Tibet: Proving Truth From Facts

Note
At a time when the Tibetans and Chinese were in the process of initiating a fresh dialogue, the Chinese Government
published a White Paper, Tibet - Its Ownership and uman !ights "ituation, on "eptember ##, $%%#&
In April $%%# the Chinese Ambassador in 'ew (elhi met )r G*alo Thondup, elder brother of is oliness the (alai
+ama& The Ambassador invited )r Thondup to visit ,ei-ing, stating that China.s polic* towards Tibetans in the past
had been /conservative/ and that if the Tibetans were prepared to adopt a /realistic/ stand, the Chinese Government
would be /fle0ible/& is oliness the (alai +ama responded positivel* b* approving the visit, which too1 place in
2une $%%#&
3ollowing this, is oliness proposed to send a delegation to ,ei-ing with a personal letter and a detailed
memorandum to Chinese leaders (eng 4iaoping and 2iang 5emin& The delegation met with the Chinese Ambassador
in 'ew (elhi on "eptember $6, $%%# to discuss their visit to ,ei-ing& At the re7uest of the Chinese Ambassador,
copies of the letter and memorandum were given to him&
The Chinese Government.s decision to publish the White Paper at a time li1e that caused widespread disma* and
disappointment among the Tibetans, and it became necessar* for the Tibetan Government-in-80ile to bring out in
$%%9 the first edition of this document, Tibet: Proving Truth 3rom 3acts, to e0plain the Tibetan position&
"ecretar*
(epartment of Information and International !elations
Central Tibetan Administration
(haramsala, India
Preface
As the international communit* ta1es an increasingl* 1een interest in the 7uestion of Tibet, the demand for
information grows& The world is no longer obsessed with the political-ideological conflict between the two
superpowers of the Cold War period, so that governments and non-governmental actors can, once again, turn to other
burning problems, such as the situation in Tibet& )an* governments are in the process of reviewing their foreign
polic* on man* fronts& The* should also thoroughl* review their Tibet polic* in line with the post-Cold War
international realit*&
Initiatives b* parliaments and conferences in different parts of the world to address the human rights situation in Tibet
and its underl*ing political cause, as well as moves b* a growing number of countries to ta1e up the issue again at the
;nited 'ations, have met with strong resistance from the Government of the People.s !epublic of China& One of the
results has been a stream of propaganda boo1lets, following the "talinist and )aoist tradition, intended to convince
foreign readers of China.s right to rule Tibet and the great benefits it has brought to the people of Tibet&
The present document, Tibet: Proving Truth from 3acts, is intended to respond to the new demand for concise
information on 1e* points of the Tibetan 7uestion& At the same time, it serves as a response to Chinese propaganda,
particularl* the boo1let issued in $%%# b* the "tate Council under the title Tibet - Its Ownership And uman !ights
"ituation, published as a White Paper& The Tibetan Government-in-80ile does not have the resources to respond to
each misrepresentation appearing in China.s propaganda& ,ut truth being on the side of the Tibetan people, we feel the
need from time to time to restate the facts plainl*, and trust that this will serve the cause of truth and -ustice&
This publication touches upon man* areas of concern& It addresses the fundamental 7uestion of the status of Tibet, the
invalidit* of China.s claim to /ownership/ of Tibet, and the Tibetan people.s right to self-determination< the
/"eventeen-Point Agreement/ and its effect on Tibet.s status< the events surrounding the resistance to Chinese rule and
the (alai +ama.s flight to India< the Tibetan social s*stem before the Chinese occupation and democratic reforms
initiated b* the 3ourteenth (alai +ama< human rights conditions in occupied Tibet< deprivation of religious freedom<
the state of Tibet.s environment< issues related to the militari=ation of Tibet< and the on-going initiatives to find a
solution to the >uestion of Tibet&
One aspect of the Tibetan situation has been insufficientl* highlighted in the past, even though it is fundamental to
understanding the conte0t of much of what is happening in Tibet toda*& This is the profoundl* colonialist nature of
Chinese rule in Tibet&
We tend to identif* colonialism with 8uropean colonial e0pansion in the past two centuries& ,ut, as the )ala*sian,
Irish and other governments pointed out during the ;nited 'ations General Assembl* debates on the >uestion of
Tibet, colonialism in all its manifestations must be brought to an end, whether perpetrated b* countries in the West or
in the 8ast&
The Chinese themselves view Tibet in colonial terms: that is, not as a part of China proper, but as a non-Chinese
territor* which China has a right to own and e0ploit on the basis of a relationship that the* claim e0isted seven
hundred *ears ago, or, at best, two hundred *ears ago& This attitude is evident from the title of the Chinese
Government.s White Paper, which refers to the /ownership/ b* a countr* of which it is alread* a part& The ver* notion
of /ownership/ of Tibet b* China is both colonialist and imperialist in nature&
Colonialism is characteri=ed b* a number of important elements, all of which are abundantl* present in China.s rule
over Tibet& The most common characteristics of colonialism are:
(omination b* an alien power
Ac7uisition of control through militar* force< une7ual treat*
3re7uent insistence that the colon* is an integral part of the /mother/ state
)aintenance of control through instruments of militar* or administrative and economic power in the hands of
the colonial power
Active or passive re-ection of alien domination b* the coloni=ed people
"uppression, b* force if necessar*, of persons opposing colonial rule
Chauvinism and discrimination
Imposition of alien cultural, social and ideological values claimed to be /civili=ing/
Imposition of economic development programmes and the e0ploitation of natural resources of the colon*,
primaril* for the benefit of the colonial power
Promotion of population transfer of citi=ens of the metropolitan state into the colon* and other forms of
demographic manipulation
(isregard for the natural environment of the colon* and, in most cases,
An obsessive desire to hold on to the colon* despite the political and economic cost
)ost of these characteristics are discussed in this document& "ome of these issues are also discussed in the Chinese
White Paper on Tibet in a manner and st*le which onl* confirms the Chinese leadership.s colonialist and imperialist
view of Tibet&
"ecretar*
(epartment of Information and International !elations
The Status of Tibet
At the time of its invasion b* troops of the People.s +iberation Arm* of China in $%?%, Tibet was an independent state
in fact and at law& The militar* ta1eover constituted an aggression on a sovereign state and a violation of international
law& Toda*.s continued occupation of Tibet b* China, with the help of several hundred thousand troops, represents an
ongoing violation of international law and of the fundamental rights of the Tibetan people to independence&
The Chinese Communist government claims it has a right to /ownership/ of Tibet& It does not claim this right on the
basis of its militar* con7uest in $%?%, or its alleged effective control over Tibet since then, or since $%@%& The Chinese
Government also does not base its claim to /ownership/ on the so-called /"eventeen-Point Agreement for the Peaceful
+iberation of Tibet/ which it forced upon Tibet in $%@$&
China.s alleged legal claim is based on historical relationships - primaril* of )ongol or )anchu rulers of China with
Tibetan lamas and, to a lesser e0tent, of Chinese rulers and Tibetan lamas& The main events relied on b* the Chinese
Government occurred centuries ago: during the height of )ongol imperial e0pansion, when the )ongol emperors
e0tended their political supremac* throughout most of Asia and large parts of 8astern 8urope< and when )anchu
emperors ruled China and e0panded their influence throughout 8ast and Central Asia, including Tibet, particularl* in
the eighteenth centur*&
It is not disputed that at different times in its long histor* Tibet came under various degrees of foreign influence: that
of the )ongols, the Gor1has of 'epal, the )anchu emperors of China and the ,ritish rulers of India& At other times in
Tibet.s histor*, it was Tibet which e0ercised power and influence on its neighbours, including China& It would be hard
to find an* state in the world toda* that has not been sub-ected to foreign domination or influence at some era in its
histor*& In Tibet.s case the degree and length of foreign influence and interference was 7uite limited& )oreover, the
relationship with )ongol, Chinese and )anchu rulers, to the e0tent the* had political significance, was personal in
nature and did not at an* time impl* a union or integration of the Tibetan state with, or into, a Chinese state&
owever fascinating Tibet.s ancient histor* ma* be, its status at the time of the Chinese invasion must, of course, be
-udged on the basis of its position in modern histor*, especiall* its relationship with China since $%$$ when the
Chinese overthrew foreign )anchu rule and became the masters of their own countr*& 8ver* countr* can go bac1 to
some period in histor* to -ustif* territorial claims on neighbouring states& That is unacceptable in international law and
practice&
The reader of China.s White Paper, Tibet -- Its Ownership and Human Rights Situation, will be struc1 b* the scant
attention its authors pa* to Tibet.s modern histor* in the decades before $%?%& This is because, from $%$$ to the
completion of the Chinese occupation in $%@$, there is no evidence of Chinese authorit* or influence in Tibet to
support China.s claim& In fact, the preponderance of evidence shows precisel* the opposite: that Tibet was to all
intents and purposes a sovereign state, independent of China& This conclusion is supported b* most legal scholars and
e0perts on the sub-ect&
The International Commission of 2urists. +egal 8n7uir* Committee on Tibet reported in its stud* on Tibet.s legal
status: /Tibet demonstrated from $%$9 to $%@A the conditions of statehood as generall* accepted under international
law& In $%@A there was a people and a territor*, and a government which functioned in that territor*, conducting its
own domestic affairs free from an* outside authorit*& 3rom $%$9-$%@A foreign relations of Tibet were conducted
e0clusivel* b* the Government of Tibet, and countries with whom Tibet had foreign relations are shown b* official
documents to have treated Tibet in practice as an independent "tate&/ BTibet and Chinese People's Republic, Geneva,
$%CA, p& @,C&D
3ort* *ears of independence is clearl* sufficient time for a countr* to be regarded as such b* the international
communit*& )an* members of the ;nited 'ations toda* have en-o*ed a similar, or even shorter, period of
independence& ,ut in Tibet.s case, even its ancient histor* has been selectivel* re-written b* the Chinese
Government.s propaganda machine to serve the purpose of defending its claim to /ownership/& Thus, even if it is not
necessar* to discuss Tibet.s earl* histor* in order to understand its status on the eve of China.s militar* invasion, we
believe it is useful to review it briefl*, -ust to set the record straight&
The status of Tibet: 1911-1951
There can be little argument that on the eve of China.s militar* invasion, which started at the close of $%?%, Tibet
possessed all the attributes of independent statehood recogni=ed under international law: a defined territor*, a
population inhabiting that territor*, a government, and the abilit* to enter into international relations&
The territory of Tibet largel* corresponds to the geological plateau of Tibet, which consists of #&@ million s7uare
1ilometres& At different times in histor* wars were fought and treaties signed concerning the precise location of
boundaries&
The population of Tibet at the time of the Chinese invasion was appro0imatel* si0 million& That population
constituted the Tibetan people, a distinct people with a long histor*, rich culture and spiritual tradition& Tibetans are a
people distinct from the Chinese and other neighbouring peoples& 'ot onl* have the Tibetans never considered
themselves to be Chinese, the Chinese have also not regarded the Tibetans to be Chinese Ehence, for e0ample, the
references to /barbarians/ in Chinese historical annalsF&
The government of Tibet was head7uartered in +hasa, the capital cit* of Tibet& It consisted of a ead of "tate Ethe
(alai +amaF, a Cabinet of )inisters Ethe GashagF, a 'ational Assembl* Ethe TsongduF, and an e0tensive bureaucrac*
to administer the vast territor* of Tibet& The -udicial s*stem was based on that developed b* 8mperor "ongtsen
Gampo Eseventh centur*F, +ama Changchub G*altsen Efourteenth centur*F, the 3ifth (alai +ama Eseventeenth
centur*F and the Thirteenth (alai +ama Etwentieth centur*F, and was administered b* magistrates appointed b* the
Government&
The Government of Tibet levied ta0es, minted its own currenc*, ran the countr*.s postal s*stem and issued postage
stamps, commanded Tibet.s small arm*, and generall* conducted all affairs of government& It was an ancient form of
government which had served the needs of Tibet well in the past, but was in need of reform for the countr* to 1eep
pace with the great political, social and economic changes that were ta1ing place in the world& The Tibetan form of
government was highl* de-centrali=ed, with man* districts and principalities of Tibet en-o*ing a large degree of self-
government& This was, to a large e0tent, inevitable due to the vastness of the territor* and the lac1 of modern
communication s*stems&
The international relations of Tibet were focused on the countr*.s neighbours& Tibet maintained diplomatic,
economic and cultural relations with countries in the region such as 'epal, ,hutan, "i11im, )ongolia, China, ,ritish
India, and, to a limited e0tent, with !ussia and 2apan&
Tibet.s independent foreign polic* is perhaps most obviousl* demonstrated b* the countr*.s neutralit* during World
War II& (espite strong pressure from ,ritain, the ;&"&A& and China to allow the passage of militar* supplies through
Tibet to China when 2apan bloc1ed the strategicall* vital /,urma !oad/, Tibet held fast to its declared neutralit*& The
Allies were constrained to respect this&
