Aormation

o

ann!al
deposits
I-
years8
,!man
liespan
1--

>

1---
years8
Continent>wide
eDpansion
o

s!ccess!l
immigrant;
deposition
1

>cm
pelagic
ooze
-.1
my8 'verage paleomagnetic
event
-.5
my8 'verage glaciation cycle
1
my; Cyclothem, paleomagnetic epoch
1

E1-
my; %pecies liespan
5

E

5-
my8 2rogenic cycle
2igure
15.4
6esol"ing po>er
o1
geochronologic systems
in

the

Cenozoic

on

the

basis

o1 an!

G9r
absolute
age
!iscrimination

an!
biochronological
!iscrimination.

The

"ertical

a?is

sho>s
the

!uration

o1

e"ents
ranging
1rom

hours

to

hun!re!s

o1

millions

o1
years,
an!

the

hori:
zontal

a?is

sho>s
age
be1ore

the
present ranging
1rom

hours

to

hun!re!s

o1

millions

o1
years.
'ote

that
!ating
can

resol"e

e"ents

that
range
in
age
1rom

tens

o1
years
to

less
than
144, 444 years
an!

that

are
years
to

tens

o1

thousan!s

o1
years apart.
G9r
!ating
can
resol"e

e"ents

that

are

ol!er

than
144, 444 years
an!

that

are
separate! by
at

least
14,444
years. 5iochronology
is

most

e11ecti"e

in
resol"ing
e"ents

that

are

ol!er

than

about

one
million
years
an!

that

are
space!
at

least

one

million
years apart. A1ter 5erggren,
H.

.,
an!
<.
.

Fan
Cou"ering,
13&-,
5iochronology,
in

G.

F.
Cohee,
+.

2.
Glaessner,
an!

/.

0.
/e!berg ;e!s.<.
The
geologic
time

scale8

m.

ssoc.

Petroleum
Geologists
#tu!ies

in

Geol:
ogy $, 2ig. 1, p. 4., reprinte! by permission
o1
PG, Tulsa, *Dla.B
To

be

useful

in

chronocorrelation,

e!ents

should

be
relati!ely
sudden,

thus
"roducing abru"t changes
in
lithology, chemistry, biology,
andO or
"aleomagnetism
that

can

be
recogni%ed. >hysical
e!ents

that

meet

this

criterion

include

tsunamis,
storms,

floods,

sediment
gra!ity
flo#s,

!olcanic
eru"tions,
meteorite

and

comet
im"acts, ra"id
sea9le!el
changes,
and
abru"t
re!ersals

of

-arthCs
magnetic
field
(e.g.,
-insele,

1))=/

'hi$i,
Chough,
and

-insele,
1))*,.
Chemical

e!ents,

#hich
may
be

related

to
"hysical
e!ents,

include

sudden
changes
in

stable
isoto"e (e.g., o1y
gen, carbon,
content

of

the

ocean

and
de!elo"ment
of

ano1ic
(lo#9o1ygen,
condi
tions

in

the

ocean.
<iologic changes
such

as

sudden
a""earance
of

ne#
s"ecies
or
sudden

e1tinction

of
s"ecies
are

also

useful

e!ents
(e.g.,
2alliser,

1))*,.
<iological
e!ents
may
be

related

to
relati!ely
sudden

en!ironmental
changes
such

as
maFor
changes
in

current
"atterns
or

to

other
"hysical
e!ents
(e.g.,
meteorite
im"acts,.
These

!arious
ty"es
of

e!ents

are

summari%ed

in
0igure
15.5.

s

mentioned,
"hysical,
chemical,

and
biological
e!ents
generate corres"onding
e!ent
de"osits
(e.g.,
a

!olcanic
eru"tion "roduces
an

ash
bed,. Combining
se!eral

$inds

of

e!ent
%edimentary
%!ccession
=lac7 shales
&od!lar lime#
stone

o
special
pattern
=lac7 shales
)onomorph
ossil
layer
Tephra
T!r"idites
%torm
layer
=lac7 shales
<ythmic
sedimentary
s!ccession
Aossiliero!s
mar7er "ed
6isconormity
with
hardgro!nd
o
<
<
$vents
B
regional
B
glo"al
J'noDic event
Transgression
)ass eDtinction
Time>speciic
ades
'noDic event
Ts!nami
@oicanic
activity
- )ass mortality
%!spension
c!rrents
%torms
'noDic event
K $Dt i nct i ons
)ilan7ovitch
cycles
Transgression
a"ove
gap
15. 4 Chronocorrel ati on 5.5
2igure
15.5
#chemati c

illustration

o1

e"ents

an!

e"ent
!eposi ts
that

are

use1ul

in
chronostrati graphic
correlation.

