Imperialism, Empire and the Integration of the Roman Economy

Author(s): Greg Woolf

Source: World Archaeology, Vol. 23, No. 3, Archaeology of Empires (Feb., 1992), pp. 283-293
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
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Imperialism,
empire an d t h e
in t egrat ion
of t h e R oman
econ omy
Greg
Woolf
Compet in g
mod els of t h e R oman
econ omy
Empires
are
polit ical syst ems
based on t h e act ual or t h reat en ed use of f orce t o ext ract
surpluses
f rom t h eir
subject s. Imperial
elit es
spen d
t h ese reven ues on t h e in f rast ruct ure
n ecessary
t o main t ain
power,
an d ret ain a
prof it
t h at is d ist ribut ed t o
groups
t h at are
privileged by
virt ue of t h eir
place
wit h in t h e
imperial h ierarch y.
Pre-in d ust rial
empires
d if f ered f rom ot h er
imperial syst ems
in so f ar as
t h ey
ext ract ed
surplus
f rom econ omies
t h at were
primarily agrarian , by
mean s of
relat ively primit ive milit ary
an d commun i-
cat ion s
t ech n ologies.
As a result
pre-in d ust rial empires
could n ot
support large govern -
men t al in st it ut ion s an d so secured t h eir
power by promot in g
a
commun it y
of in t erest
amon g
6elit es wit h in t h e
empire,
an d a sen se of
imperial membersh ip
based on
part icipat ion
in ruler
worsh ip
an d ad h eren ce t o
imperial
cult ural an d
symbolic syst ems. Econ omically,
h owever, empires
were f irst an d f oremost
t ribut ary st ruct ures,
an d much of t h e limit ed
en ergy
at t h eir
d isposal
was d evot ed t o
en surin g ad equat e supplies
of
cash , labour an d
agricult ural prod uce
f rom t h e areas un d er t h eir con t rol. Such an
an alysis
f it s t h e case of
R ome well. Th e
provin ces
were t axed ,
t axes were
spen t
on t h e
army
an d t h e
capit al,
t h e
supremacy
of R ome was main t ain ed more
by
t h e
support
of R oman ized elit es t h an
by
a
subst an t ial
milit ary
or
govern men t al est ablish men t , especially
in t h e
early empire
(Garn sey
an d Saller 1987:
20-40).
But if t h e broad n at ure of t h e
polit ical econ omy
is
agreed ,
t h e same can n ot be said f or
t h e
econ omy
of t h e R oman world as a wh ole. Some see t h e
polit ical econ omy
as t h e
on ly
lin k bet ween a series of
essen t ially
local econ omic
syst ems (e.g. Fin ley 1985),
wh ile ot h ers
see t h e R oman world as a well
in t egrat ed
econ omic
syst em,
wit h in wh ich t h e
polit ical
econ omy played
an
import an t role,
but wh ich was also un if ied
by
market s in
lan d ,
cred it
an d
agricult ural prod uce (e.g.
Caran d in i 1986;
1989b).
In t ermed iat e
posit ion s migh t
be
en visaged .
Th e R oman world
migh t
h ave con sist ed of a series of
region al econ omies, on ly
loosely in t egrat ed
in t o a
sin gle syst em,
or else a
loosely
an d
sluggish ly in t egrat ed
R oman
econ omy migh t
h ave exist ed
alon gsid e
t h e
polit ical econ omy.
In t h e absen ce of d at a on t h e
levels
of ,
an d f luct uat ion s
in , prices, wages
an d in t erest rat es f or most of t h e
empire,
arch aeology
of f ers t h e best mean s of
ch oosin g
bet ween t h ese alt ern at ives.
Lon g-d ist an ce
exch an ge
is
import an t h ere,
n ot because commerce
played
a cen t ral role in t h e an cien t
econ omy,
but because t h e
exch an ge
of
good s
is t h e most visible
sympt om
of con t act s
World
Arch aeology
Volume 23 No. 3
Arch aeology of Empires
? R out led ge
1992 0043-8243/92/2303/283 $3.00/1
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
284
Greg Woolf
bet ween
region s.
Th e exist en ce of
lon g-d ist an ce exch an ge
is n ot in it self evid en ce f or a
commercial
econ omy. Amon g curren t ly compet in g in t erpret at ion s
we
may d ist in guish
at
least f our
posit ion s. First , t h at t h e
polit ical econ omy, t oget h er
wit h t h e
t ran sport
of
privat e
prod uce by
it s own ers f or t h eir own
use, migh t
accoun t f or most
lon g-d ist an ce exch an ge
wit h in t h e R oman world
(Wh it t aker 1985). Secon d ,
t h at t h e
operat ion
of t h e
polit ical
econ omy migh t
also st imulat e some ot h er
lon g-d ist an ce exch an ges
wit h in t h e
empire
(Hopkin s 1980; Wickh am
1988). Th ird ,
t h at t h e exist en ce of t h e
empire migh t
in various
ways
f acilit at e t h e limit ed
growt h
of a mercan t ile
econ omy (Caran d in i 1986). Fourt h ,
t h at
lon g-d ist an ce exch an ges
d erived f rom f eat ures of t h e an cien t world as a
wh ole,
such as
urban ism an d t h e un even d ist ribut ion of
resources, an d even t h e
imposit ion
of
empire
d id
n ot creat e an
in t egrat ed econ omy (Dun can -Jon es
1990:
30-58).