China toda* claims that /no countr* ever recogni=ed Tibet/& In international law, recognition can be obtained b* an
e0plicit act of recognition or b* implicit acts or behaviour& The conclusion of treaties, even the conduct of
negotiations, and certainl* the maintenance of diplomatic relations are forms of recognition& )ongolia and Tibet
concluded a formal treat* of recognition in $%$9< 'epal not onl* concluded peace treaties with Tibet and maintained
an Ambassador in +hasa, but also formall* stated to the ;nited 'ations in $%?%, as part of its application for ;'
membership, that it maintained independent diplomatic relations with Tibet as it did with several other countries
including the ;nited Gingdom, the ;nited "tates, India and ,urma&
'epal, ,hutan, ,ritain, China and India maintained diplomatic missions in Tibet.s capital, +hasa& Although China
claims in its propaganda that its mission in Tibet was a branch office of the so-called Commission of Tibetan and
)ongolian Affairs of the Guomindang Government, the Tibetan Government onl* recogni=ed this as a diplomatic
mission& Its status was no higher than the 'epalese 8mbass* E'epal had a full Ambassador or /Ha1il/ in +hasaF or the
,ritish )ission&
The Tibetan 3oreign Office also conducted limited relations with the ;nited "tates when President 3ran1lin (&
!oosevelt sent emissaries to +hasa to re7uest assistance for the Allied war effort against 2apan during the "econd
World War& Also, during the four ;' General Assembl* debates on Tibet in $%@%, $%CA, $%C$ and $%C@, man*
countries e0pressl* referred to Tibet as an independent countr* illegall* occupied b* China&
Relations ith Nationalist !hina
China.s position was ambiguous during this period E$%$$-?%F& On the one hand, the 'ationalist Government
unilaterall* announced in its constitution and in communications to other countries that Tibet was a province of the
!epublic of China Eone of the /five races/ of the !epublicF& On the other hand, it recogni=ed that Tibet was not part of
the !epublic of China in its official communications with the Government of Tibet& Thus, China.s President repeatedl*
sent letters and envo*s to the (alai +ama and to the Tibetan Government as1ing that Tibet /join/ the !epublic of
China& "imilar messages were sent b* China to the Government of 'epal& ,oth Tibet and 'epal consistentl* refused
to -oin China&
In response to the first letter of Chinese President Iuan "hi1ai, the Thirteenth (alai +ama re-ected the invitation to
-oin the !epublic, e0plaining courteousl* but firml* that Tibetans did /not approve/ of the Chinese Government due
to past in-ustices and stated:
/The !epublic has onl* -ust been proclaimed and the national foundations are far from strong& It behooves the
President to e0ert his energies towards the maintenance of order& As for Thibet, the Thibetans are 7uite capable of
preserving their e0istence intact and there is no occasion for the President to worr* himself at this distance or to be
discomposed&/BGuomin Gongbao, 2anuar* C, $%$9D
In China.s White Paper, the Thirteenth (alai +ama is 7uoted as having told the /envo*/ sent b* /,ei-ing/ in $%$% that,
/It is not m* true intention to be on intimate terms with the ,ritish&&& I swear to be lo*al to our countr* and -ointl*
wor1 for the happiness of the five races&/
In that *ear an unoicial, Chinese delegation went to +hasa, ostensibl* to present religious offerings to the Thirteenth
(alai +ama, but in realit* to urge the Tibetan leader to negotiate an agreement with China& owever, the (alai +ama
re-ected the overture outright and, instead, called for tripartite negotiations in +hasa&
+iu )an7ing, a woman of mi0ed Tibetan and Chinese parentage, did arrive in +hasa in $%9A& ,ut her visit was
described as personal& owever, during a purportedl* personal visit, she tried to approach the Tibetan Government
with communications from the Chinese President, but the Tibetans gave her no encouragement&
In China.s White Paper, it is stated that the Thirteenth (alai +ama, in his communications through her, e0pressed his
belief that Tibet is a part of China& The (alai +ama is 7uoted as having said, /)* greatest wish is for the real peace
and unification of China/, etc& There is no historical record of the (alai +ama having made such a statement in $%9A&
On the contrar*, the official record of the (alai +ama.s repl* to the Chinese President in $%9A contradicts this
statement& The record refers to a list of eight 7uestions submitted to the (alai +ama on behalf of the Chinese President
and contains each of the (alai +ama.s responses&
On relations with China and Chinese influence in Tibet, the (alai +ama said: /3or the stabilit* of Tibet.s religio-
political order and the happiness of its sub-ects, it ma* be better to hold negotiations and conclude treaties as this will
result in dependable arrangements&/
On Tibet.s independence and the border territories Tibet wanted returned from China, the (alai +ama said: /;nder the
priest-patron relationship that prevailed so far, Tibet has en-o*ed wide independence& We wish to preserve this& We
feel that there will be long-term stabilit* if the territories we have lost to outsiders are returned to us&/BRecord o the
Thirteenth !alai "ama's communication, dated $@th da* of the ?th Tibetan )onth, Iron orse Iear, $%9AD&
Other Chinese envo*s to Tibet, such as General uang )usung E$%9?F, and Wu 5hong0in E$%?AF, were also told in no
uncertain terms b* the Tibetan Government that Tibet was, and wished to remain, independent& It ma* be stated here
that neither the Chinese Government, nor its /special envo*/ Euang )usungF, had an* role, as claimed in the White
Paper, in the appointment of !eting !inpoche as the regent after the death of the Thirteenth (alai +ama in $%99&
uang )usung was the first Chinese to be permitted to enter Tibet in an official capacit* since $%$$& The Tibetans did
not refuse him permission, because he purportedl* came to offer religious tribute and condolences for the late (alai
+ama, an act for which Tibetans hardl* refused permission to an*one&
uang )usung arrived in +hasa in April $%9?, three months after !eting !inpoche became !egent& The Tsongdu
E'ational Assembl*F had nominated three candidates for the regenc*< !eting !inpoche, Gaden Tripa Ieshi Wangdhen
and Phurcho1 !inpoche& Out of them, !eting !inpoche was selected through a dough-ball rotating ceremon*
conducted in front of the statue of Avalo1itesvara in the Potala& BThupten Tenthar +awutara in #hod $i "o-rG%ud Rig-
g&es dP%ed gShe rG%u-cha b!ams #sGrigs, Hol& $#, People.s Publishing ouse, ,ei-ing, $%%AD
In the White Paper, China claims that Tibetan Government officials were sent to participate in China.s 'ational
Assembl* sessions in $%9$ and $%?C in 'an-ing&
In fact, in $%9$, Ghenpo Guncho1 2ungne was appointed b* the (alai +ama to set up a temporar* liaison office in
'an-ing, China, and maintain contact with the Chinese Government& +i1ewise, in $%?C a Tibetan mission was sent to
(elhi and 'an-ing to congratulate ,ritain, the ;nited "tates and China on the Allied victor* in the "econd World War&
The* had no instruction or authorit* to attend the Chinese 'ational Assembl*& "pea1ing about this to the International
Commission of 2urists. +egal In7uir* Committee on August #%, $%@%, the 3ourteenth (alai +ama said, /The* ETibetan
delegates in 'an-ingF had no official part in the Assembl*& When the propaganda came to the 1nowledge of our
Government the* were instructed b* telegram not to attend&/
As for the establishment of the Commission for Tibetan and )ongolian Affairs b* the 'ationalist Guomindang
Government, that too served onl* to bolster a m*th< to this da*, the Guomindang Government in Taiwan maintains
this Commission which, it claims, not onl* has -urisdiction over Tibet, but also over the whole of )ongolia, including
Outer )ongolia, whose independence has been internationall* recogni=ed since $%#?& In fact, this Commission was
not recogni=ed b* the Tibetan Government and never had an* authorit* with respect to Tibet&
"nite# Nations $ebates
When Chinese Communist armies started entering Tibet in $%?%, the Tibetan Government sent an urgent appeal to the
;nited 'ations to help Tibet resist the aggression& The General Assembl* was advised b* ,ritain and India not to ta1e
an* action for the time being in order not to provo1e a full-scale attac1 b* China& ,ut, to most countries, China.s
attac1 on Tibet was aggression&
This became especiall* evident during the full debates on the issue in the ;nited 'ations General Assembl* in $%@%,
$%CA, $%C$ and $%C@, when man* governments echoed the sentiments e0pressed b* the Ambassador of the
Philippines who referred to Tibet as an /independent nation/ and added: /EIFt is clear that on the eve of the Chinese
invasion in $%@A, Tibet was not under the rule of an* foreign countr*&/ e described China.s occupation as /the worst
t*pe of imperialism, and colonialism past or present&/ The 'icaraguan representative condemned the Chinese invasion
of Tibet and said: /The people of America, born in freedom, must obviousl* be repelled b* an act of aggression &&& and
particularl* when it is perpetrated b* a large state against a small and wea1 one&/ The representative from Thailand
reminded the Assembl* that the ma-orit* of states /refute the contention that Tibet is part of China&/ "imilarl* the
Government of the ;nited "tates condemned and denounced Chinese /aggression/ and their /invasion/ of Tibet&
Irish !epresentative 3ran1 Ai1en stated: /3or thousands of *ears, or for a couple of thousand *ears at an* rate, ETibetF
was as free and as full* in control of its own affairs as an* nation in this Assembl*, and a thousand times more free to
loo1 after its own affairs than man* of the nations here&/ B;' GA (ocs AJPH K%K $%CA< AJPH $9%?, $?A$ $%C@D
In fact, during those debates, it was onl* the Communist bloc which openl* sided with China on the issue& 3rom the
official statements made during those debates, it is clear that China.s assertion that no countr* ever recogni=ed Tibet.s
independence, or considered their militar* intervention to be aggression, is simpl* not true&
!onclusion
The Chinese Government cannot den* the fact that Tibet was independent between $%$$ and $%@$ without distorting
histor*& 8ven China.s last ead of )ission in +hasa, "hen Tsung-+ien, wrote after leaving the countr* in $%?K that
/since $%$$ +hasa Ei&e& the Tibetan Government in +hasaF has to all practical purposes en-o*ed full independence/&
BTibet and the Tibetans, "hen, T& and +iu, "&, 'ew Ior1, $%69, p&C#D )ao 5edong himself, when he passed through
the border regions of Tibet during the +ong )arch, and was given food and shelter b* local Tibetans, remar1ed: /This
is our onl* foreign debt, and some da* we must pa* the )ant=u EsicF and the Tibetans for the provisions we were
obliged to ta1e from them&/ B!ed "tar over China, 8dgar "now, 'ew Ior1, $%C$, p&#$?& 8mphasis added, ed&D
The origin an# position of the $alai %ama an# the Panchen %ama
China.s White Paper states, /In $C@9 and $6$9, the >ing emperors granted honorific titles to the 3ifth (alai +ama and
the 3ifth ,ain7en EPanchenF +ama, henceforth establishing the titles of the (alai +ama and the ,ain7en 8rdini and
their political and religious status in Tibet& The (alai +ama ruled the bul1 of areas from +hasa while the ,ain7en
8rdini ruled the remaining area of Tibet from 4igatse E"higatseF&/ This claim is absolutel* baseless&
The Tibetan religious scholar and sage Tsong1hapa E$9@6-$?$%F founded the Gelug school of Tibetan ,uddhism& It
became the fourth ma-or school of Tibetan ,uddhism, the others being the '*ingma, the "a1*a and the Gag*u&
Panchen Gedun (rup was Tsong1hapa.s principal disciple&
Panchen Gedun (rup.s third incarnation, "onam G*atso, was invited to the )ongol Court of Altan Ghan who first
conferred the title of /Talai E(alaiF +ama/ on him& The title was applied retrospectivel* to his two previous
incarnations, ma1ing him the Third (alai +ama& Thus began the line of the (alai +amas& It is thus not true, as Chinese
propaganda claims, that the title /(alai +ama/ was first established b* a )anchu emperor a centur* later&
The relationship established b* the Third (alai +ama with Altan Ghan was a spiritual one, but it would have political
repercussions two centuries later, in $C?#, when the )ongol prince, Gushri Ghan, helped the 3ifth (alai +ama E$C$6-
$CK#F to become the supreme political and spiritual ruler of Tibet& The 3ifth (alai +ama, in his turn, conferred the title
of /Choe1*i G*alpo/ E(harma !a-aF to his )ongol patron& 3rom that time on, successive (alai +amas ruled Tibet as
sovereign heads of state& The political position of the (alai +amas was, therefore, not established b* a )anchu
emperor of the >ing (*nast*, as claimed in the White Paper, but b* the 3ifth (alai +ama with the help of his )ongol
patron, two *ears before the >ing (*nast* was even established&
Tashilhunpo )onaster* was established in $??6 b* Panchen Gedun (rup, retrospectivel* 1nown as the 3irst (alai
+ama& "uccessive abbots of Tashilhunpo monaster* were given the title /Panchen/ because of their scholarship& The
3ifth (alai +ama gave his teacher, Panchen +obsang Cho1*i G*altsen E$@6A-$CC#F, the ownership of Tashilhunpo
monaster* and some additional estates& After that, the Panchen +amas were selected on the basis of reincarnation,
each successive Panchen +ama retaining ownership of the monaster* and estates& This situation was common among
man* incarnate lamas, such as the "a1*a, Phagpa-la, (a1*ab +oden "herab, etc&, who had been given estates b* the
Tibetan Government& ,ut this had absolutel* no political significance&
Contrar* to Chinese Communist propaganda, the Panchen +amas and other high lamas e0ercised religious authorit*
onl* and were not involved in the political administration of an* part of Tibet& In fact, the political authorit* of
"higatse and Tashilhunpo la* with the district governor appointed b* +hasa&
Thus, the )anchu emperor pla*ed no role in the establishment of the religious or political status of the (alai +ama,
and none with respect to the Panchen +ama.s position either&
After the invasion of Tibet the Chinese Communist government consistentl* tried to use the late Panchen +ama to
legitimi=e its position in Tibet& ,ei-ing appointed him to political positions and urged him to denounce, and ta1e the
place of, the (alai +ama on a number of occasions& ,ut the Panchen +ama refused to do so, and suffered man* *ears
of imprisonment and maltreatment as a result&
The Chinese Government claims in the White Paper, as did past Guomindang governments, that it pla*ed a decisive