'ot e

that

most

e"ents

are

restricte!

to
regions= ho>e"er,
a
1e>,
such

as

ano?:
ic

e"ents

that

cause

mass

e?tincti ons

or

mass
mortality, may
be

o1
gl obal scope.
Combin:
ing
"arious

Din!s

o1

e"ents

lea!s

to

i!enti1ication

o1
hi gh9resol ution stratigraphic
units
;holostratigraphic units<
an!
biostratigraphic
units

that

ha"e
chronostratigraphic signi1i:
cance.

Col umn

sea

le"el8

2

1all,
6i

@

rise.

Col umn
biostratigraphic
units8

Et

@
earliest,
E

@
early,
+

@

mi!!l e,

(

@

late.

Col umn

e"olution8

thicD

lines

o1
speci es ranges
@

i n!e?
speci es. A1ter
5arnes

et

al.,

1335,

Global

e"ent
stratigraphy,
in

Halliser,

*.

/.

;e!.<%

Glob:
al

e"ents

an!

e"ent
stratigraphy8 #prtnger9Ferlag, 2ig. 1, p. .24. B
mar$ers

to
identify
correlatable

hori%ons

has

come

to

be

$no#n

as
high9resolution
e"ent
stratigraphy
(&auffman,

1)==,.
7any
e!ents

are

of

local

or
"ro!incial sco"e/
ho#e!er,

some
"roduce
e!ent
de"osits
that

are
globally
traceable,
holding
out
the
"ossibility
of
global
e"ent
stratigraphy (<arnes
et

al.,

1))*/

2allister,

1))*,.
Other

than
"aleomagnetic
correlation,

most

#orld#ide

correlation

is

based

on
biostratigra"hy.
Correlation
by
Short-Term
Depositional
Events
'ome

e!ents
"roduce $ey
beds,

or

mar$er

beds,

that

can

be

traced

in
outcro"
or
subsurface

sections

for
long
distances.

These

mar$er

beds

are

useful

for

time9
stratigra"hic
correlation,

as

#ell

as

for
lithostratigra"hic
correlation,

if
they
#ere
de"osited
as

a

result

of

a
geologic
e!ent

that

too$
"lace essentially
CCinstanta
neouslyOC
The

most
stri$ing
short9term
de"ositional
e!ent

is

ash

fall

from

!olcanic
eru"tions,
#hich

can

ta$e
"lace
in

1

to

1E
days (0ig.
15.A,.

<eds

formed

from

ash
falls

are

called

ash
layers, te"hra layers,
bentonite

beds

(if

the

ash

alters

to

ben9
tonite
clays,,
or

tuff
layers.
The

ash

fall

from

a
single eru"tion may "roduce
ash
layers
se!eral

centimeters

thic$

that

can

co!er

thousands

to

hundreds

of

thou
sands

of
s.uare
$ilometers.

0or
e1am"le,
ash

from

the
eru"tion
of

7t.

7a%ama

in
5.$
Chapter
15

%
Chronostratigraphy
an!
Geologic
Time
southeastern
Oregon
about

*5EE9DEEE
years ago,
an
eru"tion
that
subse.uently
led

to

the

formation

of

the

Crater

6a$e

caldera,

#as

carried

northeast#ard

by
#inds

and
de"osited
as

far
a#ay
as

'as$atche#an

and

7anitoba,

Canada.

s
h
from

the
7ay
1)=E
eru"tion
of

7t.

't.

;elens

also
s"read
o!er

thousands

of
s.uare
$ilometers

east

and

north

of

7t.

't.

