CHAPTER 7

SUMMARY
As stated in the Introduction, our purpose for this book is to provide strategies for
instruction, or guidance, drawing upon empirically based principles or heuristics
from the psychological literature describing how we learn. The premise is that there
is a necessary triadic relationship between psychology, training, and education. The
descriptive laws of psychology provide the basis for how cognitive development,
learning, meta-cognition, and other psychological organizing principles intrinsically
relate to one another; therefore, they can provide the basis for prescriptions of
instructional strategies. Both training and education can inform new psychological
research possibilities based upon evidence from their applications. Ideally, there
should be an ongoing cybernetic relationship amongst all three disciplines.
Too often, one or the other of these disciplines has proceeded as if the others
did not exist and could not provide any fruitful advice. For example, in recent years
such terms as "situated learning" and "authentic learning," among others, have been
held as new constructs for education. Yet both terms have roots earlier in the
training literature and in the psychology of learning literature.
The hope is that the recommendations based on this broad empirical perspective
will enable education and training developers to make comfortable decisions on
how to build sound instructional materials. In order to make our case, the most
formidable task for us was to develop a coherent taxonomy that would permit a
consistent crosswalk from the learning heuristics to targeted instructional tasks. This
we presented in Chapter 1. We identified four phases of the learning process, which
govern the development of knowledge and skills: Acquisition, Automaticity, Near
Term Transfer, and Far Term Transfer. Acquisition involves acquiring the basic
data elements within a domain; Automaticity refers to the application of these
elements to the point of performing actions automatically, without conscious,
cognitive intervention; the two Transfer phases refer to generalizing the application
of principles within a domain, Near Term and across domains, Far Term. Both of
the latter phases require higher order cognitive and meta-cognitive development.
We then chose four domains, in which to instantiate the taxonomy: Cognitive,
Psychomotor, Affective, and Interpersonal. We also included a chapter on the
integration of technology to illustrate how the principles can be implemented with,
and extended by, the use of computers in a real world context. Initially the domains
were selected because traditionally they seem to have been treated as the primary,
independent domains. It soon became obvious that interdependence and not
independence was the rule. Perhaps the easiest way to illustrate the obviousness of
the overlap amongst the dimensions is to share an anecdote with the reader. A
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number of years ago, the senior author was preparing for the psychologist licensing
examination in the state of Virginia. The exam itself was a Cognitive examination;
and in studying for it, he organized and studied all the materials, which would be
useful for taking examination. His studying involved isolating himself from others
for a period of two weeks prior to the exam in order to immerse himself in the
relevant material and to avoid distractions. Two days before the examination he
moved to a motel a few blocks from the building in which the testing was to take
place. He then paced off the distance from the motel to the designated testing site in
order to determine how long it would take so that he could review part of the test
scheduled for the afternoon by walking back to the motel and studying during the
lunch hour. Next, he walked into the testing site and into the testing room to
familiarize himself with all of the stimuli pertinent to being in the examination
room. All of these exercises taken together enabled him to lower the Affect level
and focus his energy externally toward test mastery, to engage the Psychomotor
domain relevant to preparing for the test, and to maximize the level of Cognitive
preparation in order to actually take the test.
In Chapters 1 and 2, we elaborated on this interrelatedness, where we noted that
over the years there seems to have been enough evidence accumulated from
research (e.g., Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Barkow, Cosmides, & Tooby, 1992;
Broadbent, 1952a, 1952b; Mayer, 2002; Murphy & Martin, 2002), clinical
observation (e.g., Grinder & Bandler, 1981), and anecdotal evidence to establish the
fact that the domains of cognitive, psychomotor, affect, and interpersonal act pretty
much together. Further, we assert that each experience may be characterized not as
an isolated domain experience, but rather as a multi-domainal range of experience.
Therefore, each experience carries with it multi-channel sensory inputs, affective
involvement, cognitive transformation, kinesthetic feedback, and some form of
organized motor output. Thus, we also readily agree with the inference by
Rosenbaum, Carlson, and Gilmore (2001) that most abstract problem solving
probably involves, even to the tiniest degree, some sort of real or imagined motor
execution.
For ease of discussion, we nevertheless treated the domains in separate chapters,
and developed models to illustrate and further clarify the overlaps among them. The
following chart of the learning process requirements was modified from Table 1.1
in Chapter 1, which was developed as an advanced organizer and visual aid to help
the reader maintain her or his focus while perusing the book. The relevant domain
portion of the advanced organizer is repeated at the beginning of each chapter as a
facilitator for the reader. As noted in Chapter 1, the chart was developed following
an approach by Romiszowski (1999).
