2 Vector spaces

The concept of a vector space is an abstract notion which unies the familiar properties of
vectors in the plane and in 3-dimensional space, and allows us to study, for example, systems
of linear equations.
Denition 2.1 Let F = R or C. A vector space over F is a set V together with two
operations, one from V V to V called addition, the other from F V to V called scalar
multiplication; that is, for all u, v V , there is a unique element u+v V , and for all v V
and F there is a unique element v V . Moreover, these operations must satisfy the
following axioms:
(V1) u +v = v +u for all u, v V .
(V2) (u +v) +w = u + (v +w) for all u, v, w V .
(V3) there is some element 0
V
V such that v + 0
V
= 0
V
+v = v for every v V .
(V4) for every v V there exists v V such that v + (v) = 0
V
;
(V5) (u +v) = u +v for all u, v V and all scalars F.
(V6) ( +)v = v +v for all v V and all scalars , F.
(V7) ()v = (v) for all v V and all scalars , F.
(V8) 1v = v for all v V .
Elements of V are called vectors, and elements of F are called scalars. When F = R we
say that V is a real vector space, and when F = C we say that V is a complex vector
space.
Remark 2.2 (1) Axioms (V1) to (V4) can be summarised by saying that the structure
(V, +) is an abelian group. For a given v V , the element (v) in (V4) is unique, and it is
called the additive inverse of v.
(2) Often one wants to use other scalars. Instead of R or C, the set F can be any eld. A
eld F is dened to be a non-empty set F, together with an addition + and a multiplication
on F, and such that the axioms for + and hold which you have been given for R in Analysis,
that is:
A1 to A4 and M1 to M4 and D
(but not the ordering properties). Recall that the axioms A1 to A4 say that addition in F
is associative and commutative, and that there is an additive identity (written 0 or 0
F
) and
each element of F has an additive inverse in F. Recall also that the axioms M1 to M4
say that multiplication in F is associative and commutative, and that there is a multiplicative
identity (written 1 or 1
F
) and each nonzero element of F has a multiplicative inverse
1
in F \ {0}. Finally recall that D is the distributive law: a(b +c) = ab +ac for all a, b, c F.
For example, you could take F = Q with the usual operations of addition and multiplication
of rational numbers to get a eld.
Take F to be any eld; then a vector space V over F is dened exactly as in Denition 2.1.
In this course, we will often take F = R, but most denitions and properties will remain valid
if R is replaced by C or Q, or by any other eld. The only exception will be when we discuss
inner product spaces at the end of the term; there we will need F to be R.
1
Example 2.3 Let m, n 1 be integers, and let M
mn
(R) be the set of all m n matrices
with real entries. Then M
mn
(R) is a real vector space under the usual addition of matrices
and multiplication by scalars. Similarly the set M
mn
(F) of m n matrices with entries in
any eld F is a vector space with addition and scalar multiplication of matrices dened using
the operations of addition and multiplication in F.
The special cases when m = 1 or n = 1 are very important:
Example 2.4 The set R
n
of n-tuples of real numbers is a real vector space under compo-
nentwise addition and scalar multiplication:
(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) + (y
1
, . . . , y
n
) = (x
1
+y
1
, . . . , x
n
+y
n
)
(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) = (x
1
, . . . , x
n
)
Geometrically, R
2
represents the Cartesian plane, and R
3
represents three-dimensional space.
We can also take n = 1; this says that R is itself a real vector space. We usually write the
elements of R
n
as row vectors and thus identify R
n
with M
1n
(R). Sometimes it is useful to
write m-tuples of real numbers as columns. We write (R
m
)
t
for the set M
m1
(R) of column
vectors with m real entries (or coecients); this too is a vector space under componentwise
addition and scalar multiplication.
Example If V = R
2
then we can display vectors and sums of vectors geometrically.
Example 2.5 Let X be any non-empty set, and let F be any eld. Dene V to be the set
V = Map(X, F) = {f : X F}
of functions f from X to F. On V we can dene addition and scalar multiplication, by using
the given addition and multiplcation on the eld F; that is, if f, g V then f + g is the
function from X to F dened by
(f +g)(x) = f(x) +g(x) for all x X
and for F, the function f from X to F is dened by
(f)(x) = f(x) for all x X.
One says addition and scalar multiplication are dened pointwise. It is straightforward (but
lengthy) to use the eld axioms for F to check that V together with these operations is a
vector space over F. This may be familiar when F = R and X = R. E.g. if f, g are the
functions from R to R given by f(x) = x
2
and g(x) = cos(x) for all x R, then you should
know how to draw the graph of 2f, or of f +g.
2
Example 2.6 Let R
n
[X] be the set of polynomials in the variable X of degree at most n
with real coecients. We write the general element in this set as
p(X) = a
0
+a
1
X +. . . +a
n
X
n
where each a
i
R. The degree of this polynomial (if p(X) is not identically zero) is the
largest index j for which a
j
= 0. [N.B. The degree of the zero polynomial is sometimes taken
to be 0, sometimes -1 and sometimes .]
Dene an addition on R
n
[X] by
(a
0
+a
1
X+. . . +a
n
X
n
) +(b
0
+b
1
X+. . . +b
n
X
n
) = (a
0
+b
0
) +(a
1
+b
1
)X+. . . +(a
n
+b
n
)X
n
and a multiplication by scalars by
(a
0
+a
1
X +. . . +a
n
X
n
) = a
0
+a
1
X +. . . +a
n
X
n
.
Then one can check that R
n
[X] with these operations is a real vector space. For example,
the zero vector is the zero polynomial with a
i
= 0 for all i.
If F is any eld we can dene F
n
[X] in the same way, replacing R with F, to get a vector
space over F whose elements are polynomials in the variable X of degree at most n with
coecients in F.
Example 2.7 (1) Let V = C. This is a vector space over R. It is also a vector space over
C.
(2) Let V = {(a
n
) : a
n
R}, the set of all real sequences. This is a real vector space, with
addition and scalar multiplication componentwise. Similarly when F is any eld the space
{(a
n
) : a
n
F} of sequences in F is a vector space over F.
The following theorem is also true when R is replaced with any eld F.
Theorem 2.8 Assume that V is a vector space over R. Then for all R and for all v V ,
(1) 0
V
= 0
V
(2) 0
R
v = 0
V
.
(3) ()v = (v) = (v).
(4) If v = 0
V
then either = 0
R
or v = 0
V
.
Proof (1) By (V3) and (V5) we have
0
V
= (0
V
+ 0
V
) = 0
V
+0
V
.
Add (0
V
) to both sides.
For (2), use a similar idea, noting that 0
R
= 0
R
+ 0
R
.
(3) We have (using (V5) and (V4) and part (1) of this theorem)
v +(v) = (v + (v)) = 0
V
= 0
V
Adding (v) to both sides (or by the uniqueness of the additive inverse) we must have that
(v) = (v).
Similarly (using the axioms, and part (2) of this theorem)
v + ()v = ( + ())v = 0
R
v = 0
V
and as before it follows that ()v = (v).
(4) Suppose = 0
R
, then multiply by (1/). We get v = (1/)v = (1/)0
V
= 0
V
.
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2.1 Subspaces
Denition 2.9 Let V be a vector space over R. A non-empty subset W of V is a subspace
provided it is a vector space over R, with addition and scalar multiplication as in V . In
particular W must be closed under addition and scalar multiplication in the sense that u+v
W and v W whenever u, v W and R, so that addition and scalar multiplication
give well-dened operations W W W and R W W.
We write W V to mean that W is a subspace of V .
As usual this denition is also valid when R is replaced with any eld F, as are the lemmas
below.
In order to verify that some subset of V is a subspace it is not necessary to go through the
whole list of axioms for a vector space. Instead, we can use the following test:
Lemma 2.10 (Subspace test) Assume that V is a vector space over R. A subset W of V is
a subspace if and only if
(i) 0
V
belongs to W;
(ii) if x, y W then x +y W;
(iii) if x W and R then x W.
Proof Suppose W is a subspace. Then (ii) and (iii) hold, by closure.
To see (i), by denition W = , so pick some w W. Then also (1)w W (property (iii)).
Hence
w + (1)w W
and this is equal to w + (w) = 0
V
.
Assume properties (i), (ii) and (iii) hold. By (i) W is not empty. By (ii) and (iii) it is closed
under addition and scalar multiplication. One needs to check properties (V1) to (V7)
(V1), (V2), and (V5) to (V8) are inherited from V , as well (V3) by property (i). It remains
to consider property (V4).
Let w W. By (V4) for V there exists w V such that w + (w) = 0
V
. We want that
(w) is actually in W. But w = (1)w W by property (iii).