;elens

in
2ashington
and

Idah
o.
Other

historic
e1am"les
of
#ides"read
ashfalls

include

the

1)+5
eru"tion
of
Hui%a"u
in

Chile,

an
eru"tion
that

distributed

!olcanic

ash

east#ard

for

15EE

$m
across

'outh

merica

and

into

the

tlantic

Ocean,

and

the
eru"tion
of

>erbuatan
Iolcano

at

&ra$atoa

Island,

Indonesia,

in

1==+,

an
eru"tion
that
s"read
!olcanic
dust around the #orld.
Te"hra layers
ma$e
e1tremely
useful

reference
"oints
in
stratigra"hic
sec
tions.
They "ro!ide
a

means

for

reliable
time9stratigra"hic
correlation

if
they
are
of

sufficient

lateral

and

!ertical

e1tent

and

if
they
can

be

identified

as

the
"roduct
of

a
"articular
!olcanic
eru"tion.
Identification

of

indi!idual

ash
layers
or

ben
9
tonite

beds

can

often

be

made

on

the

basis

of
"etrogra"hic characteristics4ty"es
of

mineral
grains,
roc$
fragments, glass
shards,

or

other
com"onents4or
trace9el
ement
com"osition. ges
of

these
layers may
be

determined

also
by
radiometric
methods,
allo#ing
the
layers
to

be

identified

and

correlated
by contem"oraneous
age. Te"hra layers
are
"articularly
useful

in
correlating
across

marine

basins,

and
it
may
e!en

be
"ossible
to

correlate

ash
layers
in

marine

basins

to

#ell9dated

la!a
flo#s

or

ash
layers
on

land,
thereby e1tending
marine

correlations

onto

land.
Turbidity
currents

constitute

another
ty"e
of

GinstantaneousCC
geologic
e!ent
that

can
"roduce
thin,
#ides"read de"osits (e.g.,
-insele,

1))=,.

Turbidites
may
ha!e
chronostratigra"hic significance
if

a
"articular
turbidite

bed,

or

succession

of

beds,
can

be

differentiated

from

other

turbidite

units

and

traced
laterally Unfortunately,
most

turbidites
commonly
consist

of
rhythmic
or
cyclic
successions

of

units

that

ha!e
!ery
similar
a""earance
and

are
!ery
difficult

to

differentiate.

Thus,

in
"ractice,
the
usefulness

of

turbidites

in
time9stratigra"hic
correlation

is

rather

limited.
Other
ty"es
of
Gcatastro"hicG
short9term
geologic
e!ents

include

du
st
storms

that
"roduce fine9grained
loess
de"osits
on

land

or

silt9sand
layers
in

ma
rine

basins.

'torms

at

sea

can

stir
u"
and
trans"ort
sediment

on

the

continent

shelf
to
"roduce
thin

Gstorm
layersG
of

sand

or

silt,

as

discussed

in

a
"receding cha"ter.
'lo#er,
noncatastro"hic de"ositional
conditions

also
may generate
thin,

dis
tincti!e,
#ides"read stratigra"hic
mar$er

beds

under

some
de"ositional
condi
tions.
De"osition
of

these

beds

does

not
necessarily
ta$e
"lace GinstantaneouslyG
Ne!ertheless,
they
can

be

used

for
time9stratigra"hic
correlation

if
they
formed

as
a

result

of
de"osition
that

too$
"lace
o!er

a
large "art
of

a

basin
during
a
relati!ely
short
"eriod
of

time

under
essentially
uniform
de"ositional
conditions.

0or

e1

am"le, changes
in

ocean

circulation
"atterns may bring
about

ano1ic

conditions
(0ig. 15.5,, leading
to
#ides"read de"osition
of
organic9rich
blac$

shales.

thin,
#ides"read
limestone

bed

#ithin

a
dominantly
shale

or

silt

succession
im"lie
s
d
e"osition
of

the

limestone

under

conditions

that

#ere

in

effect
e
ssentially
simul
t
aneously throug
hout
a
geologic
"ro!ince.
'uch

a

thin

limestone

bed

#ithin

a

su
c
cession

of

nonmarine

clastic

units
may re"resent
a

brief

incursion

of

mari
ne
conditions

into

a

nonmarine

en!ironment

or

the
tem"orary "onding
of

fre
sh
#ater

to

form

a
large,
shallo#

la$e.