role, through its envo* Wu 5hong0in, in the selection and installation of the 3ourteenth (alai +ama in $%?A and states
that /the simple realit* that the installation of the 3ourteenth (alai +ama needed the approval of the EChineseF
national government is sufficient proof that Tibet did not possess an* independent power during that period E$%$$-
$%?%D&/
In realit*, the (alai +ama was selected according to the age-old religious beliefs and traditions of the Tibetans and no
approval of the Chinese Government was needed or sought& It was in $%9%, one *ear prior to Wu.s arrival in +hasa,
that !egent !eting announced the name of the present (alai +ama to the Tibetan 'ational Assembl*& This
unanimousl* confirmed the candidate&
When the enthronment ceremon* too1 place on 3ebruar* ##, $%?A, Wu, li1e envo*s from ,hutan, "i11im, 'epal and
,ritish India, had no special role& "ir ,asil Gould, the ,ritish Political Officer who represented ,ritish India, e0plains
that the official Chinese version of events was a fiction which had been prepared and published before the
enthronement& That fictitious account b* Wu 5hong0in, which China toda* relies on, reflected what the Chinese had
intended to happen, but what did not in fact occur&
Chinese propaganda has also used a Chinese news report featuring a photograph of the (alai +ama with Wu
5hong0in, captioned as having been ta1en during the enthronement ceremon*& ,ut according to 'gabo 'gawang
2igme, Hice-Chairman of the "tanding Committee of the 'ational People.s Congress, this photo was ta1en a few da*s
after the ceremon*, when Wu had a private audience with the (alai +ama&
/Wu 5hong0in.s claim of having presided over the enthronement ceremon* on the basis of this photograph is a blatant
distortion of historical facts,/ 'gabo said in Tibet !ail% on August 9$, $%K%&
8arl* histor*
According to Tibetan annals, the first 1ing of Tibet ruled from $#6 ,C, but it was onl* in the seventh centur* A( that
Tibet emerged as a unified state and a might* empire under 8mperor "ongtsen Gampo& With his rule, an era of
political and militar* supremac* and territorial e0pansion started that lasted for three centuries& The Ging of 'epal and
the 8mperor of China offered their daughters to the Tibetan 8mperor in marriage&
The marriages with the 'epalese and Chinese princesses were of particular importance, because the* pla*ed vital
roles in the spread of ,uddhism in Tibet& Chinese propaganda alwa*s refers to political implications of "ongtsen
Gampo.s wedding to the Chinese imperial princess Wen Cheng, convenientl* ignoring the Tibetan ruler.s other
consorts, particularl* his 'epalese bride, whose influence was, if an*thing, greater than that of her Chinese
counterpart&
Tibetan 8mperor Trisong (etsen Ereign: 6@@-6%6F e0panded the Tibetan empire b* con7uering parts of China& In 6C9
China.s capital Chang.an Emodern da* 4ianF was invaded and China had to pa* an annual tribuLte to Tibet& In 6K9 a
treat* was concluded which laid down the borders between Tibet and China& A pillar inscription at the foot of the
Potala Palace in +hasa bears witness to some of these con7uests&
The peace treat*, concluded between Tibet and China in K#$, is of particular importance in illustrating the nature of
relations between these two great powers of Asia& The te0t of this treat*, both in Tibetan and Chinese, was inscribed
on three stone pillars: one was erected in Gungu )eru to demarcate the borders between the two nations, the second
in +hasa where it still stands, and the third in the Chinese capital of Chang.an& Passages 7uoted from the pillars in the
White Paper are inaccurate and out of conte0t, and aimed at creating the impression that some sort of /union/ resulted
from the treat*& 'othing is further from the truth, as is clear from the following principal passage of that treat*: /Tibet
and China shall abide b* the frontiers of which the* are now in occupation& All to the east is the counLtr* of great
China< and all to the west is, without 7uesLtion, the countr* of great Tibet& enceforth, on neither side shall there be
waging of war nor sei=ing of terriLtor*&/
It is hard to see how China can, in its White Paper, interpret these events as showing that /the Tibetans and ans
EChineseF had, through marriage between ro*al families and meetings leading to alliances, cemented political and
1inship ties of unit* and political friendship, and formed close economic and cultural relations, la*ing a solid
foundation for the ultimate founding of a unified nation&/ In fact, the historical records, both Tibetan and Chinese,
contradict such an interpretation and refer to separate and powerful empires&
In the mid-ninth centur* the Tibetan state fragmented into several principalities& Tibetan attention focused on India
and 'epal from where a strong religious and cultural influence brought about a ma-or spiritual and intellectual
renaissance&
Relations ith the &ongol 'mperors (1)*+-1,5+-
The )ongol ruler Genghis Ghan and his successors con7uered vast territories in Asia and 8urope creating one of the
largest empires the world has ever 1nown, stretching from the Pacific to eastern 8urope& In $#A6 the Tangut empire
north of Tibet fell to the advancing )ongols and, in $#6$, the )ongols announced the establishment of the )ongol
Iuan (*nast* to rule the eastern part of the empire& ,* $#6% the Chinese "ung d*nast* in southern China fell before
the advancing armies and the )ongols completed their con7uest of China& Toda*, China claims the Iuan (*nast* to
be its own d*nast* and, b* doing so, it la*s claim to all )ongol con7uests, at least in the eastern half of the )ongol
8mpire&
Prince Goden, grandson of Genghis Ghan, disLpatched an e0pedition to Tibet in $#?A and invited one of Tibet.s
leading religious hierarchs, "a1*a Pandita Gunga G*altsen E$$K#-$#@$F, to his court, thus establishing an enduring
Tibetan-)ongol relationship& ere began the uni7ue ch'-%'n Epriest-patronF relationship& Gublai Ghan, who
succeeded Goden Ghan, embraced Tibetan ,uddhism and adopted (rogon Choeg*al Phagpa, nephew of "a1*a
Pandita, as his spiritual mentor&
This ch'-%'n relationship resulted in Gublai adopting ,uddhism as his empire.s state religion, and Phagpa became its
highest spiritual authorit*& In gratitude, Gublai Ghan offered his Tibetan lama political authorit* over all Tibet in $#@?,
conferring various titles on him&
These earl* ch'-%'n relationships were followed b* man* similar relationships between )ongol princes and Tibetan
noble families and Tibetan lamas& This uni7ue Central Asian relationship also formed the basis of later relations
between )anchu emperors and successive (alai +amas& The ch'-%'n relationship itself was purel* a personal one
arising from the religious devotion of the patron for the priest and continued to e0ist even if the political status of the
patron changed& This was evident in the )ongol-Tibetan relationship, which continued to e0ist even after the fall of
the Iuan (*nast*&
An essential element of the ch'-%'n relationship was the protection that the patron provided his lama in return, not for
the latter.s allegiance, but for his religious teachings and blessings& "ome ch'-%'n relationships ac7uired important
political dimensions and the patron was e0pected to provide militar* support to protect the lama and his teaching or L
church.& "uperiorit* of the protector was not implied, as Chinese propaganda suggests, since the la* patron was the
student and worshipper of his lama&
When ,uddhism became the state religion in the eastern part of the )ongol empire and the "a1*a +ama EPhagpaF its
highest spiritual authorit*, the )ongol-Tibetan relationship could be best described in terms of mutual
interdependence& This concept provided for dual political and religious paramountc* of the worldl* emperor and the
spiritual leader on the basis of e7ualit* and interdependence& While the spiritual leader depended on the emperor for
protection and for bac1ing in ruling Tibet, the con7uering emperor depended on the lama to provide the legitimac* for
his rule of the )ongol 8mpire&
It is undeniable that )ongol emperors spread their influence over Tibet& ,ut, contrar* to the assertion made in the
Chinese White Paper that, /In the mid-thirteenth centur* Tibet was officiall* incorporated into the territor* of China.s
Iuan (*nast*/, none of the )ongol rulers ever made an* attempt to administer Tibet directl*: Tibet did not even pa*
ta0es to the )ongol empire, and it certainl* was never considered part of China b* the )ongol emperors&
Tibet bro1e its political relationship with the )ongols in $9@A when the Tibetan 1ing, Changchub G*altsen Ereign:
$9@A-$9C?F, replaced the "a1*a lamas as the most powerful ruler of Tibet& Changchub G*altsen did awa* with
)ongol influences in the Tibetan administrative s*stem and introduced a new and distinctl* Tibetan one& e also
enacted a Code of +aw ETrim%ig Shelche% Chonga, $@-Article CodeF, for the administration of -ustice in the 1ingdom&
The Chinese regained their independence from )ongol rule and established the )ing (*nast* eighteen *ears after
that&
Relations ith !hinese 'mperors (1,./-1.**-
The White Paper claims that the Chinese )ing (*nast* /replaced the Iuan (*nast* in China and inherited the right to
rule Tibet/& ,ut there is no historical basis for this assertion& As shown above, the relationship between )ongol 1hans
or emperors and Tibetan lamas predated the )ongol con7uest of China& "imilarl*, Tibet bro1e with the )ongol
emperors before China regained its independence from them& The Chinese )ing emperors inherited no relationship
from the )ongols& On the other hand, )ongol Ghans continued to maintain their intensive religious and cultural ties
with Tibetans, often in the form of ch'-%'n relationship, for centuries afterwards&
8ven if the )ongols did e0ercise influence in Tibet, it is still too presumptuous on the part of China to claim
inheritance of Tibet through erstwhile )ongol rulers of China when an independent Outer )ongolia toda* e0ists as
the onl* legitimate representative of the )ongolian people and nation&
Contacts between Tibet and )ing China were spasmodic and largel* limited to visits b* individual lamas of various,
sometimes rival, monasteries to China, and the granting of honorific imperial titles or gifts b* the Chinese 8mperor to
them& These visits are recorded in Tibetan histories of the fifteenth to seventeenth centur*, but there is no evidence
whatsoever of political subordination of Tibet or its rulers to China or the )ing 8mperors& In its White Paper, the
Chinese Government alleges that these contacts with individual lamas demonstrate )ing authorit* in and over Tibet&
,ut since Tibet was not ruled b* an* of those lamas, whatever the nature of their contacts with China, the* could not
affect the independent status of Tibet&
3rom $9@A Tibet was ruled b* the princes of Phagmodru and then, from about $?K$, b* the !impung d*nast*& In $?AC
the ruling Phagmodru prince, (a1pa G*altsen, turned down the imperial invitation to him to visit China& This clearl*
shows the sovereign authorit* of Tibetan rulers at that time& 3rom about $@C@ until the rise to power of the 3ifth (alai
+ama in $C?# Etwo *ears before the fall of the )ing (*nast*F, the 1ings of Tsang ruled Tibet& There are indications of
sporadic diplomatic relations between some of these rulers and )ing emperors, but the latter e0ercised neither
authorit* nor influence over them&
In $C?? the Chinese emperors were once again overLthrown b* foreign con7uerors& The )anchus succeeLded in estaL
blishing their own imperial d*nast*, which ruled over a large empire, the most important part of which was China&
The* called it the >ing (*nast*&
Relations ith the &anchus (1.,9-1911-
In $C?# the Great 3ifth (alai +ama, with the help of his )ongol patron Gushri Ghan, became the supreme political
and religious ruler of unified Tibet& "ince then, Tibetans regarded him as their /Gongsa Chenpo/ or /The "upreme
"overeign/& is prestige was recogni=ed far be*ond Tibet.s borders& The 3ifth (alai +ama not onl* maintained a close
relationship with the )ongols but also developed intimate ties with the )anchu rulers&
In $C9%, before the (alai +ama ac7uired supreme political power and also before the )anchu con7uest of China and
the establishment of the >ing (*nast*, )anchu 8mperor Tai Tsung invited the (alai +ama to his capital, )u1den
Epresent-da* "hen*angF& ;nable to accept the invitation personall*, the (alai +ama sent his envo* who was treated
with great respect b* the emperor& Thus the ch'-%'n relationship between the (alai +ama and the )anchu rulers was
established&
As was true of the Tibetan relationship with the )ongol emperors, the lin1s developed between Tibetans and the
)anchu emperors did not involve China& As Owen +attimore points out in reference to the >ing (*nast*, /what
e0isted in fact was a )anchu 8mpire, of which China formed onl* one part&/ BStudies in (rontier Histor%D&
aving con7uered China and anne0ed it to the )anchu empire, 8mperor "hun=i invited the 3ifth (alai +ama in $C@9
for a state visit to the imperial capital& In an unprecedented sign of respect, the )anchu emperor made a four-da*
-ourne* outside his capital EPe1ingF to receive the Tibetan sovereign and foremost spiritual leader of Central Asian
,uddhists& Commenting on the (alai +ama.s visit, W&W& !oc1hill, an American scholar and diplomat in China, wrote:
/EThe (alai +amaF had been treated with all the ceremon* which could have been accorded to an* independent
sovereign, and nothing can be found in Chinese wor1s to indicate that he was loo1ed upon in an* other light< at this
period of China.s relations with Tibet, the temporal power of the +ama, bac1ed b* the arms of Gusri Ghan and the
devotion of all )ongolia, was not a thing for the 8mperor of China to 7uestion&/ BThe !alai "amas o "hasa and
Their Relations )ith *mperors o China+ ,-..-,/01, T.oung Pao $$, $%$A, p&96D
On this occasion the 3ifth (alai +ama and the )anchu emperor bestowed unprecedented high complimentar* titles
upon each other and the ch'-%'n relationship was reaffirmed& In the White Paper, the Chinese Government refers onl*
to the honorific title given b* the 8mperor to the (alai +ama, but convenientl* omits an* mention of the similar
honorific title granted b* the (alai +ama to the 8mperor& Chinese propaganda infers that it was this deed b* the
)anchu 8mperor which conferred the legal right to the (alai +ama to rule Tibet& This interpretation intentionall*