Such t h umbn ail sket ch es
d o lit t le
just ice
t o t h e
soph ist icat ion
of t h e works cit ed ;
all t h ese writ ers h ave
argued
t h eir
views in n umerous
publicat ion s
an d t h ere are
man y poin t s
of
con vergen ce
an d
agreemen t
bet ween t h em. But t h e
d iversit y
of
in t erpret at ive h ypot h eses curren t ly
available is clear.
Th ese
h ypot h eses migh t
be used in d if f eren t
ways.
On e met h od would be t o use rival
mod els
pred ict ively,
t o
gen erat e
mod els t h at
migh t
be f alsif ied or mod if ied
by
con f ron -
t at ion wit h
exist in g
d at a set s. For
example,
if t h e
polit ical econ omy
was t h e mot or f or all
lon g-d ist an ce exch an ge,
we
migh t expect
evid en ce f or
exch an ges
bet ween t h e
t ribut ary
provin ces
an d t h e
capit al
or t h e f ron t iers, but n ot bet ween
t ribut ary provin ces.
In
pract ice,
some such
exch an ges
d id t ake
place,
such as t h e
t ran sport
of Pascual 1 win e
amph orae
f rom Tarracon en sis in
Spain
t o sout h -west Fran ce
(Fit zpat rick
1985:
319-21;
Tch ern ia
1986: 142-5, 1989:
531). Exch an ges
bet ween t h e cen t re an d t h e
periph ery
can n ot t h en
accoun t f or all t h e
lon g-d ist an ce exch an ges
in t h e
empire
an d t h e mod el must be
ad just ed
accord in gly.
Th is met h od is a
powerf ul on e, part icularly
if t h e
pred ict ion s
are f ramed so
t h at t h eir f alsif icat ion d oes n ot
d epen d
on
argumen t s
f rom silen ce. But t h is
paper
will use a
d if f eren t
t ech n ique.
Th e d ist ribut ion s f irst of con t ain er
amph orae,
an d t h en of ot h er
art ef act s, will be used t o
suggest
some
very gen eral
con clusion s about
exch an ge syst ems
an d t h eir
d evelopmen t
bet ween t h e lat e
R epublic
an d
early Empire.
In
part icular,
a
con t rast will be d rawn bet ween t h e kin d of
in t egrat ion
ach ieved at t h e
h eigh t
of R oman
imperialism,
an d t h at main t ain ed af t er
expan sion
h ad
virt ually
ceased .
Th e evid en ce of con t ain er
amph orae
Th e
pot en t ials
an d
problems
of
amph ora
st ud ies h ave been much d iscussed
(Pat erson
1982; Peacock an d Williams 1986; Tch ern ia
1986). Amph orae
are t h ick-walled ceramic
con t ain ers, used f or much of t h e
period ,
f or
t ran sport in g win e,
olive oil an d f ish
prod uct s.
On t h e basis of t h eir
epigraph y, t ypology
an d
pet rology,
an d
t h rough
t h e excavat ion of
wreck
cargoes,
kiln sit es an d
d umps, amph orae
are t h e best
guid e
t o
pat t ern s
of
prod uct ion , exch an ge
an d
con sumpt ion
in t h e an cien t world . Problems remain . We are
ign oran t
of t h e con t en t s an d
origin s
of
man y amph ora t ypes,
an d in some
areas, crucially
in
t h e east
Med it erran ean , amph ora
st ud ies are st ill in t h eir
in f an cy.
It is also
likely
t h at some
amph ora t ypes
h ave been
wron gly
or
in complet ely proven an ced ,
an d
besid es, amph orae
were n ot t h e
on ly
f orm of con t ain er used in t h is
period .
All t h e
same,
t h e broad
pat t ern s
of
d evelopmen t
can n ow be
recon st ruct ed , in
part icular
f or t h ose
amph orae
used t o
t ran sport
win e.
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Imperialism, empire
an d t h e
in t egrat ion of
t h e R oman
econ omy
285
Th e f irst R oman win e
amph orae d eveloped
f rom Hellen ist ic mod els in t h e mid -t h ird
cen t ury
BC an d were
prod uced
in
Et ruria,
Lat ium an d
Campan ia
(Will
1982; Emp6reur
an d Hesn ard 1988: 25-30; Hesn ard et al.