There is a variation of the subspace test:

Lemma 2.11 A non-empty subset W of a vector space V is a subspace if and only if for
any
1
,
2
R and w
1
, w
2
W one has
1
w
1
+
2
w
2
W.
The proof is to be completed.
4
Example 2.12 (1) {0
V
} is a subspace of V . Also V is a subspace of V . A subspace W
with {0
V
} = W = V is called a proper subspace of V .
(2) R is a subspace of the real vector space C. So is iR.
(3) Let V = R
2
, the usual plane regarded as a vector space over R. Then any line through
the origin is a subspace of V .
Proof Let L = {r(a, b) : r R} where 0
V
= (a, b).
Then 0
V
= (0, 0) = 0(a, b) L.
Next, if x = r(a, b) and y = s(a, b) for any r, s R then x +y = (r +s)(a, b) L.
If R then x = (r)(a, b) L.
(4) Let V = R
3
, the usual 3-dimensional space. Then any line through the origin is a subspace
of V . Also any plane in R
3
which contains the origin is a subspace of V .
N.B. A line or plane in R
3
must go through 0
V
= (0, 0, 0) in order to be a subspace of R
3
.
(5) Let V = M
22
(R), the vector space consisting of 2 2 matrices over R. Consider the set
W = {

a b
0 c

: a, b, c R}
of upper triangular matrices in V . Then W is a subspace of V .
The proofs of (4) and (5) are to be completed; they are similar to that of (3).
Example Let V = Map(R, R) and let
U = {f V : f is dierentiable}.
Then it follows from results from analysis that U is a subspace of V . This subspace U has
many subspaces of its own which are relevant to the study of dierential equations. For
example if R then
W = {f V : f is twice dierentiable and f