misses the point of the event, namel* that titles were e2changed b* two sovereign leaders& If the (alai +ama was
dependent on his imperial title for the e0ercise of his authorit*, then so was the )anchu 8mperor dependent on the
title granted b* the (alai +ama for the e0ercise of his authorit*&
Throughout the >ing (*nast* E$C??-$%$$F relations between Tibet and the )anchu 8mperors remained formall*
based on the ch'-%'n relationship& The )anchu 8mperor readil* responded to the appeals for help to drive out
invading (=ungar )ongols and escort the newl*-discovered "eventh (alai +ama to the Tibetan capital in $6#A&
)anchu forces entered Tibet on three more occasions in the eighteenth centur*, once to protect Tibet against invading
Gor1ha forces from 'epal E$6%#F, and twice to restore order after civil wars E$6#K and $6@$F& 8ach time the* came at
the re7uest of the Tibetans, and each time the ch'-%'n relationship was invo1ed&
The )anchus did succeed in establishing some degree of influence in Tibet during those crisis periods& ,ut their
influence declined rapidl* afterwards, rendering them unable to pla* an* role when Tibet fought wars against invaders
from 2ammu E$K?$-$K?#F, 'epal E$K@@-$K@CF, and ,ritish India E$%A9-$%A?F& ,* the mid-nineteenth centur* the
)anchu emperor.s role Eand the related role of the ambanF was onl* nominal&
The White Paper devotes considerable attention to 8mperor >ianlong.s so-called twent*-nine-article edict, or
regulations, of $6%9 concerning Tibet, and to the appointment of ambans EambassadorsF& It presents the /regulations/
as if the* were an imperial order proving e0tensive )anchu authorit* in Tibet& In realit*, the twent*-nine points were
suggestions made b* the emperor for certain reforms of the Government of Tibet following its war with 'epal& The
ambans were not vicero*s or administrators, but were essentiall* ambassadors appointed to loo1 after )anchu
interests, and to protect the (alai +ama on behalf of the emperor&
In $6%# the Gor1has of 'epal invaded Tibet following a dispute between Tibet and 'epal and the (alai +ama
appealed to the )anchu emperor for help& The emperor sent a large arm* which helped Tibet drive out the Gor1has,
and mediated a treat* of peace between Tibet and 'epal& "ince this was the fourth time the emperor was as1ed to send
troops to fight for the Tibetan Government, he wanted some sa* in Tibetan affairs in order to prevent Tibetans from
becoming involved in conflicts which might again precipitate re7uests for the )anchu Court.s militar* involvement&
The /regulations/ were suggestions made in the conte0t of the emperor.s protector role, rather than an order from a
ruler to his sub-ects& This emerges clearl* from the statement made b* the imperial envo* and commander of the
)anchu arm*, General 3u G.ang-an, to the 8ighth (alai +ama, which goes thus:
/The 8mperor issued detailed instructions to me, the Great General, to discuss all the points, one b* one, in great
length& This demonstrates the 8mperor.s concern that Tibetans come to no harm and that their welfare be ensured in
perpetuit*& There is no doubt that the (alai +ama, ac1nowledging his gratitude to the 8mperor, will accept these
suggestions once all the points are discussed and agreed upon& owever, if the Tibetans insist on clinging to their age-
old habits, the 8mperor will withdraw the Ambans and the garrison after the troops are pulled out& )oreover, if
similar incidents occur in the future, the 8mperor will have nothing to do with them& The Tibetans ma*, therefore,
decide for themselves as to what is in their favour and what is not or what is heav* and what is light, and ma1e a
choice on their own&/ B>uoted from Ia an Chang.s #iograph% o the !alai "ama in #hod $i "o rG%us Rags Rims
g3u 3i Phrengba, Hol #, Published b* Tibet Institute of "ocial "cience, +hasa, $%%$, p&9$CD&
!ather than accepting or re-ecting the 8mperor.s suggestion, Tibetans adopted some of the twent*-nine points which
were perceived to be beneficial to them, and disregarded those the* thought to be unsuitable& As Panchen Choe1*i
'*ima, the predecessor of the +ate Panchen +ama, said: /Where Chinese polic* was in accordance with their own
views, the Tibetans were read* to accept the amban.s advice< but &&& if this advice ran counter in an* respect to their
national pre-udices, the Chinese 8mperor himself would be powerless to influence them&/ B!iar% o Capt4 O'Connor,
"eptember ?, $%A9D&
Among the important suggestions of this /twent*-nine-point edict/ was the emperor.s proposal for the selection of
great incarnate lamas, including the (alai +amas and Panchen +amas, b* drawing lots from a golden urn& This
important tas1, however, remained the responsibilit* of the Tibetan Government and high lamas, who continued to
select reincarnations according to religious traditions& Thus - even on the first occasion when the golden urn should
have been emplo*ed for the selection of the 'inth (alai +ama in $KAK - Tibetans disregarded it&
Another important point of this /edict/ was the role of ambans& The amban.s role resembled that of an ambassador, at
times, and that of a resident in a classical protectorate relationship, at other times& It is best defined in the e0planation
Amban Iu Tai gave in $%A9 to )ortimer (urand, the 3oreign "ecretar* of the Government of India Eas reported b*
himF, /he was onl* a guest in +hasa - not a master - and he could not put aside the real masters, and as such he had no
force to spea1 of&/ BSir 5ortimer !urand6 7 #iograph%, b* "ir Perc* "*1es, +ondon $%#C, p&$CCD&
"imilarl*, two +a=arist missionaries, uc and Gabet, who were in +hasa in the mid-nineteenth centur*, described the
position of the ambans as follows: /the Government of Tibet resembles that of the Pope and the position occupied b*
the Chinese AmbassLadors was the same as that of the Austrian Ambassador at !ome&/ B!ecou8erte du Thibet, $K?@-
$K?C, )& uc, $%99, p&@AD& The reference to /Chinese Ambassadors/ is a common misnomer, because the )anchu
8mperors were careful to appoint not Chinese ambans but )anchus or )ongolians, a fact which stressed that the
appointment of the amban was an e0tension of the protector.s role in the ch'-%'n relationship, a relationship from
which the Chinese were e0cluded&
The unprecedented invasion of Tibet b* )anchu troops in $%AK was a turning point in relations between Tibet and the
)anchu emperor& Previous imperial militar* e0peditions had come to assist the (alai +ama or the Tibetan
Government at their invitation& ,ut this time, the )anchu emperor attempted to establish his authorit* in Tibet b*
force, largel* to remove increasing ,ritish influence in Tibet& In $%$A the (alai +ama fled to neighbouring India, but
the occupation of Tibet was short-lived& When the )anchu 8mperor tried to /depose/ the (alai +ama in $%$A, the
(alai +ama declared the termination of the ch'-%'n relationship& The protector had attac1ed his lama and, thereb*,
violated the ver* foundation of their relationship&
!esistance to the invasion succeeded when the )anchu 8mpire collapsed in $%$# and Tibetans forced the occupation
arm* to surrender& That summer 'epalese mediation between Tibet and China resulted in the conclusion of the /Three
Point Agreement/ providing for formal surrender and the e0pulsion of all remaining imperial troops& After returning to
+hasa, the Thirteenth (alai +ama issued a proclamation reaffirming the independence of Tibet on 3ebruar* $?, $%$9&
Relations ith 0ritish 1n#ia (1/52-1911-
"ince the end of the eighteenth centur*, ,ritain developed a 1een interest in establishing trade with Tibet& "ince all the
imala*an states which were closel* lin1ed to +hasa had graduall* been tied to ,ritish India b* means of treaties and
other agreements, Tibet feared it would also lose its independence if it did not resist ,ritish efforts to gain access to
Tibet&
The Thirteenth (alai +ama steered Tibet on an independent course& This polic* frustrated the ,ritish who feared,
more than an*thing, that a !ussian infiltration into Tibet would tip the balance of power in Central Asia& ;nable to
communicate effectivel* with Tibet, ,ritain approached the )anchu court for assistance in forcing Tibet to cooperate&
The result was the conclusion, without Tibet.s participation or 1nowledge, of two treaties E$K%A and $K%9F between
,ritain and China which had provisions regarding Tibet& The Tibetan Government re-ected these treaties as ultra 8ires,
and this precipitated the ,ritish invasion of Tibet in $%A9& The )anchu emperor did not then come to the assistance of
Tibet and, as noted b* Amban Iu Tai, disclaimed an* responsibilit* for the action of the Tibetans& ,ritish troops left
+hasa within a *ear, after concluding a bilateral treat*, the +hasa Convention, with the Tibetan Government&
The provisions of the +hasa Convention necessaril* pre-supposed the unrestricted sovereignt* of Tibet in internal and
e0ternal matters, otherwise Tibet could not legitimatel* have transferred to ,ritain the powers specified in the treat*&
The +hasa Convention did not even ac1nowledge the e0istence of an* special relationship between the )anchu
8mperor and Tibet& The ver* act of concluding this Convention constituted an implicit recognition b* ,ritain of Tibet
as a state competent to conclude treaties on its own behalf without having to consult an* e0ternal power&
In an effort to persuade China to cooperate, ,ritain convinced it to sign the Adhesion Agreement in $%AC, once again,
without the participation and 1nowledge of Tibet& That agreement and the $%A6 agreement concluded between ,ritain
and !ussia, confirmed the e0istence of a sphere of ,ritish influence in Tibet and introduced the concept of Chinese
/su=eraint*/ over Tibet - something neither Tibet nor the )anchu court accepted&
In $%AK, during Tibet.s brief invasion b* the )anchu arm*, ,ritain again signed a treat* concerning trade with Tibet
with the )anchus, with no independent Tibetan participation&
!eferring to the ,ritish concept of su=eraint*, +ord Cur=on, the Hicero* of India, e0plained: /Chinese su=eraint* over
Tibet is a constitutional fiction - a political affectation which has onl* been maintained because of its convenience to
both parties& &&& As a matter of fact, the two Chinese Ei&e& )anchuF Ambans at +hasa are there not as Hicero*s, but as
Ambassadors&/ BPapers C( $%#A, 'o&CC, GoI to IO, 2anuar* K, $%A9& India Office +ibrar*D&
Relations ith 1n#ia
When India became independent in $%?6, it too1 over the ,ritish diplomatic )ission in +hasa, and inherited the treat*
relations of ,ritain with Tibet& Its recognition of Tibet was clear from the official communication the Indian
Government sent to the Tibetan 3oreign Office: /The Government of India would be glad to have an assurance that it
is the intention of the Tibetan Government to continue relations on the e0isting basis until new arrangements are
reached on matters that either part* ma* wish to ta1e up& This is the procedure adopted b* all other countries with
which India has inherited treat* relations from is )a-est*.s Government&/ B&otes+ 5emoranda and "etters
*2changed and 7greements Signed b% the Go8ernments o India and China, Hol #, $%@%, p&9%D
Self-#etermination
China.s White Paper spea1s about its alleged /ownership/ of Tibet< it discusses broad issues relating to human rights,
including social, economic and cultural rights, but does not address the fundamental 7uestion of the right of the
Tibetan people to self-determination&
;nder international law, populations which meet the criteria of /a people/, possess the right to self-determination&
Governments ma* not den* that right, and must act in accordance with it& In past decades, the right to self-
determination has primaril* been applied to colonial countries and peoples, but, particularl* in recent *ears, the right
is applied outside the conte0t of decoloni=ation also&
The Tibetan people clearl* constitute a people under international law, as defined, among others, b* the ;'8"CO
International )eeting of 80perts on 3urther "tud* of the Concept of the !ights of Peoples&
It is difficult to conceive of a better e0ample of a distinct people, with all the characteristics fulfilled: commonalities
in histor*, language, culture, ethnicit* and other manifestations of shared identit* and e0perience< numerousness, i&e&,
enough persons sharing common identit* and e0perience to warrant recognition b* the international communit*< the
e0istence of institutions to give e0pression and effect to these commonalities< the will of a people to assert the right to
self-determination&
The right to self-determination means the right of a people to /determine their own political status and to determine
their economic, social and cultural development/ free from outside interference& BInternational Co8enants on Ci8il
and Political Rights, Art& $< and International Co8enant on *conomic+ Social and Cultural Rights, Art& $<D Tibetans
have been denied the e0ercise of this right since their countr*.s invasion and occupation b* China& ;nder international
law, the P!C has the obligation to permit its e0ercise&
The implementation of the right to self-determination can lead to integration with a state, association with a state or to
independence, but the choice must be made b* the people e0ercising their right to self-determination& This choice
must be made freel*, without an* interference from outside that people& Thus, it is for the Tibetan people alone,
without interference from China, to ma1e the choice&
The (alai +ama has, for man* *ears, called on China to agree to the holding of an internationall*-supervised
plebiscite to determine the wishes of the Tibetan people& This is the most desirable approach, entirel* in accordance
with the re7uirements of international law and practice&
Recognition of Tibet3s right to self-#etermination
In $%C$ the ;nited 'ations General Assembl* E;'GAF adopted !esolution $6#9 E4HIF, in which it e0plicitl*
recogni=ed the right of the Tibetan people to self-determination& The ;' called on the P!C to cease /practices which
deprive the Tibetan people of their fundamental human rights and freedoms, including their right to self-
determination/& 3our *ears later, in $%C@, the ;'GA e0pressl* reaffirmed this resolution in ;'GA !es& #A6% E44F&
8arlier, in $%@%, the first prime minister of independent India, 2awaharlal 'ehru, e0pressed his strong support for the
Tibetan people.s right to self-determination& Addressing the +o1 "abha, the +ower ouse of the Indian Parliament, he
said, /the last voice in regard to Tibet should be the voice of the people of Tibet and nobod* else/&