1989).
Some of t h ese Greco-It alic
t ype amph orae
were
prod uced
at Marseilles an d
possibly
elsewh ere
(Lauben h eimer
1989:
119),
but t h e
majorit y
seem t o be cen t ral It alian in
origin . Wid ely
d ist ribut ed in t h e west ern
Med it erran ean , t h ey
f irst
appear
on sout h ern Fren ch sit es at t h e en d of t h e t h ird
cen t ury
BC, on ly becomin g
n umerous in t h e f irst h alf of t h e secon d
cen t ury (Goud in eau
1983: 79-81; Tch ern ia 1986:
94-8).
Greco-It alics are more common in
Spain ,
but
again
on ly
become common in t h e
early
secon d
cen t ury
(Nolla
an d Niet o
1989).
A
very
f ew even
f oun d t h eir
way
in lan d as f ar as Ch at eaumeillan t in t h e
Berry
an d
Man ch in g
in Bavaria.
More
import an t ,
but as
yet un quan t if ied ,
were t h ose
export ed
t o t h e east ern Med it er-
ran ean
(Tch ern ia
1986:
98).
Will
(1989)
argues
t h at a cen t re of
prod uct ion
n ear Brin d isi
supplied
t h e east , but t h ere is n o f irm evid en ce f or t h e
prod uct ion
of Greco-It alic
amph orae
in Ad riat ic
It aly (Ciprian o
an d Carre 1989:
89-91).
Greco-It alic
amph orae
were
replaced by
a series of n ew
t ypes
in t h e mid -secon d
cen t ury
BC. On e of t h em, t h e Dressel
1, represen t s
t h e most
wid ely
d ist ribut ed
amph ora t ype
in
t h e an cien t world , it s varian t s
bein g t ran sport ed t h rough out
t h e
Med it erran ean , an d over
large part s
of
t emperat e Europe,
wh ere it is
ubiquit ous
on set t lemen t sit es of t h e lat est iron
age (Pan ella 1981; Fit zpat rick 1985;
Tch ern ia 1986:
74-87).
Dressel 1
amph orae
were
prod uced
bet ween c. 140 an d c. 10BC, of t en in t h e same kiln s as h ad
prod uced
Greco-It alics in cen t ral
It aly (Tch ern ia
1986: 42-8, 126-7). R ecen t ly
it h as been sh own
t h at some Dressel 1 were also
prod uced
in
Fran ce, in clud in g
at
Lyon (Lauben h eimer
1989:
116-18)
an d at least on e varian t , Dressel 1C, was
possibly prod uced
in
Spain
(Will
1979; Fit zpat rick
1987:
81-2). Pet rological object ion s
seem overt urn ed
by
recen t research
(Peacock
an d Williams 1986: 91-2; Comas et al.
1987).
Nort h -east
Spain
an d sout h -west
Fran ce
cert ain ly prod uced
an ot h er varian t , t h e Pascual 1
amph ora,
wh ich was d ist ribut ed
t h rough out
west ern Fran ce
(Fit zpat rick
1985: 319-21; Peacock an d Williams 1986:
93-5).
Prod uct ion seems t o h ave
span n ed
t h e
period
c. 50BC-AD
80,
but t h e
majorit y
of
examples
are f oun d in
August an
an d Tiberian con t ext s
(Tch ern ia
1986:
143-5).
Prod uc-
t ion of
amph orae
on t h e east coast of
It aly
is less well
un d erst ood ,
but Tch ern ia
argues
t h at
it f ollowed a similar course t o
prod uct ion
in t h e
west ,
wit h
Lamboglia
2
amph orae
appearin g
an d
d isappearin g
at about t h e same t imes as Dressel 1
(Tch ern ia
1986: 53-6,
68-74).
R ecen t research h as sh own t h at t h ese
amph orae
were
prod uced
in a n umber of
cen t res on t h e west an d n ort h Ad riat ic coast s, but t h e
ch ron ology
of t h eir
origin s
an d t h eir
mut at ion in t o Dressel 6A
amph orae
is st ill un clear
(Ciprian o
an d Carre
1989).
Lamboglia
2
amph orae
are kn own in t h e west , but t h e main d ist ribut ion cen t red on t h e Ad riat ic an d
t h e east ern Med it erran ean
proper.
Th e last d ecad es of t h e last
cen t ury
BC marked an ot h er series of
ch an ges
in win e
amph orae (Tch ern ia
1986:
126-57).
As in t h e case of t h e
ch an ges
d escribed
above,
t h ere
were
probably period s
wh en several
t ypes
were
prod uced simult an eously
an d
ch an ges
in
f orm n eed n ot h ave
correspon d ed
t o d iscon t in uit ies in d ist ribut ion . Dressel 6A seem t o
h ave evolved
grad ually
out of
Lamboglia
2
(Ciprian o
an d Carre
1989).