Process
Requirements
Knowledge
Domains:
Cognitive,
Psychomotor,
Affective,
Interpersonal
SUMMARY
Table 6.1. Taxonomy (Modified from Chapter 1)
Acquisition
Learning
domain elements
Automaticity
Integrating and
applying
elements
through
extensive
repetition
Transfer: Near
term
Developing ability
to apply principles
and strategies
within a domain
Transfer: Far
term
Learning to
discover new
principles and
applying them
across domains
For the format within each chapter we presented first a listing of the most
relevant Descriptive Principles (from the psychological literature). Next, we
followed this with an Introduction, a discussion of the general instructional class of
tasks for the domain in question. Then, we parsed the bulk of each chapter into two
sections: Section I, Recommended Instructional Strategies for the targeted, specific
tasks (the guidance); and finally, Section 11, the Supporting Research and the
relevant theories.
COGNITIVE DOMAIN
In Chapter 2, to exemplify the Cognitive Domain, we chose reading since it is the
epitome of learning for Far Term Transfer. Reading involves the learning of
principles or schemas (schemata), which are applied to learning in all domains. We
are always reading to do or act on something. Our instructional example concerned
the tasks to be learned by the developing reader.
The highlighted learning heuristics listed include: operant principles of
minimizing errors, using small steps, and providing immediate reinforcement for
acquisition of initial elements of domain knowledge, advanced organizers to
facilitate integrative skill acquisition and capitalize on prior knowledge, continual
use of active learning, part-task training to break up complex tasks into manageable
chunks, and providing multiple-context environments to facilitate positive transfer
within and across domains. Following these highlights, we supply the reader with
recommended instructional strategies to implement them. In the final section of the
chapter, we then discuss the psychological literature relevant to Reading, as the
chosen example of the cognitive domain.
PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
We outlined a model in Chapter 3 illustrating the interdependence and potential
214 CHAPTER 7
overlap between the cognitive and motor components of psychomotor skill
development as well as the changes in relative contribution made by these two
components as the learner progresses from the beginning Acquisition phase through
Automaticity. We also followed earlier frameworks, which distinguished between
Open and Closed-end tasks as well as tasks demanding large muscle involvement
vs. fine muscle usage. Instructional examples included learning sports tasks in
basketball, tennis, and baseball, learning how to receive Morse code, and learning a
military task of how to fire a rifle. It was important to emphasize also that, while the
progression through all four phases appears linear, re-cycling can and does occur
with Open tasks. For example, in learning tennis, one might achieve mastery of all
techniques needed to play at a given level; and automaticity with almost total motor
control might take over one's play. But, suddenly, a new opponent appears at a
higher level and the cognitive processes are invoked to learn strategy elements for
playing at this new, higher level of tennis. Presumably, this can occur repeatedly
each time transfer of a skill to a new situation is required.
Heuristics noted relevant to psychomotor skill development include the
following areas: task analysis within a consistent motor skill taxonomy, part-task
learning with complex skills, use of imagery to prepare for overt practice,
observational learning from modeled performances, systematic repetitive practice,
knowledge of performance, transitioning from cognitive involvement to automatic
movement, and designing instruction for transfer. Again, Section I provides
recommended instructional guidance while Section I1 discusses the relevant
psychological literature.
AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
Learning of Affect as discussed in Chapter 4, starts with learning who we are as an
emoting and motivating self, and how to express our Affect. Here too, we presented
a model for conceptualizing Affect, including the dimensions level of energy and
focus of that energy, either on oneself, or, on the learning and performance of the
task at hand. For example, a secure individual is able to focus her or his energy
externally, and be motivated by learning and mastering the task at hand. The self-
concerned individual, however, is emotionally involved with avoiding personal
threat, comparing herself or himself to others, and therefore, diffuses her or his
energy away from the task at hand and towards self-preservation.
This chapter discusses learning heuristics as they apply to the learning of Affect
and the influence of Affect on other learning. The initial listing includes the
following: Classical conditioning is the force behind much emotional and attitudinal
development. When intelligence is treated as developmental and not a fixed entity,
task-oriented, focused learning behavior is facilitated. Conversely, treating
intelligence as a fixed entity, promotes an ego-involved, threatened approach to
learning, and learning suffers. Establishing contingencies between actions and
positive feedback results in a sense of control and self-competency in interacting
with one's environment. Positive transfer is facilitated when meta-cognitive skill
development, including self-regulation, is encouraged within a focused, task-
oriented learning environment. Sections I and I1 follow the pattern noted above, of
recommended guidance and research support.
INTERPERSONAL DOMAIN
Chapter 5 concerned the Interpersonal Domain, in which an individual learns how
to interact with others and then how to learn from these people. The environment
and, that which composes the environment, as well as the developed self (personal,
cognitive and behavioral), are necessary to form new interactions and enjoy the
capacity to learn new things. We learn how to acquire and maintain healthy social
skills through the use of a variety of methods, such as modeling, role-playing, etc.
Maintenance is achieved through reinforcement and the positive interactions one
experiences.