!ecentl*, on two separate occasions, e0perts on the 7uestion of rights of peoples and international law met to consider
the 7uestion of Tibet.s claim to self-determination&
The Permanent Tribunal of Peoples, which met in "trasbourg for a wee1 to hear e0tensive testimon* and arguments in
'ovember $%%#, found that the Tibetans meet the generall* accepted legal criteria of /a people/ with the right to self-
determination and /are therefore entitled to e0ercise the right to self-determination/& The Tribunal concluded that /the
presence of the Chinese administration on Tibetan territor* must be considered as foreign domination of the Tibetan
people/& 3inall*, in its verdict, the Tribunal decided that, /the Tibetan people have from $%@A been, continuousl*,
deprived of their right to self-determination&/ BSession on Tibet+ 9erdict, Permanent Tribunal of Peoples, "trasbourg,
'ovember #A, $%%#, p&$@ and #9, resp&D&
In an unrelated conference, several wee1s later, thirt* eminent international law*ers from man* countries in 8urope,
Africa, Asia and the Americas - among them some of the world.s foremost authorities on self-determination - met in
+ondon for four da*s to consider issues relating to the e0ercise of the right to self-determination b* the Tibetan
people& After e0tensive consideration of evidence, including the Chinese Government.s White Paper, and after a livel*
legal debate, the conference participants concluded, in a written statement, that,
$& ;nder international law the Tibetan people are entitled to the right to self-determination, that this right
/belongs to the Tibetan people/ and that /EiFt is not for the state apparatus of the P!C, or an* other nation or
state, to den* the Tibetan people.s right to self-determination/&
#& /"ince the militar* action of $%?%-@A, Tibet has been under the alien occupation and domination of the P!C
and has been administered with the characteristics of an oppressive colonial administration&/
9& /In the particular case of Tibet and having regard to its long histor* of separate e0istence/, the Tibetan
people.s claim to self-determination, including independence, is compatible with the principles of national
unit* and territorial integrit* of states& BInternational "aw%ers' Conerence Statement on Tibet - "ondon ,//:,
+ondon, 2anuar* $A, $%%9, p&C-KD&
The international conference statement called on the ;nited 'ations and members of the international
communit* to ta1e urgent measures to promote an earl* implementation and reali=ation of the Tibetan
people.s right to self-determination&
In both discussions, that of the Peoples. Tribunal and that of the International +aw*ers. Conference, the points
of view of the Chinese Government, in particular as e0pressed in its White Paper, were discussed at length
and full* considered&
The Chinese Government was invited to participate in both events, but declined to do so& It did, however,
submit to the meetings for consideration the White Paper and numerous other publications stating its point of
view and arguments&
Conclusion
The Tibetan people undoubtedl* possess the right to self-determination, b* virtue of which Tibetans have the
right to determine their political status and their economic, social and cultural development& 8ven if self-
determination is primaril* applicable to peoples under colonial domination or occupation, Tibetans full*
7ualif*& The time has come for the P!C to accept its international obligations, and to agree to the holding of a
plebiscite in Tibet under international supervision&
The 1nvasion an# 1llegal 4nne5ation of Tibet
Treaties in international law are binding on the countries signing them, unless the* are imposed b* force or a countr*
is coerced into signing the agreement b* the threat of force& This is reflected in the Hienna Convention on the +aw of
Treaties, which is regarded as a reflection of customar* international law&
The People.s !epublic of China EP!CF feels strongl* about this principle, particularl* as it applies to treaties and other
agreements China was pressured to sign b* Western powers at a time when China was wea1& The P!C is particularl*
adamant that such /une7ual/ treaties and other agreements cannot be valid, no matter who signed them or for what
reasons&
After the militar* invasion of Tibet had started and the small Tibetan arm* was defeated, the P!C imposed a treat* on
the Tibetan Government under the terms of which Tibet was declared to be a part of China, albeit en-o*ing a large
degree of autonom*& In the White Paper, China claims this treat* was entered into entirel* voluntaril* b* the Tibetan
Government, and that the (alai +ama, his Government and the Tibetan people as a whole welcomed it&
The facts show a ver* different stor*, leading to the conclusion that the so-called /"eventeen-Point Agreement on
)easures for the Peaceful +iberation of Tibet/ was never validl* concluded and was re-ected b* Tibetans&
The (alai +ama writes that the Tibetan Prime )inister, +u1hangwa, told Chinese General 5hang 2inwu in $%@#: /It
was absurd to refer to the terms of the "eventeen-Point Agreement& Our people did not accept the agreement and the
Chinese themselves had repeatedl* bro1en the terms of it& Their arm* was still in occupation of eastern Tibet< the area
had not been returned to the government of Tibet, as it should have been&/ B)* +and and )* People, (alai +ama,
'ew Ior1, $%%#, p&%@D&
$iplomatic activity an# military threats
"oon after the Communist victor* over the Guomindang and the founding of the P!C on October $, $%?%, !adio
,ei-ing began to announce that /the People.s +iberation Arm* must liberate all Chinese territories, including Tibet,
4in-iang, ainan and Taiwan/& Partl* in response to this threat, and in order to resolve long-standing border disputes
with China, the 3oreign Office of the Tibetan Government, on 'ovember #, $%?%, wrote to )ao 5edong proposing
negotiations to settle all territorial disputes& Copies of this letter were sent to the governments of India, Great ,ritain
and the ;nited "tates& Although these three governments considered the spread of Communism to be a threat to the
stabilit* of "outh Asia, the* advised the Tibetan Government to enter into direct negotiations with the Chinese
Government as an* other course of action might provo1e militar* retaliation&
The Tibetan Government decided to send two senior officials, Tsepon "ha1abpa and Tsechag Thubten G*alpo, to
negotiate with representatives of the P!C in a third countr*, possibl* the ;""!, "ingapore or ong Gong& These
officials were to ta1e up with the Chinese Government the content of the Tibetan 3oreign Office.s letter to Chairman
)ao 5edong and the threatening Chinese radio announcements still being made about an imminent /liberation of
Tibet/< the* were to secure an assurance that the territorial integrit* of Tibet would not be violated and to state that
Tibet would not tolerate interference&
When the Tibetan delegates applied for visas to ong Gong in (elhi, the Chinese told them that the new Chinese
Ambassador to India was due to arrive in the capital shortl* and that negotiations should be opened through him&
In the course of negotiations, the Chinese Ambassador, Iuan 5hong 4ian, demanded that the Tibetan delegation
accept a Two-point Proposal: iF Tibetan national defence will be handled b* China< and iiF Tibet should be recogni=ed
as a part of China& The* were then to proceed to China in confirmation of the agreement& On being informed of the
Chinese demands, the Tibetan Government instructed its delegates to re-ect the proposal& "o negotiations were
suspended&
On October 6, $%@A, ?A,AAA Chinese troops under Political Commissar, Wang >iemi, attac1ed 8astern Tibet.s
provincial capital, Chamdo, from eight directions& The small Tibetan force, consisting of K,AAA troops and militia, was
defeated& After two da*s, Chamdo was ta1en and Galon E)inisterF 'gapo 'gawang 2igme, the !egional Governor,
was captured& Over ?,AAA Tibetan fighters were 1illed&
The Chinese aggression came as a rude shoc1 to India& In a sharp note to ,ei-ing on October #C, $%@A, the Indian
3oreign )inistr* wrote: /'ow that the invasion of Tibet has been ordered b* Chinese government, peaceful
negotiations can hardl* be s*nchroni=ed with it and there naturall* will be fear on the part of Tibetans that
negotiations will be under duress& In the present conte0t of world events, invasion b* Chinese troops of Tibet cannot
but be regarded as deplorable and in the considered -udgement of the Government of India, not in the interest of China
or peace&/
A number of countries, including the ;nited "tates and ,ritain, e0pressed their support for the Indian position&
The Tibetan 'ational Assembl* convened an emergenc* session in 'ovember $%@A at which it re7uested the (alai
+ama, onl* fifteen at that time, to assume full authorit* as ead of "tate& The (alai +ama was then re7uested to leave
+hasa for (romo EIatungF, near the Indian border, so that he would be out of personal danger& At the same time the
Tibetan 3oreign Office issued the following statement: /Tibet is united as one man behind the (alai +ama who has
ta1en over full powers &&& We have appealed to the world for peaceful intervention in Ethe face of thisF clear case of
unprovo1ed aggression&/
The Tibetan Government also wrote to the "ecretar* General of the ;nited 'ations on 'ovember 6, $%@A, appealing
for the world bod*.s intervention& The letter said, in part: /Tibet recogni=es that it is in no position to resist the
Chinese advance& It is thus that it agreed to negotiate on friendl* terms with the Chinese Government&&&Though there is
little hope that a nation dedicated to peace will be able to resist the brutal effort of men trained to war, we understand
that the ;nited 'ations has decided to stop aggression wherever it ta1es place&/
On 'ovember $6, $%@A, 8l "alvador formall* as1ed that the aggression against Tibet be put on the General Assembl*
agenda& owever, the issue was not discussed in the ;' General Assembl* at the suggestion of the Indian delegation
which asserted that a peaceful solution which was mutuall* advantageous to Tibet, India and China could be reached
between the parties concerned& A second letter b* the Tibetan delegation to the ;nited 'ations on (ecember K, $%@A
did not change the situation&
3aced with the militar* occupation of 8astern and 'orthern Tibet, the defeat and destruction of its small arm*, the
advance of tens of thousands of more P+A troops towards Central Tibet, and the lac1 of active support from the
international communit*, the (alai +ama and the Tibetan Government decided to send a delegation to ,ei-ing for
negotiations with the new Chinese leadership&
The 6Seventeen-Point 4greement6
In April $%@$ the Tibetan Government sent a five-member delegation to ,ei-ing, led b* Galon 'gapo 'gawang
2igme& The Tibetan Government authori=ed its delegation to put forward the Tibetan stand and listen to the Chinese
position& ,ut, contrar* to the claim made in the White Paper that the delegation had /full powers/, it was e0pressl* not
given the plenipotentiar* authorit* to conclude an agreement& It was, instead, instructed to refer all important matters
to the government&
On April #% negotiations opened with the presentation of a draft /agreement/ b* the leader of the Chinese delegation&
The Tibetan delegation re-ected the Chinese proposal in toto, after which the Chinese tabled a modified draft that was
e7uall* unacceptable to the Tibetan delegation& At this point the Chinese delegates, +i Weihan and 5hang 2inwu, made
it plain that the terms, as the* now stood, were final and amounted to an ultimatum& The Tibetan delegation was
addressed in harsh and insulting terms, threatened with ph*sical violence, and members were virtuall* 1ept prisoners&
'o further discussion was permitted and, contrar* to Chinese claims, the Tibetan delegation was prevented from
contacting its government for instructions& It was given the onerous choice of either signing the /agreement/ on its
own authorit* or accepting responsibilit* for an immediate militar* advance on +hasa&
;nder immense Chinese pressure the Tibetan delegation signed the /Agreement of the Central People.s Government
and the +ocal Government of Tibet on )easures for the Peaceful +iberation of Tibet/ on )a* #9, $%@$, without being
able to inform the Tibetan Government& The delegation warned the Chinese that the* were signing onl* in their
personal capacit* and had no authorit* to bind either the (alai +ama or the Tibetan Government to the /agreement/&
'one of this deterred the Chinese Government from proceeding with a signing ceremon* and announcing to the world
that an /agreement/ had been concluded for the /peaceful liberation of Tibet/& 8ven the seals affi0ed to the document
were forged b* the Chinese Government to give it the necessar* semblance of authenticit*&
The seventeen clauses of the /agreement/, among other things, authori=ed the entr* into Tibet of Chinese forces and
empowered the Chinese Government to handle Tibet.s e0ternal affairs& On the other hand, it guaranteed that China
would not alter the e0isting political s*stem in Tibet and not interfere with the established status, function, and powers
of the (alai +ama or the Panchen +ama& The Tibetan people were to have regional autonom*, and their religious
beliefs and customs were to be respected& Internal reforms in Tibet would be effected after consultation with leading
Tibetans and without compulsion&
The full te0t of what came to be 1nown as the /"eventeen-Point Agreement/ was broadcast b* !adio ,ei-ing on )a*
#6, $%@$& This was the first time the (alai +ama and the Tibetan Government heard of the devastating document& The
reaction in (romo Ewhere the (alai +ama was sta*ing at that timeF and +hasa was one of shoc1 and disbelief&
A message was immediatel* sent to the delegates in ,ei-ing, reprimanding them for signing the /agreement/ without
consulting the Government for instructions& The delegation was as1ed to send the te0t of the document it had signed,
and wait in ,ei-ing for further instructions& In the meantime, a telegraphic message was received from the delegation
to sa* that the Chinese Government representative, General 5hang 2inwu, was alread* on his wa* to (romo, via India&
It added that some of the delegation members were returning, via India, and the leader of the delegation was returning
directl* to +hasa&
The (alai +ama and the Tibetan Government withheld public repudiation of the /agreement/& The (alai +ama