But t h e most
import an t
n ew
t ype
was t h e Dressel
2-4, prod uced
in cen t ral an d Ad riat ic
It aly,
n ort h -west ern an d sout h ern
Spain ,
sout h ern Fran ce an d
possibly
Brit ain
(Peacock
an d
Williams 1986: 105-6;
Tch ern ia 1986:
127-9; Ciprian o
an d Carre 1989:
91-2).
Similar
amph orae
h ad
lon g
been
prod uced
in t h e
vicin it y
of R h od es an d
Cos,
in coast al Cilicia an d
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286
Greg Woolf
Alexan d ria in
Egypt (Emp6reur
an d Picon
1989),
an d it was almost
cert ain ly
t h e
popularit y
of east ern win es t h at led t o t h e
ad opt ion
of t h e f orm in t h e west . But
alt h ough
t h e d ist ribut ion of Dressel 2-4 was Med it erran ean -wid e, t h ey
are much rarer in
t emperat e
Europe
t h an Dressel 1
amph orae.
Th e n umber of
prod uct ion
cen t res of Dressel 2-4 is
great er,
t h e
proport ion prod uced
out sid e
It aly
is
h igh er,
but each
prod uct ion
seems t o
h ave a much smaller d ist ribut ion
(Pan ella 1981).
Th e same is t rue f or Dressel
6A,
wh ich
h ad a more rest rict ed d ist ribut ion t h an
Lamboglia 2,
an d f or Pascual 1, wh ich are
main ly
con cen t rat ed in n ort h -east
Spain
an d sout h -west Fran ce.
Dressel 2-4 was t h e last win e
amph ora
t o be
prod uced
on a Med it erran ean -wid e scale.
Even
d urin g
t h e main
period
of it s
prod uct ion ,
f rom t h e en d of t h e last
cen t ury
BC t o t h e
mid -secon d
cen t ury AD, it coexist ed
alon gsid e
ot h er
t ypes,
like Pascual 1 an d Dressel 6A.
Th e n ext
gen erat ion
of
amph orae
are
region al prod uct ion s.
On e of t h e best st ud ied
prod uct ion s
is t h at of Gaul
(Lauben h eimer
1985:
1989).
A t ot al of
f ort y-six
kiln sit es are
kn own in Narbon en sis an d f ive in cen t ral Gaul. Th ese kiln s h ad
prod uced
a f ew
Greco-It alic an d Dressel 1
amph orae
an d some Dressel
2-4,
Pascual 1 an d
perh aps
Dressel
7/11, but in t h e
early
f irst
cen t ury
AD a n ew series wit h
f lat -bot t oms,
suit able f or
t ran sport
by cart , began
t o be mad e. Lauben h eimer h as id en t if ied n in e f orms: of
t h ese,
most were
prod uced by on ly
on e or t wo kiln s, Gauloises 1 an d 5 were mad e in several kiln s in t wo
localit ies, but Gauloise 4 was
prod uced
all over sout h ern Gaul bet ween t h e mid -f irst
cen t ury
an d t h e t h ird
cen t ury AD,
in a
surprisin gly
st an d ard ized f orm. Th ese
amph orae
were d ist ribut ed
primarily
wit h in Gaul,
German y,
t h e Low Coun t ries an d Brit ain
(Peacock
an d Williams 1986:
142-3).
Win e
amph orae
h ave received more at t en t ion t h an
an y
ot h er
kin d , gen erat in g
compet in g
h ist ories of R oman win e
(Purcell 1985; Tch ern ia 1986; Caran d in i
1989a;
1989b).
Th e ot h er
major
commod it y
carried in
amph orae
was olive
oil,
but n o
syn t h esis
h as
yet
been
at t empt ed d espit e
much recen t research of
h igh qualit y (Blazquez
an d
R emesal 1980; 1983; Mat t in gly 1988a; 1988b).
In
man y respect s,
oil
amph orae
exh ibit
comparable pat t ern in g
t o t h at
prod uced by
win e
amph orae.
Best kn own are t h e Dressel 20
amph orae prod uced
in t h e
valley
of t h e
Guad alquivir
in sout h ern
Spain
an d d ist ribut ed in
large
n umbers in t h e
R h in elan d , Fran ce,
Brit ain an d in t h e
cit y
of R ome. Prod uct ion
st art ed in t h e
early
f irst
cen t ury
AD an d con t in ued in t o t h e t h ird
cen t ury (Belt ran 1970;
Pon sich 1974; 1979; Mat t in gly
1988a:
38-44). Tripolit an ian amph orae
are less well
st ud ied , but
prod uct ion
seems t o h ave
begun
in t h e f irst
cen t ury AD,
an d t h eir d ist ribut ion
ext en d ed
wid ely
over Nort h Af rica an d cen t ral
It aly
in t h e secon d an d t h ird cen t uries AD
(Peacock
an d Williams 1986:166-70; Mat t in gly
1988b:
31-6).