Building upon our discussion of Affect development in Chapter 4, when a
learner is asked to focus on the task at hand, he or she does so from a position of
security or insecurity, which is in turn based upon appropriate or dysfunctional
attachments developed since birth. The problem is that nothing is 100 percent.
Therefore, cognitive goals and the motivation to master a learning task get mixed
with ego needs, avoidance of failure, and attendant personal fears. Now, if the
context of the task to be learned; e.g., the classroom, is not mastery-focused but
performance-oriented; i.e., based upon student comparisons with others, etc., any
insecurities in the learner's affective makeup can lead to a shift in focus away from
the task and motivation to master it, toward personal threat, and energy governed by
threat; i.e., emotion.
The point to emphasize is that the domains are interrelated. They may function
in harmony to maximize, say, cognitive or psychomotor skill development. The
degree of harmony, however, is contingent upon the "self' development (Affective
Domain), the relational self (Interpersonal), and the context or environment within
which learning is to take place.
Unique heuristics were highlighted in Chapter 5 on Interpersonal Development.
Each was discussed within the chapter and strategies were suggested for
implementation. The following heuristics were included in the chapter. Imitative
learning (observational) and modeling of authority figures, starting with parents,
influences the development of filters and templates, through which the child learns
to see her or his world. In addition, developmental factors affect observational
learning. Repeated exposures to modeled behaviors are necessary because of
potential complexities and rates of presentation, both of which can decrease
attention. Additionally, Whom one associates with (social networks), imposed or by
preference, limit the observational patterns to which the individual is repeatedly
exposed and therefore, those which will be learned more thoroughly than others.
Finally, peer learning is a powerful influence in school learning and outside the
school environment. The guidance in Section I provides suggestions for maximizing
function and minimizing dysfunction for the relevant interpersonal development;
this is followed in Section I1 by the research supporting such recommendations.
CHAPTER 7
SUGGESTIONS FOR THE INTEGRATION OF TECHNOLOGY
In preparing our treatise, it became obvious that we needed to include a chapter,
Chapter 6, on technology integration with instruction. Heuristics highlighted in this
chapter on the integration of technology include: Be explicit about the purpose for
which the technology is being used. Conduct appropriate evaluations: matching the
purposes for using the technology with the appropriate methods and measurements.
Manage the implementation process by incorporating empirically tested principles
for successful integration of technology. Distinguish between developing instruction
with technology and delivering instruction with technology. In developing
instruction, choose the appropriate authoring system or language with systematic
examination of the development requirements and the functions of the authoring
system. For delivering instruction, apply the technology appropriate to the learning
phase.
Indeed, the power of technology, as we noted, with its current and potential
influence on techniques for development of instructional materials and on strategies
for learning, can both implement and extend the heuristics discussed in the domain
chapters. Since the development of programmed instruction some fifty years ago,
technology has held out the promise for improving all facets of learning. Some
remarkable technical developments in computing technology have occurred during
this time, from simulation capabilities to electronic learning environments, and even
to virtual reality. Software advances, enabling easy and efficient development of
instructional materials, have been equally significant. These accomplishments are
described briefly. Next, we discuss the ways in which technology has already
benefited implementation of many heuristics in all phases of our model, from
Acquisition through Far Term Transfer
We cautioned that the two kinds of technologies, instructional versus computing,
should not be confused. We give analogies to clarify the distinctions. For example,
we must keep in mind the distinction between the recipe and the ingredients and the
decision-making, which goes into the creation of a cake for example, as opposed to
the oven, the microwave, or the refrigerator, which can house the ingredients and
the product. Similarly, we must distinguish between the vehicle that carries the
vegetables from the vegetables themselves. And finally, in this day and age the
analogy is made that we must certainly keep in mind the distinction between the
pipes and the pumps, which can deliver the oil, from the oil itself. So too, must we
as instructional developers distinguish between the course material, curriculum
organization, and our systematic, instructional decision-making from the hardware
and software including the Internet, which can provide tremendous capacities for
developing and delivering this material to the learner. Also discussed is the fact that
there has been some movement to capitalize on technology and shift towards
learner-centered instruction. We therefore have described these developments. At
the same time we note that the promise of wholesale reform of education is still a
promise and close by discussing significant individual and organizational issues
remaining to be resolved in order to make the promise a reality.
CONCLUSION
Finally, our intent from the outset was to be user-oriented and developer-friendly,
which is why we incorporated a two-part format of each chapter, with suggested
guidance presented first followed by a section on supporting research, for
a more complete understanding of the rationale behind the recommended guidance.
It has been the desire of the authors to provide in this treatise a broad, empirically
supported platform based on principles from the literature of the psychology of
learning and cognition, with which developer-practitioners could launch sound
programs of instruction. At the very least, it is our fondest hope that the reader will
find the information presented herein useful ingredients for organizing and
developing the next set of education or training materials.
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