returned to +hasa on August $6, $%@$ in the hope of renegotiating a more favourable treat* with the Chinese&
On "eptember %, $%@$ around 9,AAA Chinese troops marched into +hasa, soon followed b* some #A,AAA more, from
8astern Tibet and from 8astern Tur1estan E4in-iangF in the north& The P+A occupied the principal cities of !utho1
and Garto1, and then G*angtse and "higatse&
With the occupation of all the ma-or cities of Tibet, including +hasa, and a large concentration of troops throughout
8astern and Western Tibet, the militar* control of Tibet was virtuall* complete& 3rom this position China refused to
reopen negotiations and the (alai +ama had effectivel* lost the abilit* to either accept or re-ect an* Tibet-China
/agreement/& owever, on the first occasion he had to e0press himself freel* again, which came on 2une #A, $%@% -
after his flight to India - the (alai +ama formall* repudiated the /"eventeen-Point Agreement/, as having been /thrust
upon Tibetan Government and people b* the threat of arms/&
In assessing the /"eventeen-Point Agreement on )easures for the Peaceful +iberation of Tibet/, and the occupation of
Tibet, two factors are crucial& 3irst, the e0tent to which China was violating international law when the P+A marched
into Tibet, and second, the effect of the signing of the /agreement/&
The law governing treaties is based on the universall* recogni=ed principle that the foundation of conventional
obligations is the free and mutual consent of contracting parties and, conversel*, that freedom of consent is essential to
the validit* of an agreement& Treaties brought about b* the threat or the use of force lac1 legal validit*, particularl* if
coercion is applied to the countr* and government in 7uestion rather than onl* on the negotiators themselves&
With China occup*ing large portions of Tibet and openl* threatening a full-scale militar* advance on +hasa unless the
treat* was signed, the agreement was invalid ab initio, meaning that it could not even be validated b* a later act of
ac7uiescence b* the Tibetan Government& Contrar* to China.s claim in its White Paper, the (alai +ama and the
Tibetan Government did not act voluntaril* in signing the /agreement/&
In fact, )ao 5edong himself, in the (irective of the Central Committee of the CPC on Policies for our Wor1 in Tibet,
issued on April C, $%@#, admitted: /E'Fot onl* the two "ilons Ei&e& prime ministersF but also the (alai and most of his
cli7ue were reluctant to accept the Agreement and are unwilling to carr* it out& &&& As *et we do not have a material
base for full* implementing the agreement, nor do we have a base for this purpose in terms of support among the
masses or in the upper stratum&/ B"elected Wor1s of )ao Tsetung, Hol& @, 3oreign +anguage Press, Pe1ing, $%66,
p&6@D
The National "prising
When people are oppressed, the* are li1el* to rise up against the oppressor& There was never a popular uprising in
Tibet until the $%@As& The Tibetan resistance movement against the Chinese started right from the time of the invasion&
,* $%@C open fighting bro1e out in the 8astern Tibetan provinces of Gham and Amdo& Three *ears later the uprising
too1 on national proportions, leading to the massive demonstrations in +hasa in )arch $%@%, and the flight of the
(alai +ama and some KA,AAA refugees to neighbouring countries& Tens of thousands of Tibetans were slaughtered b*
the P+A&
"ince then, Tibetan uprisings and demonstrations have continued& ,etween $%K6 and the end of $%%9 alone, there had
been over two hundred demonstrations in +hasa and other parts of Tibet, some small but others have been massive&
Chinese troops have suppressed most of these demonstrations with brutal force& In )arch $%K% Tibet was put under
)artial +aw for the second time in its histor*: the first time was in $%@%&
The Chinese Government tries to depict the popular resistance b* Tibetans to its rule as the wor1 of a few disgruntled
aristocrats who wish to restore the old s*stem of e0ploitation and oppression of the Tibetan masses&
It depicts ninet* five percent of Tibetans as having been serfs, brutall* oppressed b* a small number of aristocrats and
lamas& What China cannot e0plain is wh* these allegedl* oppressed masses never rose up against their masters,
despite the fact that Tibet did not have a national police force and for most of its histor* had no strong arm*&
Iet, these same Tibetans did rise up, and still do toda*, against the massive securit* apparatus and arm* of China,
1nowing the tremendous ris1 the* ta1e&
If we loo1 at the social composition of the Tibetans involved in the successive uprisings and demonstrations, more
than eight* percent of them are not aristocrats and high lamas& 3urthermore, more than eight* five percent of Tibetans
in e0ile belong to what the Chinese would call the /serf class/, and not the upper strata of societ* as China claims&
'vents lea#ing up to the 1959 uprising
+et us loo1 briefl* at the main causes of the Tibetan people.s uprising against China in $%@%& 3ollowing the entr* of
Chinese troops into +hasa, ever* effort was made to undermine the sovereign authorit* of the Tibetan Government
and impose Chinese authorit*& This was carried out in three wa*s: 3irst, political and regional divisions were created
among Tibetans under the polic* of divide and rule& "econdl*, certain social and economic reforms, calculated to
change the fabric of Tibetan societ*, were instituted against the wishes of Tibetans& Thirdl*, various organs of the
Chinese Government, and new bodies under their authorit*, were set up alongside the e0isting Tibetan institutions&
,etween 'ovember #?, $%@A and October $%, $%@9 China incorporated a large portion of Gham province into
neighbouring Chinese "ichuan province& Gham was divided into two so-called Tibetan Autonomous
Prefectures and one Tibetan Autonomous (istrict& On "eptember $9, $%@6 another portion of southern Gham
was named the (echen Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and put under Iunnan Province&
The bul1 of Amdo, together with a small area of Gham, was reduced to the status of a Chinese province, and
named as >inghai& One portion of Amdo was named 'gapa Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, and merged with
"ichuan Province& The remaining area of Amdo was sub-divided into Tian=hu Tibetan Autonomous (istrict
E)a* C, $%@AF, and Ganlho Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture EOctober $, $%@9F, and incorporated into the
Chinese province of Gansu&
On "eptember %, $%C@ China formall* established the so-called Tibet Autonomous !egional Government,
placing under its administration the whole of ;-Tsang and areas of Gham&
China stripped numerous ethnic Tibetans li1e the "herpas, )onpas, +hopas, Tengpas, 2angpas, etc& - who
consider themselves to be Tibetan - of their Tibetan identit*, reclassif*ing them as distinct Chinese minorities&

The appropriation b* the People.s +iberation Arm* of thousands of tons of barle* and other foodstuffs pushed the
Tibetans to the brin1 of famine for the first time in histor* and prompted protest meetings in +hasa&
The first ma-or popular resistance group, the )imang Tsongdu EPeople.s Assembl*F, banded together spontaneousl*
and handed the Chinese )ilitar* Command a petition demanding the withdrawal of the P+A and an end to Chinese
interference in Tibetan affairs& The Chinese reaction was swift< the two Tibetan Prime )inisters, +u1hangwa and Hen&
+obsang Tashi, who had made no secret of their opposition to Chinese rule and opposed the /"eventeen Point
Agreement/, were forced to resign and five )imang Tsongdu leaders were -ailed, driving the organi=ation
underground&
In $%@? the (alai +ama visited ,ei-ing at China.s invitation& The /special/ autonomous position of Tibet, embodied in
the /"eventeen-Point Agreement,/ was formall* abolished with the adoption of the new Constitution b* the Chinese
People.s Congress& This was followed b* the adoption of the /!esolution on the 8stablishment of the Preparator*
Committee for the Autonomous !egion of Tibet EPCA!TF/, a measure designed to further integrate the administration
of Tibet into that of the P!C& The Preparator* Committee was to function as the central administration of Tibet instead
of the Tibetan Government& The (alai +ama was made its Chairman, but without an* authorit*&
As the (alai +ama e0plains in his autobiograph*: /The Committee was powerless - a mere facade of Tibetan
representation behind which all the effective power was e0ercised b* the Chinese& In fact, all basic polic* was decided
b* another bod* called the Committee of the Chinese Communist Part* in Tibet, which had no Tibetan members&/
B(alai +ama, ibid, p&$99D
In $%@C the PCA!T was set up and the Tashilhunpo estate, and those regions under the -urisdiction of the Governor-
General of Chamdo Ea Tibetan Government appointeeF in 8astern Tibet, were separated from the -urisdiction of the
Tibetan Government in +hasa and their administrative organs given e7ual status to the Tibetan Government, thereb*
reducing the authorit* of the Tibetan Government& "ocial, political, and agrarian reforms were imposed b* the
Chinese Government in Amdo and Gham and, to a much lesser degree, in the rest of the countr*& 3re7uent attac1s
were launched on religious personages and monasteries& All of these led to increasingl* violent reactions&
The /"eventeen-Point Agreement/ guaranteed that no reforms would be forced on the Tibetans& ,ut in 8astern Tibet
the* were introduced and enforced at once& )ounting impatience and belligerence of the Chinese administrators
provo1ed violent reactions and rapidl* culminated into armed conflicts in a widening spiral of resistance and militar*
repression that engulfed the entire eastern Tibetan provinces of Gham and Amdo&
As the violence spilled over to other areas of Tibet, full-scale guerrilla warfare bro1e out in the summer of $%@C&
!efugees from eastern and northeastern Tibet began to arrive in +hasa in large numbers& Within a *ear, the uprising
had spread to Central Tibet, and in $%@K Tensung (hanglang )agar, Ethe Holuntar* 3orce for the (efence of the
3aithF, a union of the )imang Tsongdu and Chushi Gangdru1 E3our !ivers "i0 !angesF organi=ations, was founded&
,* the autumn of that *ear this popular arm*, estimated at KA,AAA men, was in control of most districts of "outhern
Tibet and parts of 8astern Tibet&
The (alai +ama too1 pains to calm his people so as to prevent a worse bloodbath& 'evertheless, the situation in Tibet
deteriorated rapidl* while the (alai +ama visited India in $%@C to ta1e part in the ,uddha 2a*anti celebrations at the
invitation of independent India.s first Prime )inister, 2awaharlal 'ehru& In meetings with 'ehru and 5hou 8nlai in
(elhi, the (alai +ama e0pressed his deep concern at the e0plosive situation in his homeland and admitted he was
contemplating see1ing political as*lum in India& 'ehru advised the (alai +ama against it&
To induce the (alai +ama to return home, the Chinese Government promptl* announced that the /socialist and
democratic reforms/ would be postponed in Tibet for the time being&
It was also agreed that a number of Chinese civil personnel would be withdrawn, and the PCA!T.s departments would
be reduced b* half& The subse7uent events were to reveal these promises as false& In the *ears that followed, the
Chinese intensified socialist campaigns and purges against Tibetans and sent considerable arm* reinforcements to
Tibet, thus more than offsetting the earlier modest reduction of Chinese cadres&
National "prising an# flight of the $alai %ama
The inevitable showdown occurred in )arch $%@%& There was general fear that the Chinese were planning to abduct
the (alai +ama and ta1e him awa* to ,ei-ing& The Tibetan people alread* had bitter e0periences in Gham and Amdo,
where important lamas and local leaders disappeared m*steriousl* after being invited to Chinese cultural shows and
other functions&
3ears for the safet* of the (alai +ama became acute when the Chinese Arm* Command invited the Tibetan leader to a
theatrical show in the militar* barrac1s on )arch $A& Tibetans became even more suspicious when the Chinese
instructed that the (alai +ama should not be accompanied b* bod*guards as was the tradition& The people in +hasa
would not allow the (alai +ama to give in to this Chinese subterfuge&
On )arch $A, $%@% a massive demonstration was held and thousands of people surrounded the (alai +ama.s summer
palace, the 'orbuling1a, to prevent him from attending the Chinese show& )ass meetings were held in +hasa over the
following da*s with the citi=ens demanding that the Chinese 7uit Tibet and restore the countr*.s full independence&
The (alai +ama, fearing the e0plosive conse7uences of these mass demonstraLtions, urged the large crowd around the
'orbuling1a to disperse and wrote three letters to the principal Chinese General, Tian Guansan, in an effort to placate
the Chinese and stave off impending violence& 80plaining the circumstances in which he wrote these letters, the (alai
+ama sa*s in his autobiograph*: /I replied to all his letters to gain time - time for anger to cool on both sides and time
for me to urge moderation of the +hasa people&&& m* most urgent moral dut* at that moment was to prevent a totall*
disastrous clash between m* unarmed people and the Chinese arm*&/ B(alai +ama, ibid< p&$K6D&
,ut, despite the (alai +ama.s efforts, open fighting bro1e out in +hasa soon afterwards, with disastrous conse7uences
to the Tibetans& "eeing that all efforts to prevent open confrontation and bloodshed had ultimatel* failed, and that
cooperation with the Chinese authorities to minimise their oppression was no longer possible, the (alai +ama decided
to escape to India in order to appeal for international help to save his people& e left +hasa on the night of )arch $6&
On )arch #K, $%@% Chinese Premier 5hou 8nlai issued an Order of "tate Council /dissolving/ the Government of
Tibet& The (alai +ama and his ministers, while still en route to India, reacted promptl* b* declaring that the new
Chinese administration in +hasa would never be recogni=ed b* the people of Tibet& ;pon his arrival in India, the (alai
+ama re-established the Tibetan Government in e0ile and publicl* declared: /Wherever I am, accompanied b* m*
government, the Tibetan people recogni=e us as the Government of Tibet&/
Within months around KA,AAA Tibetans reached the borders of India, 'epal, ,hutan and "i11im after arduous escapes&
)an* more could not even ma1e it to the border&