Bot h Baet ica an d
Tripo-
lit an ia st art ed
prod ucin g amph orae
t o
export
oil in t h e
early
f irst
cen t ury
an d con t in ued t o
supply region al
market s in t o t h e t h ird
cen t ury;
t h e
region al
scale of t h eir d ist ribut ion s is
comparable
wit h t h at of win e
amph orae
like Pascual
1,
Gauloise 4 or Dressel 6A. Similar
d ist ribut ion s
may
h ave exist ed in t h e east ern Med it erran ean
(R iley
1979:
112-236),
but as
yet
f ew of t h em are as clear as t h e west ern
examples.
Wh at
pat t ern s emerge
f rom t h is brief
survey? First , it is clear t h at a n umber of
region s
were
prod ucin g
subst an t ial
surpluses
f or d ist an t
con sumpt ion .
Olive oil an d win e were
h ard ly luxuries, but
t h ey
were n ot
st aples
eit h er: t h at
d ich ot omy
suit s
moralit y
bet t er t h an
econ omics.
Surpluses
were creat ed wit h in t h e t rad it ion al
ran ge
of
agricult ural prod uce,
t h e Med it erran ean t riad
t oget h er
wit h
supplemen t ary
f ood s like f ish
prod uct s.
Deman d
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Imperialism, empire
an d t h e
in t egrat ion of
t h e R oman
econ omy
287
f or t h ese
prod uct s d epen d ed part ly
on t h eir un even
d ist ribut ion , part ly
on t h e
f requen cy
of
bot h f ood crises an d
glut s
in t h e Med it erran ean basin
(Garn sey
1988:
8-16),
part ly
on t h e
h igh proport ion
of t h e
populat ion
wh o n eit h er worked on n or own ed t h e
lan d , but also
part ly
because some areas were h eld t o
prod uce h igh er qualit y prod uce
t h an ot h ers. In
t h ese con d it ion s, a market f or
grain
h ad
lon g
exist ed in t h e East
(R at h bon e
1983b).
But in
t h e west t h e
amph ora
d ist ribut ion s at t est n ew levels of
prod uct ion .
Th ese
prod uct ion s
began
in t h e
early
f irst
cen t ury AD,
an d t h eir f loruit coin cid ed wit h t h e
period
wh en t h e
h igh est proport ion
of t h e
imperial populat ion
lived in cit ies.
Secon d ,
t h e d ist ribut ion s
give
some id ea of t h e d if f eren t scales of
exch an ge
an d
prod uct ion .
Bet ween t h e wid est d ist ribut ion s an d t h e most local t h ere was a
con t in uum,
but f or con ven ien ce we can d ivid e it in t o
local, region al
an d
empire-wid e exch an ges.
Local
d ist ribut ion s h ave been least well st ud ied an d
h ard ly
men t ion ed
h ere,
but are
perh aps
t ypif ied by
t h ose Gauloise
amph orae
t h at were
prod uced
in
on ly
on e kiln sit e an d
d ist ribut ed in t h e immed iat e
vicin it y. R egion al
d ist ribut ion s in clud e
t ypes
like Dressel
20,
Pascual 1, Dressel 6A, Tripolit an ian
I an d most Dressel 2-4
prod uct ion s. Empire-wid e
d ist ribut ion s are
represen t ed by
Greco-It alic an d Dressel 1. Classif ied in t h is
f ash ion ,
it is
clear t h at t h e last
cat egory,
t h e
empire-wid e d ist ribut ion ,
is in f act
very
rare.
Lon g-st an d in g
in t erest in It alian win e
prod uct ion may
h ave obscured t h e ext en t t o wh ich it s success was
ext remely at ypical.
Much more ch aract erist ic of t h e
empire
as a
wh ole, alt h ough
n ot of t h e
period
bef ore it in t h e
west ,
were
region al
d ist ribut ion s.
Fin ally,
t h e
ch ron ology
of t h e an omalous case of cen t ral It alian win e
prod uct ion
is
in t erest in g. Large
scale d ist ribut ion in t h e west
began
in t h e
early
secon d
cen t ury
BC.
Tch ern ia n ot es
ch an ges
bet ween Caesar an d
August us,
wit h t h e
appearan ce
of Dressel 2-4
an d Dressel
6A,
but if t h ese
t ypes
h ad much smaller d ist ribut ion s t h an t h eir
pred ecessors,
t h en t h ose
pred ecessors
were
alread y
in d eclin e. Wit h in t h e Dressel 1
series,
a sh if t t ook
place
f rom Dressel 1A t o Dressel 1B f rom about 70 BC. At least in t h e n ort h -west Dressel
lB is d ist ribut ed more
wid ely
an d occurs in
great er
n umbers t h an Dressel 1A
(Fit zpat rick
1985).