Thin

limestone

units

in

a

thic$

succession

of
marine

clastic
de"osits may
indicate

shelf

carbonate
de"osition during
brief
"eri
ods

#hen

clastic

detritus

#as
tem"orarily tra""ed
in

estuaries

or

deltaic

en!iron
ments

and

thus
"re!ented
from
esca"ing
onto

the

shelf.
<y
contrast,

thin
interbeds

of

sand,
clay,
or

silt

in

a

thic$

carbonate

or
e!a"orite
succession
may re"
resent
tem"orary
incursions

of

clastic

detritus

into

a

carbonate

or
e!a"orite
basin.
'uch

incursions
may
be

due

to

a

sudden

increase

in

the
su""ly
of

detritus

as

a

re
sult

of

tectonic

e!ents,
"eriodic flooding
on

land,

or
de"osition by
#indstorms

or
turbidity
currents.
15.4 Chronocorrelation
Note

that

chronocorrelation

on

the

basis

of
"hysical
e!ent
stratigra"hy
re
.uires
that

e!ent

beds

can

be
recogni%ed
and

traced
laterally
in
outcro"
or

that
they
can

be

correlated

on

the

basis

of

distincti!e
lithology (lithocorrelation,.
<e
cause
they
#ere
"roduced
as

a

result

of

an

e!ent

that

too$
"lace ra"idly,
lithocor
relation

also

results

in

chronocorrelation.

Of

course,

the

actual
ages
of

e!ent

beds
must

be

established
by
the

radiometric
dating techni.ues
discussed

in

the
"reced
ing
section.
<iologic
e!ents

include
e"isodes
of
"unctuated
e!olution,

mass

e1tinctions,
mass

mortalities

(caused,

for
e1am"le, by maFor
ash

fall

into

a

basin,,

and
ra"id
immigration
and
emigration
(&auffman,

1)==/

2allister,

1))*,.

'ome

of

the

tech
ni.ues
and
"roblems
of

chronocorrelation
by biologic
e!ents

are

discussed

in

the
"receding cha"ter
on
biostratigra"hy.
Event

Correlation

Based

on
Transgressive-Regressive
Events
A

different
a""roach
to

e!ent

correlation

is
re"resented by
local

correlation

based
on
"osition
#ithin

a
transgressi!e9regressi!e
succession

or
cycle (ger, 1))+b,.
ccording
to
ger,
e!ent

correlation

in

this

case

is

based

on

the

correlation

of

cor
res"onding "ea$s
of
symmetric sedimentary cycles
that

are
"resumed
to

be
syn
chronous.

The

e!ents
re"resented
in

this
ty"e
of

correlation

are

the

result

of
transgressions
and
regressions
that
may re"resent
either

#orld#ide,

simultane
ous,

eustatic
changes
in

sea

le!el

or

more

local
changes o#ing
to
u"lift,
subsi
dence,

or

fluctuation

in

sediment
su""ly.
The
"rinci"le
of

correlation

based

on
transgressi!e9regressi!e
e!ents

is

illus
trated

in
0igure
15.*.

The
de"osits
formed
during any transgressi!e9regressi!e
cycle
contain

one
"articular
time
"lane
that
re"resents
the

time

of

ma1i mum

in
undation
by
the

sea,

that

is,

the

time

at

#hich

#ater
de"th
#as
greatest
at
any "ar
ticular
locality
Roc$s
lying stratigra"hically
belo#

this

time
"lane
#ere
de"osited
during transgression
and

those

abo!e
during regression.
This

time
"lane
can

be
identified
by
use

of

fossil

data

to

determine
de"th
%onation

and

ma1i mum

#ater
de"th
at

!arious

localities,

as

illustrated

in
0igure
15.*.

The
"osition
of

the

time
"lane
can

be

established

also

from
lithologic
e!idence
by determining
in

the

!erti
cal
stratigra"hic
section

at

each
locality
the
"osition
#ithin

the

section

#here

the
roc$s

are
symmetrically
distributed

#ith
res"ect
to

the

most

basin#ard

facies
"re
sent.

surface
connecting
the

most

basin#ard

roc$s

in

each

of

the

!ertical

sec
tions

defines

the
a""ro1imate "osition
of

the

time
"lane
and

thus

the
time9stratigra"hic
correlation

bet#een

the

sections.
0igure
15.D

further

illustrates
the

method.