The Chinese Government.s White Paper tries to portra* these events as the wor1 of a handful of Tibetan reactionaries
who, with the help of the CIA, created an armed /rebellion/ which was /resolutel*/ opposed b* the masses& The (alai
+ama was /carried awa* under duress/ to India, the White Paper states& The resistance, the* claim, amounted to no
more than 6,AAA /rebels,/ and was put down easil* in two da*s&
This view is hardl* credible and has been contradicted even b* the Chinese authorities themselves& Chinese arm*
intelligence reports admit that the P+A 1illed K6,AAA members of the Tibetan resistance in +hasa and surrounding
areas between )arch and October $%@% alone& B4i=ang 4ingshi he !enwu 2iao*u de 2iben 2iaocai, P+A )ilitar*
(istrict.s Political !eport, $%CAD& The CIA.s half-hearted assistance to the Tibetan resistance started in earnest onl*
after the uprising, and, though welcomed b* Tibetans, amounted to little&
All the evidence shows that the uprising was massive, popular and widespread& The brutal repression which followed
in all regions of Tibet onl* confirms this&
Tra#itional Society an# the $emocratic Frameor7
for Future Tibet
China has alwa*s -ustified its polic* in Tibet b* painting the dar1est picture of traditional Tibetan societ*& The militar*
invasion and occupation has been termed a /liberation/ b* China of Tibetan societ* from /medieval feudal serfdom/
and /slaver*/&
Toda*, this m*th is repeatedl* rehashed to -ustif* China.s own violations of human and political rights in Tibet, and to
counter all international pressure on ,ei-ing to review its repressive policies in Tibet&
Traditional Tibetan societ* was b* no means perfect and was in need of changes& The (alai +ama and other Tibetan
leaders have admitted as much& That is the reason wh* the (alai +ama initiated far-reaching reforms in Tibet as soon
as he assumed temporal authorit*& Traditional Tibetan societ*, however, was not nearl* as bad as China would have us
believe&
Whatever the case ma* be, for several reasons the Chinese -ustifications for /liberation/ are invalid& 3irst of all,
international law does not accept -ustifications of this t*pe& 'o countr* is allowed to invade, occup*, anne0 and
coloni=e another countr* -ust because its social structure does not please it& "econdl*, the P!C is responsible for
bringing more suffering in the name of liberation& Thirdl*, necessar* reforms were initiated and Tibetans are 7uite
capable of carr*ing them through&
In its $%CA report on Tibet, the International Commission of 2urists. +egal In7uir* Committee stated that: /Chinese
allegations that the Tibetans en-o*ed no human rights before the entr* of the Chinese were found to be based on
distorted and e0aggerated accounts of life in Tibet& Accusations against the Tibetan /rebels/ of rape, plunder and
torture were found to have been deliberatel* fabricated and in other cases unworth* of belief for this and other
reasons&/ BTibet and Chinese People.s !epublic, Geneva, $%CAD&
Tra#itional society
In terms of social mobilit* and wealth distribution, independent Tibet compared favourabl* with most Asian countries&
The (alai +ama, head of both the spiritual and secular administration, was found through a s*stem of reincarnation
that ensured that the rule of Tibet did not become hereditar*& )ost of the (alai +amas, including the Thirteenth and
the 3ourteenth, came from common, peasant families in remote parts of Tibet&
8ver* administrative post below the (alai +ama was held b* an e7ual number of mon1 and la* officials& Although la*
officials hereditaril* held posts Ehowever, the posts themselves were not hereditar*F, those of mon1s were open to all&
A large proportion of mon1 officials came from non-privileged bac1grounds&
Tibet.s monastic s*stem provided unrestrained opportunities for social mobilit*& Admission to monastic institutions in
Tibet was open to all and the large ma-orit* of mon1s, particularl* those who rose through its ran1s to the highest
positions, came from humble bac1grounds, often from far-flung villages in Gham and Amdo& This is because the
monasteries offered e7ual opportunities to all to rise to an* height through their own scholarship& A popular Tibetan
aphorism sa*s: /If the mother.s son has 1nowledge, the golden throne of Gaden Ethe highest position in the hierarch*
of the Gelugpa "chool of Tibetan ,uddhismF has no ownership&/
The peasants, whom the Chinese White Paper insists on calling /serfs/, had a legal identit*, often with documents
stating their rights, and also had access to courts of law& Peasants had the right to sue their masters and carr* their case
in appeal to higher authorities&
)s& (hondup Chodon comes from a famil* that was among the poorest social strata in independent Tibet&
!eminiscing about her life before the Chinese occupation in her boo1, +ife in the !ed 3lag People.s Commune, she
said: /I belong to what the Chinese now term as serfs of Tibet&&& There were si0 of us in the famil*&&& )* home was a
double-store*ed building with a walled compound& On the ground floor we used to 1eep our animals& We had four
*a1s, #6 sheep and goats, two don1e*s and a land-holding of four and a half 1hel EA&96 hectaresF &&& We never had an*
difficult* earning our livelihood& There was not a single beggar in our area&/
Throughout Tibetan histor*, the maltreatment and suppression of peasants b* estate-holders was forbidden b* law as
well as b* social convention& 3rom the time of the seventh centur* Tibetan 8mperor "ongtsen Gampo, man* Tibetan
rulers issued codes based on the ,uddhist principle of /Ten Hirtues of the (harma/& The essence of this was that the
rulers should act as parents to their sub-ects&
In $%A% the Thirteenth (alai +ama issued a regulation conferring on all peasants the right to appeal directl* to him in
case of mistreatment b* estate holders& As a matter of fact, the Tibetan societ* frowns upon un1ind acts& The Tibetan
,uddhist belief in compassion acts as a chec1 on uncharitable deeds - not onl* against fellow human beings, but even
against animals&
Capital punishment was banned in Tibet, and ph*sical mutilation was a punishment that could be inflicted b* the
Central Government in +hasa alone& In $K%K, Tibet enacted a law abolishing such forms of punishment, e0cept in
cases of high treason or conspirac* against the state&
All land belonged to the state which granted estates to monasteries and to individuals who had rendered service to the
state& The state, in turn, received revenues and service from estate holders& +a* estate holders either paid land
revenues or provided one male member in each generation to wor1 as a government official& )onasteries performed
religious functions for the state and, most vitall*, served as schools, universities and centres for Tibetan art, craft,
medicine and culture& The role of monasteries as highl* disciplined centres of Tibetan education was the 1e* to the
traditional Tibetan wa* of life& )onasteries bore all e0penses for their students and provided them with free board and
lodging& "ome monasteries had large estates< some had endowments which the* invested& ,ut other monasteries had
neither of these& The* received personal gifts and donations from devotees and patrons& The revenue from these
sources were often insufficient to provide the basic needs of large mon1 populations& To supplement their income,
some monasteries engaged in trade and acted as mone* lenders&
The largest proportion of land in old Tibet was held b* peasants who paid their revenue directl* to the state, and this
became the main source of the government food stoc1s which were distributed to monasteries, the arm*, and officials
without estates& "ome paid in labour, and some were re7uired to provide transport services to government officials,
and in some cases to monasteries& +and held b* the peasant was heritable& e could lease it to others or mortgage it&
e could be dispossessed of his land onl* if he failed to pa* the dues of produce or labour, which were not e0cessive&
In practice, he had the rights of a free-holder, and dues to the state were a form of land ta0 paid in 1ind rather than
rent&
A small section of the Tibetan population, mostl* in ;-Tsang province, were tenants& The* held their lands on the
estates of aristocrats and monasteries, and paid rent to the estate-holders either in 1ind or the* sent one member of the
famil* to wor1 as a domestic servant or an agricultural labourer& "ome of these tenant farmers rose to the powerful
position of estate secretar*& E3or this, the* were labelled b* the Chinese as /agents of feudal lords/F& Other members of
these families had complete freedom& The* were entitled to engage in an* business, follow an* profession, -oin an*
monaster* or wor1 on their own lands& Although the* were 1nown as tenants, the* could not be evicted from their
lands at the whim of estate holders& "ome tenant-farmers were 7uite wealth*&
The present 3ourteenth (alai +ama attempted to introduce far-reaching administrative and land reforms& e proposed
that all large estate holdings of monasteries and individuals be ac7uired b* the state for distribution amongst peasants&
e created a special reform committee which reduced land ta0es on peasants& The reform committee was authori=ed
to hear and redress complaints b* individuals against the district or local authorities& e approved the proposal for
debt e0emption submitted b* this committee& Peasant debtors were categori=ed into three groups< those who could not
pa* either their accumulated interest or repa* capital were freed from debt altogether< those who could not pa* the
interest out of their annual earnings, but had saved up enough to repa* the capital, were ordered to ma1e repa*ments
in instalments and those who had become wealth* over the course of *ears were made to pa* both capital and interest
in instalments& The (alai +ama ordered that in future no transport service should be demanded without the special
sanction of the government& e also increased the rates to be paid for transport services&
3amine and starvation were unheard of in independent Tibet& There were, of course, *ears of poor harvest and crop
failures& ,ut people could easil* borrow from the buffer stoc1 held b* the district administrations, monasteries,
aristocrats and rich farmers&
3rom $%@A onwards, the Chinese militar* and civilian personnel were fed on the state buffer stoc1s and, the* forced
the Tibetan populace to sell their personal holding of grains to them at nominal prices& /+iberation/ was, in realit*, the
right to e7ual povert* for all&
Palden G*atso, a mon1 who escaped from Tibet in $%%# after serving thirt* three *ears in Chinese -ails and labour
camps, puts it succinctl*: /The Chinese definitel* succeeded in ma1ing the rich poor& ,ut the* did not help the poor&
The poor became poorer and we were reduced to a nation of tsampa beggars&/
In his boo1, Tibet and its istor*, ugh !ichardson wrote: /8ven communist writers have had to admit there was no
great difference between rich and poor in Epre-$%?%F Tibet&/ In fact, when u Iaobang, former Communist Part*
"ecretar*, saw the e0tent of the povert* in Central Tibet in $%KA, he stated that the living standard should be brought
up at least to the pre-$%@% level&
$emocratic reforms
In $%@% the (alai +ama re-established his government in India, soon after his flight from Tibet, and a series of
democratic changes were initiated& A popularl* elected bod* of people.s representatives, the parliament-in-e0ile, was
constituted& In $%C$ the (alai +ama prepared a draft constitution for future Tibet and sought the opinion of Tibetans
on this matter&
In $%C9 a detailed draft constitution for future Tibet was promulgated& (espite strong opposition, the (alai +ama
insisted on the inclusion of a clause which states that the e0ecutive powers of the (alai +ama shall be e0ercised b* the
Council of !egenc* when the 'ational Assembl*, b* a ma-orit* of two-thirds of its total members in consultation with
the "upreme Court, decides that this is in the highest interests of the "tate&
On )arch $A, $%C% the (alai +ama announced that on the da* Tibet regained its independence the Tibetan people
must decide for themselves what s*stem of government the* want&
In $%%A further changes were introduced b* increasing the strength of the Assembl* of Tibetan People.s (eputies
EATP(F from twelve to fort* si0& It was given more constitutional powers such as the election of 1alons EministersF,
who were previousl* appointed directl* b* the (alai +ama& The "upreme 2ustice Commission was set up to loo1 into
people.s grievances against the Administration&
In 3ebruar* $%%#, the (alai +ama announced the Guidelines for 3uture Tibet.s Polit* and the ,asic 3eatures of its
Constitution, wherein he stated that he would not /pla* an* role in the future government of Tibet, let alone see1 the
(alai +ama.s traditional political position/& The future government of Tibet, the (alai +ama said, would be elected b*
the people on the basis of adult franchise&
The (alai +ama also announced that during the transition period, between withdrawal of the repressive Chinese
troops from Tibet and the final promulgation of the Constitution, the administrative responsibilities of "tate will be
entrusted to the Tibetan functionaries presentl* wor1ing in Tibet& (uring this transitional period, an interim president
will be appointed to whom the (alai +ama will delegate all his political powers& The Tibetan Government-in-80ile
will ipso facto cease to e0ist&
The guidelines for Tibet.s future polit* also stated: /3uture Tibet shall be a peace-loving nation, adhering to the
principle of ahimsa Enon-violenceF& It shall have a democratic s*stem of government committed to preserving a clean,
health* and beautiful environment& Tibet shall be a completel* demilitari=ed nation&/
The Tibetan struggle is, thus, not for the resurrection of the traditional s*stem as the Chinese claim& The relentless
Chinese attempts at personali=ing the Tibetan issue to ma1e it hinge upon the (alai +ama.s own status is subterfuge to
mas1 the main issue: The people.s own enduring national struggle&
8uman Rights
Over $&# million Tibetans have died as a direct result of the Chinese invasion and occupation of Tibet& Toda*, it is hard
to come across a Tibetan famil* that has not had at least one member imprisoned or 1illed b* the Chinese regime&
According to 2igme 'gapo, son of 'gapo 'gawang 2igme, former Hice-Chairman of 'ational People.s Congress,
/after the suppressions of $%@% and $%C%, almost ever* famil* in Tibet has been affected in some wa*/& These facts