Th e an omalous d ist ribut ion of It alian win e t h us
began slowly
in t h e t h ird
cen t ury
BC, reach in g
a
peak
in t h e t h ird
quart er
of t h e last
cen t ury
BC bef ore
d eclin in g rapid ly.
Th e
pat t ern
f ollows t h e
rh yt h m
of R ome's
imperial expan sion .
Tableware, coin s an d ot h er evid en ce
Con t ain er
amph orae provid e
d irect evid en ce of
lon g-d ist an ce exch an ges
in t h e R oman
world . Th e d ist ribut ion s of t h ose
good s
n ot
t ran sport ed by amph ora
are much less
accessible, alt h ough
some sen se of
region al sph eres
of
exch an ge
can be
gain ed
f rom
n on -arch aeological
sources in t h e case of
grain (Garn sey
1983: 119-21; R at h bon e
1983b:
50-3).
But f urt h er
in vest igat ion
of t h e
in t egrat ion
of t h e Med it erran ean
econ omy
d epen d s
on more in d irect sources.
Ceramic t ablewares of f er on e such source. Ceramics, even coarse wares, were t rad ed
lon g d ist an ces,
but more of t en as
space-f illers
t h an as
primary cargoes. Nevert h eless, an y
import ed
ware st ill h ad t o
out -compet e
local
prod uct ion s,
wh et h er in t erms of cost or
perceived qualit y.
An cien t
cargoes
were
usually mixed , sh ippers pickin g up
an d
put t in g
d own it ems at
man y
of t h e
port s
visit ed in t h e course of
'cabot age'
(Parker
1990:
342-3).
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288
Greg Woolf
As a result ,
t h e
proven an ces
of t h e most
popular
ceramics in d icat e n eit h er t h e sources of
t h e
primary cargoes
n or t h eir d est in at ion s. Wh at t h e d ist ribut ion s d o sh ow are
region s
lin ked
by sh ippin g f requen t en ough
t o allow t ablewares t o
compet e
wit h each ot h er in a
region al
market .
High proport ion s
of
import ed
wares in t h e ceramic
assemblages
of
Med it erran ean cit ies t h emselves
suggest
a
h igh
level of
exch an ge (Fulf ord 1987).
R oman t ablewares evolved out of a
wid espread
Hellen ist ic t rad it ion of
black-glaze
ware. Th e so-called
Campan ian
ware
spread t h rough out
t h e west Med it erran ean at much
t h e same t ime as Greco-It alic
amph orae
an d f rom t h e same area
(Morel 1980; 1981).
Like
t h e
amph orae,
t h is
sh in y
black t ableware
expan d ed
in t o areas wh ere similar local
prod uct ion s
h ad
previously
been d omin an t an d bot h in f luen ced
subsequen t prod uct ion
of
t h ose wares,
an d
in spired
imit at ion s.
Campan ian
A
d eveloped
n ear
Naples
in t h e lat e t h ird
cen t ury, Campan ian
B was
prod uced
in Et ruria f rom t h e
early
secon d
cen t ury,
an d
Campan ian
C
appeared
in
Syracuse
a lit t le lat er,
f ollowed
by prod uct ion s
elsewh ere in
Sicily, Af rica, t h e Balearic Isles an d imit at ion s in Af rica, east ern
Spain
an d sout h ern Gaul.
Campan ian
ware was
replaced sud d en ly by
Arret in e ware bet ween 50 an d 30 BC
(Goud in eau 1980;
Pucci
1981).
Th e n ew
prod uct
was
sh in y
red an d of t en d ecorat ed , an d
f ormed t h e
prot ot ype
f or red
glossy
wares
prod uced
all over t h e R oman world f or t h e n ext
six cen t uries. Arret in e was d ist ribut ed
wid ely t h rough out
t h e Med it erran ean basin an d
well in t o
t emperat e Europe.
Th e t ran sit ion f rom
Campan ian
t o Arret in e was mad e in
n ort h
It aly, probably f ollowin g
east ern mod els. But
prod uct ion
of similar
wares,
gen erically
t ermed t erra
sigillat a, spread rapid ly.
Bran ch
worksh ips
of t h e Arret in e f irms
an d local
pot t ers
h ad st art ed
prod ucin g
t erra
sigillat a
in sout h ern Gaul bef ore 20 BC
(Bemon t
an d Jacob 1986:
33). By
t h e mid -f irst
cen t ury AD, t erra
sigillat a
was
prod uced
at
cen t res in n ort h ern
It aly (Pucci 1980), Spain (Mayet
1980),
n ort h Af rica
(Tort orella
1988)
an d cen t ral Fran ce
(Bemon t
an d Jacob 1986:
121-71). Sigillat a
h ad been
prod uced
in
Cyprus
an d
Pamph ylia
f rom at least t h e last
cen t ury
BC
(Gun n eweg 1987).