Note

from

this

illustration

ho#
time9e.ui!alent "oints
on

the
cycle
5.&
3andward %eaward
' =
3ocalities
2igure
15.$
Time

correlation
by position
in

a
transgressi"e9
regressi"e cycle.
The

line
connect i ng points
o1
!eepest 9 >ater
con!i ti on

is

a

ti me

line.
A1ter
)sraelsDi,
+.
C., 1343,
*scillation

chart8

m.

ssoc.
Petroleum
Geologists
5ull.,

".
.., 2ig.
.,
p. 3-. B
5.-
Chapter
15

%
Chronostratigraphy
an!
Geologic
Time
>
2igure
15.&
Transgressi"e9regressi"e cycie
se!imentation

an!

e"ent

correiation

in

the
Eocene

o1

the

isie

o1
Hight
in

southern
Englan!. A2rom ger,
0.
F., 133.,
The
nature

o1

the
stratigraphical recor!,
.r!
e!.. 2ig. &.2, p.
144.
6eprinte! by
permission
o1
Iohn Hiley
J

#ons

(t!.
m CRO''
9
<-DD-D 'ND'
< 67INT-D <-D'
7 36UCONITIC C6K'
are

related,
resulting
in

a

correlation

in

#hich
glauconitic clays
at

the

east

end

of

the
succession

are
e.uated
to

laminated

beds

at

the

#est

end.

Correlation

is
e1"ressed,
as
ger
(1))+b,
".
1E1,
"uts
it,

in

terms

of
degrees
of

Gmarineness.G

Correlation

in
this

manner

can

be

considered

to

be

a
"art
of
se.uence stratigra"hy (Cha"ter 1+,.
Correlation
by
'table
Isoto"e
-!ents
Iariations

in

the

relati!e

abundance

of

certain

stable,

nonradioacti!e
isoto"es
in
marine

sediments

and

fossils,

referred

to

as

stable
isoto"e geochemistry (e.g..
Ial
ley
and

Cole,
5EE1,,
can

be

used

as

a

tool

for
chronostratigra"hic
correlation

of
marine

sediments.

3eochemical

e!idence

sho#s

that

the
isoto"ic com"osition
of
o1ygen,
carbon,

sulfur,

and

strontium

in

the

ocean

has
undergone large
fluctua
tions,

or

Ge1cursions,G

in

the
geologic "ast4fluctuations
that

ha!e

been

recorded
in

marine

sediments.

<ecause

the
mi1ing
time

in

the

oceans

is

about

1EEE
years
or
less,

marine
isoto"ic
e1cursions

are

considered

to

be
essentially
isochronous
throughout
the

#orld.

Iariations

in
isoto"ic com"osition
of

sediments

or

fossils
allo#
geochemists
to

construct
isotopic composition
cur"es

that

can

be

used

as
stratigra"hic
mar$ers

for

correlation
"ur"oses.
To

be

useful

for

correlation,

fluctu
ations

in
isoto"ic com"osition
must

be
recogni%able
on

a
global
scale

and

must

be
of
sufficiently
short

duration

to

sho#
u"
as

a

shift

on
isoto"ic com"osition
cur!es.
lso,
stratigra"hers
must

be

able

to

fi1

the

relati!e
stratigra"hic "osition
of

these
fluctuations

in

relation

to
biostratigra"hic, "aleomagnetic,
or

radiometric

scales.
Of

the

!arious
"otentially
useful
isoto"es, o1ygen isoto"es
seem

most
nearly
to
meet

these
re.uirements
and

ha!e
"ro!en
to

be
"articularly
useful

for

chronos
tratigra"hic
correlation

of
Huaternary
and

late
Tertiary
sediments.

Carbon,

sulfur,
and

strontium
isoto"es
are

also

useful

for
correlating
roc$s

of

certain
ages.
!ygen "sotopes
The

natural
isoto"es
of
o1ygen
are

listed

in

Table

15.+.

7ost

of

the
o1ygen
in

the
oceans

occurs

as
o1ygen91*. O1ygen91=
is

much

rarer
(about
E.5
"ercent
of

total