+f = 0}
is a subspace of V consisting of all the solutions f : R R of the homogeneous dierential
equation f

+f = 0. Note that f

+f = 0 if and only if g

+f = 0 where g = f

, so we
can also identify W with the subspace of U U given by the pairs (f, g) U U satisfying
the homogeneous system of dierential equations
f

g = 0 = g

+f.
There is a very important type of subspace of the vector space (R
n
)
t
of column vectors,
determined by a xed mn real matrix A.
Lemma 2.13 Suppose A is a real mn matrix. Let

A
:= {x (R
n
)
t
: Ax = 0}.
Then
A
is a subspace of the column space (R
n
)
t
, called the solution space for the system of
homogeneous linear equations Ax = 0.
5
Proof A0
V
= 0
V
(directly), so 0
V

A
. If x, y
A
and R then
A(x +y) = Ax +Ay = 0
V
+ 0
V
= 0
V
and
A(x) = (Ax) = 0
V
= 0
V
.

It is very easy to construct subspaces of a vector space V . One way is to start with any set
of vectors in V and nd the smallest subspace that contains this set.
Denition 2.14 Let V be a vector space and S = {v
1
, . . . , v
n
} V be a nite nonempty
subset of V . A linear combination of the elements v
1
, . . . , v
n
of S is a vector in V of the
form
v =
1
v
1
+. . . +
n
v
n
for some scalars
1
, . . . ,
n
. The span of S is the set of all linear combinations of the elements
of S, written
Sp(S) = {v V : v =
1
v
1
+. . .+
n
v
n
for some
i
R} = {
1
v
1
+. . .+
n
v
n
:
1
, . . . ,
n
R}.
More generally if S is any nonempty subset (possibly innite) of V then the span of S is
Sp(S) = {
1
v
1
+. . . +
n
v
n
: v
1
, . . . , v
n
S and
1
, . . . ,
n
R}.
By convention the span of the empty set is the zero subspace:
Sp() = {0}.
Lemma 2.15 The span Sp(S) is a subspace of V . It is contained in any subspace of V that
contains the set S.
Proof to be completed.
Example 2.16 Assume A is an m n matrix with entries in R; then each row of A is a
vector in R
n
. Let S R
n
be the set of these row vectors; then Sp(S) is a subspace of R
n
.
This is known as the row space of S. Similarly the column space of A is the subspace of
(R
n
)
t
spanned by the columns of A.
2.2 Subspaces of R
2
Lemma 2.17 (a) Assume (a, b) and (c, d) are vectors in V = R
2
which do not lie on the
same line through the origin. Then
(i) ad bc = 0;
(ii) the span Sp{(a, b), (c, d)} is equal to V .
(b) The subspaces of V are precisely the lines through the origin, together with {0
V
} and V .
6
Proof (a) (i) If ad = bc then (c, d) = (d/b)(a, b) (if b = 0), or (c, d) = (c/a)(a, b) (if a = 0).
(ii) The span of the vectors is contained in R
2
. To get equality, we must show that every
(u
1
, u
2
) R
2
can be written as a linear combination of (a, b) and (c, d). That is, we must
nd
1
,
2
such that
1
(a, b) +
2
(c, d) = (u
1
, u
2
). Equivalently we must be able to solve

1
a +
2
c = u
1
(1)

1
b +
2
d = u
2
(2)
Take (1) b + (2) a, and we get
2
(ad bc) = au
2
bu
1
. Since ad bc = 0 we nd

2
= (au
2
bu
1
)/(ad bc). Similarly
1
is (du
1
cu
2
)/(ad bc), and these values of
1
and

2
do satisfy equations (10 and (2) as required.
(b) Let W be a non-zero subspace of V , and pick some 0 = (a, b) W. Let L be the line
through (a, b) and the origin; that is,
L = {r(a, b) : r R}.
Then L W by (iii) of the subspace test.
If L = W then W is a line through 0.
Suppose L = W.
Then there is (c, d) W and (c, d) L. Then the span Sp{(a, b), (c, d)} is contained in W.
By (a)(ii) we know that this span is equal to R
2
, so W = R
2
.
2.3 Subspaces of R
3
Lemma 2.18 Let V = R
3
. The proper subspaces of V are precisely
(i) the lines through the origin;
(ii) the planes which contain the origin.
Proof to be completed (similar to Lemma 2.17).
7