Most of t h ese
wares are ill
un d erst ood ,
but it is clear t h at t erra
sigillat a
was
prod uced
in a
large
n umber of
cen t res in each area, an d t h at
on ly
a
min orit y
of t h ese cen t res ach ieved a more t h an local
d ist ribut ion . But t h e d ist ribut ion s of t h e
prod uct s
of t h e
major cen t res,
like La
Grauf esen que
an d Lezoux in Fran ce or Tricio an d
An d f ijar
in
Spain ,
sh ow
very
clear
pat t ern in g.
Un like t h e
empire-wid e
d ist ribut ion of Arret in e
ware,
t h e
provin cial
t erra
sigillat a prod uct ion s
were
region al
in scale. Tricio's wares are f oun d
t h rough out
Iberia an d
Morocco,
An d f ijar
supplied
Baet ica an d Morocco an d cen t ral Gallic
prod uct s
are
con cen t rat ed n ort h of t h e
Alps,
in cen t ral an d n ort h ern Fran ce,
Brit ain an d t h e
R h in elan d . Most lat er
prod uct ion s
h ave
very
local d ist ribut ion s wit h t h e
except ion
of
Af rican R ed
Slip,
wh ich is d ist ribut ed
wid ely
sout h of t h e
Alps (Hayes 1972).
It is
possible
t h at n o
sigillat a
was
prod uced
in
Spain
in t h e t h ird
cen t ury,
wh ile n ort h of t h e
Alps
a series
of local
prod uct ion s
in east ern Fran ce
d isappears
bef ore 300 AD
(Kin g 1981).
Th e amoun t
of f in eware
supplied by
successive cen t res was less an d less, even wit h in t h eir more
rest rict ed d ist ribut ion s
(Marsh 1981).
But in t h e f ourt h
cen t ury region al sph eres
of
exch an ge
on ce
again appeared
in t h e d ist ribut ion of red t ableware in
Spain (Mayet 1980),
n ort h ern Fran ce an d Brit ain
(Fulf ord
1989:
196-8),
wh ile t h e Af rican
prod uct s go
f rom
st ren gt h
t o
st ren gt h (Fen t ress
an d Perkin s
1989).
Th e overall
pat t ern
recalls t h at
suggest ed by amph orae.
Cen t ral It alian
prod uct s
ach ieved an
empire-wid e
d ist ribut ion f or a wh ile in t h e last t wo cen t uries of t h e
R epublic,
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Imperialism, empire
an d t h e
in t egrat ion
of
t h e R oman
econ omy
289
but bef ore t h e en d of t h e last
cen t ury BC, region al
d ist ribut ion s h ave assert ed
t h emselves,
in clud in g
over areas of t h e west t h at h ad n ot
part icipat ed
in t h at t rad it ion bef ore R oman
con quest .
Th is
pict ure
is corroborat ed
by
ot h er
cat egories
of evid en ce. Th e n umber of
Med it erran ean
sh ipwrecks per cen t ury
sh ows a
grad ual
in crease f rom t h e f if t h
cen t ury BC,
sud d en ly in creasin g
bet ween t h e t h ird an d secon d cen t uries an d
peakin g
in t h e last
cen t ury
BC, bef ore
d eclin in g slowly
t o a n ad ir in t h e sixt h
cen t ury
AD
(Parker
1990:
336).
Th e
record is
in complet e
-
more research h as been con d uct ed in t h e n ort h ern Med it erran ean
t h an in t h e sout h an d much more aroun d t h e coast s t h an in
d eep wat er,
but t h e t ren d st ill
suggest s
a
t emporarily h igh
level of
in t egrat ion
in t h e last
cen t ury
BC.
An alysis
of t h e silver
coin ages
of t h e Med it erran ean
world ,
sh ows t h e
process by
wh ich n on -R oman
coin ages
were
progressively replaced by
d en arii f rom t h e
early
secon d
cen t ury
BC
(Crawf ord
1985).
But
d espit e
t h e creat ion of a un if orm
curren cy syst em,
local
coin ages persist ed
un d er R oman con t rol in
Spain ,
Gaul an d t h e Greek world in t h e lat e
R epublic,
wh ile
closed
curren cy syst ems
exist ed un d er t h e
empire
in
Asia, based on
cist oph oroi,
an d in
Egypt
on t et rad rach ms. Th e
suggest ion
of
region al exch an ge syst ems
f or
coin age
is backed
up by
Dun can -Jon es' d emon st rat ion of d if f eren ces bet ween d en arii con t ain ed in coin
h oard s in d if f eren t
part s
of t h e
empire
(1989).
In t er-region al exch an ge
was
clearly
in suf f icien t t o elimin at e variat ion s creat ed
by irregular d espat ch es
of coin f rom t h e
imperial min t s,
but wit h in each
region ,
t h e circulat ion of
coin age
creat ed a common
prof ile. St ud y
of t erracot t a
lamps suggest s
t h at each mark
ch aract erist ically
h ad a
region al
d ist ribut ion
(Dun can -Jon es
1990:
48-58).
Con clusion s
Mod els of t h e R oman
econ omy,
or of t h e
impact
of R ome on
pre-exist en t
econ omic
syst ems, ough t
t o be able t o
explain
t h e
pat t ern in g
of mat erial cult ure in d icat ed above.
R oman
con quest in corporat ed
n ew areas in t o
syst ems
of
lon g-d ist an ce exch an ge,
but f or
t h e most
part exch an ge
wit h in t h e
empire
was
rarely in t egrat ed
above t h e
region al
level.
Some
empire-wid e
d ist ribut ion s of
good s appear
in t h e
period
bet ween t h e secon d Pun ic
War an d t h e en d of t h e
R epublic,
but
region al
d ist ribut ion s
reappeared
in t h e last
cen t ury
BC. R oman
imperialism,
n ot t h e st able
empire,
provid ed
t h e con t ext f or t h e maximum
in t egrat ion
ach ieved in
lon g-d ist an ce exch an ge syst ems.
Various
explan at ion s
h ave been
proposed
f or t h e success of cen t ral It alian
prod uct s
in
t h e lat e
R epublic.
Some see t h ese
d evelopmen t s
as
ref lect in g
t h e rise an d f all of t h e slave
mod e of
prod uct ion (Giard in a
an d Sch iavon e 1981; cf . R at h bon e
1983a),
wit h
It aly
even t ually succumbin g
t o
compet it ion
f rom t h e
provin ces (Caran d in i
1989a).
Provin cial
prod uct ion
of
win e, oil an d t erra
sigillat a clearly
d id
out -compet e
It alian
prod uce
in t h e
provin ces,
but t h e balan ce of t h e evid en ce
suggest s
t h at
provin cial
win e an d
sigillat a
d id
n ot
capt ure
market s in
It aly
(Mart in
1985; Purcell
1985; Tch ern ia
1986).
But it seems
pref erable
t o see
imperial expan sion
as
provid in g
It alian
prod ucers
wit h a series of n ew
opport un it ies (Hopkin s
1978:
1-98).
It alian
prod ucers
in vest ed t h e
prof it s
of
empire
in
exploit in g
t h e d eman d f or R oman
good s
creat ed
by R oman izat ion ,
t h e commun icat ion s
n et works cen t red on t h e
growin g cit y
of
R ome, t h e
presen ce
of It alian
t roops
abroad an d
t h e
logist ical
in f rast ruct ure set
up by
t h e R oman
army.
Some of t h ese
opport un it ies
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290
Greg
Woolf
remain ed af t er
expan sion
slowed d own . But t h e rare
d egree
of
in t egrat ion
ach ieved
by
t h e
R oman
econ omy
in t h e last t wo cen t uries BC was creat ed
by imperialism,
n ot t h e
in f rast ruct ure of a st able
empire,
an d
region al
d ist ribut ion s reassert ed t h emselves as soon
as t h e cult ural
gap
was closed
(Tch ern ia 1989).
How f ar t h e
region al pat t ern in g
d iscussed
in t h is
paper
can be ascribed t o t h e
operat ion s
of
imperial
comman d econ omies is a mat t er
f or f ierce d ebat e.
My
own
impression
is t h at t h e
t ribut ary
an d red ist ribut ive
operat ion s
of
t h e
polit ical econ omy
can
provid e
at best
on ly
a
part ial explan at ion .
2.viii.91
Magd alen College
Oxf ord
OX] 4A U
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t h e R oman
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an d t h e
in t egrat ion of
t h e R oman
econ omy
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Abst ract
Woolf , Greg
Imperialism, empire
an d t h e
in t egrat ion
of t h e R oman
econ omy
Wh ile t h e
polit ical econ omy
of t h e R oman
empire
is well un d erst ood , t h e n at ure of t h e
econ omy
as a
wh ole is a mat t er of f ierce d ebat e. A
ran ge
of
compet in g h ypot h eses
about t h e n at ure of t h e R oman
econ omy
are
presen t ed ,
an d t h en d ist ribut ion s of
amph orae
an d cert ain ot h er art ef act
cat egories
are
used t o
suggest
some broad
pat t ern s
wh ich successf ul t h eories of t h e R oman
econ omy
will h ave t o
ad d ress. In
part icular,
it is
argued
t h at
region al
d ist ribut ion s of mat erial
usually
con st it ut ed t h e
h igh est
level of
in t egrat ion
ach ieved in t h e R oman world , an d t h at
larger-scale pat t ern in g
was
on ly
creat ed
d urin g
t h e
period
of
imperial expan sion d urin g
t h e last t wo cen t uries BC.
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