spea1 volumes about the /democratic reform/ China claims to have brought to the /dar1, feudal e0ploitative societ*/
of Tibet&
Independent Tibet was certainl* not an embodiment of a perfect human societ*& ,ut it was b* no means nearl* as
t*rannical as it is toda* under Chinese rule& Its two biggest prisons, located in +hasa, had, at an* one time, no more
than thirt* inmates each& ,ut following the Chinese invasion, the whole of Tibet has been turned into a vast networ1
of prisons and labour camps& There are reports that China has even resorted to the massacre of prisoners to 1eep the
prison population within manageable limits&
owever, China continues to claim that since its /liberation/, the people of Tibet have en-o*ed wide measures of
libert* and freedom& +et us e0amine the facts&
$%?%-$%6%: Gilling and destruction
According to one Chinese source, the P+A /e0terminated/ more than @,6AA Tibetan /soldiers/, and imprisoned about
#,AAA in various areas of 8astern Tibet between October 6 and #@, $%@A& BA "urve* of Tibet Autonomous !egion,
Tibet People.s Publishing ouse, $%K?D&
Accounts of massacres, tortures and 1illings, bombardment of monasteries, and the e0termination of whole nomad
camps are well documented& >uite a number of these reports have also been documented b* the International
Commission of 2urists. $%CA report on Tibet&
According to a secret Chinese militar* document, the P+A crushed %%C rebellions in Ganlho, Amdo, over the period
$%@#-@K, 1illing over $A,AAA Tibetans& BWor1 !eport of the $$th P+A (ivision, $%@#-$%@KD& "imilarl*, another Amdo
area, Golo1, had its population reduced from about $9A,AAA in $%@C to about CA,AAA in $%C9&BChina "pring, 2une
$%KCD&
"pea1ing about the same area, the Panchen +ama said: /If there was a film made on all the atrocities perpetrated in
>inghai Province, it would shoc1 the viewers& In Golo1 area, man* people were 1illed and their dead bodies rolled
down the hill into a big ditch& The soldiers told the famil* members and relatives of the dead people that the* should
celebrate since the rebels had been wiped out& The* were even forced to dance on the dead bodies& "oon after, the*
were also massacred with machine guns&/ B"peech b* the Panchen +ama at a meeting of the "ub-Committee of the
'ational People.s Congress in ,ei-ing on the situation in Tibet, )arch #K, $%K6D
The Panchen +ama specificall* pointed out in his speech: /In Amdo and Gham, people were sub-ected to unspea1able
atrocities& The* were shot in groups of ten or twent*& &&&"uch actions have left deep wounds in the minds of the
people&/
In a crac1down operation launched in the wa1e of the uprising of )arch $A, $%@% in +hasa, $A,AAA to $@,AAA Tibetans
were 1illed within three da*s& According to a secret $%CA P+A Tibet )ilitar* (istrict Political (epartment report,
between )arch $%@% and October $%CA K6,AAA Tibetans were 1illed in Central Tibet alone& B4i=ang 4ingshi he
!enwu 2iao*u de 2iben 2iaocai, $%CAD&
Custodial deaths
A compilation of figures based on testimonies of survivors of prisons and labour camps show that throughout Tibet
about sevent* percent of the inmates died& 3or e0ample, in the wilderness of the northern Tibetan plains at 2hang
Tsala1ha more than $A,AAA prisoners were 1ept in five prisons and forced to mine and transport bora0& According to
some of the survivors of these camps, ever* da* ten to thirt* inmates died from hunger, beating and overwor1< in a
*ear more than K,AAA had died&
+i1ewise, in the construction of +hasa 'gachen *dro-electric Power "tation, now falsel* claimed to have been built
b* the P+A, ever*da* at least three or four dead prisoners were seen being thrown into the nearb* river or burnt&
To cite an e0ample from 8astern Tibet, from $%CA to $%C#, $#,A$% inmates died at a lead mine in (artsedo district,
according to a former inmate, )rs Adhi TapL from '*arong, Gham&
According to information compiled b* the Tibetan Government-in-80ile, over $&# million Tibetans died between $%?%
and $%6% in the following manner:
&9$' 9F $'4T8 "-TS4N: ;84& 4&$9 T9T4%
Tortured in prison %9,@CA C?,K66 $?,6K? $69,##$
80ecuted #K,#C6 9#,#CC %C,##@ $@C,6@K
Gilled in fighting $?9,#@9 #?A,?$A ?%,A?# ?9#,6A@
"tarved to death $9$,A6# K%,%$C $#$,%K# 9?#,%6A
"uicide 9,96@ 9,%@# $,C6@ %,AA#
/"truggled/ to death #6,%@$ ?K,K?A $@,%?A %#,69$
Total:- ?#6,?6K ?KA,#C$ #%%,C?K $,#A6,9K6
8uman rights in Tibet to#ay
The death of )ao 5edong in "eptember $%6C resulted in a change in Chinese policies& The signal tune of that change
was economic liberali=ation and openness, and even some degree of lenienc* on political prisoners&
,ut liberali=ation and openness, as it turned out, did not signal a change of attitude towards political freedom in Tibet&
In )a* $%K#, $$@ Tibetan political activists were arrested and branded as /delin7uents/ and /blac1 mar1eteers/& )ore
arrests and public e0ecutions followed& ,* the end of 'ovember $%K9, 6@A political activists had been -ailed in +hasa
alone&
On "eptember #6, $%K6 more than #AA Tibetans staged a demonstration in +hasa& In the clampdown on successive
demonstrations - including the ones on October $, $%K6 and )arch @, $%KK - Chinese police opened fire, 1illing and
criticall* wounding man* on the spot and imprisoning at least #,@AA unarmed demonstrators&
In 2ul* $%KK, China.s securit* chief, >iao "hi, while on a tour of the /TA!/, announced /merciless repression/ of all
forms of protest against Chinese rule in Tibet& B;PI, 2ul* #A, $%KKD&
The polic* was implemented at once& (uring the crac1down on the (ecember $A, $%KK demonstration at the 2o1hang,
according to a Western -ournalist e*ewitness, one officer was heard ordering his men to /1ill the Tibetans/& The toll on
that da* was at least fifteen 1illed, over one hundred and fift* seriousl* wounded, and man* others arrested&
owever, for three da*s from )arch @, $%K% +hasa was again in turmoil, with demonstrators waving the Tibetan flag
and shouting for independence& (uring the police crac1down, automatic weapons were fired even into some homes&
8stimates of deaths varied from eight* to four hundred& The official Chinese figure was onl* eleven& According to
Tang (a0ian, a Chinese -ournalist who was in +hasa at the time, some four hundred Tibetans were massacred, several
thousand were in-ured and three thousand were imprisoned& B8vents in +hasa, )arch #nd-$Ath $%K%, Tang (a0ian,
+ondon, TI', 2une $@, $%%AD& At midnight on )arch 6, $%K%, )artial +aw was formall* imposed in +hasa&
About a *ear later, on )a* $, $%%A, China announced the lifting of )artial +aw& owever, the first Australian uman
!ights (elegation to China, permitted to visit Tibet in 2ul* $%%$, observed: /Though )artial +aw had indeed been
lifted on )a* $, $%%A, it continues to e0ist in all but name/& Amnest* International, in its $%%$ report, also confirmed
this, adding, /the police and securit* forces retained e0tensive powers of arbitrar* arrest and detention without trial/&
In the run up to China.s celebration of the fortieth anniversar* of its anne0ation of Tibet, $?C /criminals/ were arrested
on April $A, $%%$, and this was followed b* more arrests announced at public sentencing rallies& On the da* of the
celebration the whole of +hasa was put under curfew&
In a sudden clampdown, starting in 3ebruar* $%%#, groups of ten Chinese personnel raided Tibetan houses in +hasa
and arrested an*one found in possession of an*thing deemed subversive< these included photographs, tapes and boo1s
containing speeches or teachings of the (alai +ama& Over two hundred were arrested& (espite all measures of
repression, demonstrations continued throughout Tibet after $%K6& Available reports confirm that between "eptember
#6, $%K6 and end of $%%9, there had been some two hundred demonstrations of various si=es throughout Tibet& And
despite the memories of the blood* Chinese crac1down in )arch $%K%, large numbers of Tibetans, once again, too1 to
the streets on #? )a* $%%9& 8*e-witnesses, including tourists, estimate there were over $A,AAA demonstrators& The
demonstration, which continued throughout the da*, and the following da*, was once again 7uelled with brutal force
as the demonstrators were on their wa* home at dus1&
Over the last few *ears an increasing number of demonstrations have been reported from Tibet.s countr*side&
(emonstrations and wall-poster campaigns are also reported to be escalating in Gham and Amdo& )an* Tibetans from
Gar=e, !ag*a, Girti, Tsawa Pomda, Chamdo, !e1ong EChinese: TongrenF, Chabcha EChinese: GungheF, 5oege, etc,
continue to be held in prisons and labour camps for involvement in demonstrations and wall poster campaigns&
Hiolation of human rights of concern to Amnest* International in Tibet include the imprisonment of prisoners of
conscience and of other political prisoners after unfair trials, torture and ill-treatment of detainees, the use of the death
penalt* and e0tra -udicial e0ecutions& Constitutional and legal provisions in Tibet restrict the e0ercise of basic
freedoms and lac1 human rights safeguards consistent with international standards& BPeople.s !epublic of China:
Amnest* International.s Concerns in Tibet, Amnest* International, +ondon, 2anuar* $%%#, A"A $6JA#J%#, summar*
pageD
/All such manifestations Eie, demonstrations and political dissentF of dissatisfaction with Chinese rule - whether
peacefull* conducted or otherwise - are viewed b* the authorities as constituting Lillegal separatist activit*., and those
who have led or participated in them have been punished with escalating force and severit*& L)erciless repression.
remains, in Tibet, the order of the da*&/ B)erciless !epression: uman !ights in Tibet, Asia Watch, Washington, (C,
)a* $%%A, p&9D
And, in its $%%9 !eport, Amnest* International continued to state: /Arrests of Tibetan political activists continued&
Over #AA political prisoners, including at least a hundred prisoners of conscience, remained held in Tibet& The*
included ,uddhist mon1s and nuns detained for peacefull* advocating Tibetan independence, and la* Tibetans
allegedl* found in possession of Tibetan nationalist material& "ome were serving prison terms imposed after unfair
trials, others Lterms of re-education through labour. imposed without formal charge or trial&
uman rights violation in Tibet is all-pervasive& Available evidence suggests that China violates with impunit* ever*
norm of civili=ed conduct as laid down b* international law, man* of which it has underta1en to observe b*
affirmative acts of ratification, such as the ;' Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or (egrading
Treatment or Punishment EConvention Against TortureF, and customar* laws of nations such as the ;' ;niversal
(eclaration of uman !ights E;(!F&
4rbitrary arrests< incommunica#o #etentions< #isappearances an# summary e5ecutions=
8vidences of arbitrar* arrests and incommunicado detentions often resulting in disappearances, and summar*
e0ecutions, are cited in the $%%A report of Amnest* International& It states that /over $,AAA people, incluLding
prisoners of conscience, were arrested after )artial +aw was imposed in +hasa in )arch/ and that /some of them
were summaril* e0ecuted/& It also pointed out that /evidences of persistent human rights violations in Tibet continued
to come to light in $%K%, including reports of numerous arbitrar* arrests, long-term detention without charge or trial,
and torture/&
;nder Chinese rule in Tibet, there is no 7uestion of informing prisoners of the grounds for their arrest and their right
to legal remedies& Arrest warrants are rarel* issued or produced&
Grounds for arrest and imprisonment seem to be found in an* 1ind of activit*: Tibetans have been arrested for
spea1ing with foreigners, or singing patriotic songs, or putting up wall posters, or possessing copies of an
autobiograph* of the (alai +ama or some video or audio cassette, or for preparing a list of casualties during Chinese
crac1downs on demonstrations, or for /plotting/ and advising friends to wear the traditional Tibetan costume on
Chinese national da*& In man* cases, however, Tibetans have been arrested for no apparent reasons&
Incommunicado detention is almost routine& Often it is left to the devices of the relatives of the arrested person to
locate him or her& B(ef*ing the (ragon: China and uman !ights in Tibet, +AWA"IA and TI', +ondon, )arch $%%$,
p&99D&
A person ta1en into custod* is declared arrested onl* after a period ranging from several da*s to months, or even
*ears& (uring the period of the initial detention there is no 7uestion of informing the famil* since he or she is /legall*/
not arrested&
The *ear $%%9 saw large-scale arrests from all the three provinces of Tibet: ;-Tsang, Gham and Amdo& An increasing
number of arrests were reported from the countr*side& 3igures compiled to date show that at least two hundred and
fort* Tibetans were arrested during the *ear, and the figure spirals as more reports are received& In the Tso-ngon
EChinese: >inghaiF region of Amdo alone, various sources have stated that some eight* Tibetans were arrested over
the period 2ul*-"eptember $%%9&
In )a* $%%9, the Chinese authorities admitted the arrest of onl* two, falsel* claiming that the third was released&
)ost arrests were carried out late in the evening or during the night& )an* were arrested while ta1ing part in small,
peaceful protest marches& "ome were arrested soon after their return from visits to India&
Torture techni>ues: creative an# cruel
In Tibet torture is the onl* 1nown method of interrogating prisoners& China.s signing of the Convention Against
Torture on (ecember $#, $%KC, and its presumed enforcement at the end of $%KK, did not alter the realit*&
)ethods and instruments of torture and ill-treatment have been described b* a number of former prisoners who had
been sub-ected to them& These include indiscriminate beating with an*thing available at hand, including electric cattle-
prods, 1ic1ing, punching, battering with rifle-butts, stic1s, and even iron bars& In prison, cruel and degrading methods
of torture are inflicted to e0tract confessions& These include mutilation, setting guard dogs on prisoners, use of electric
cattle prods Eespeciall* on women prisoners, in e0tremel* perverted and degrading wa*sF, cigarette burns, electric
shoc1s, etc&
One recent refugee from 8astern Tibet, who was a member of the Chinese Public "ecurit* ,ureau, described thirt*
three methods for torture of prisoners& 'ew methods of torture are being constantl* devised and this has been
ac1nowledged in at least one internal part* document in Tibet& BTo Control Others, 3irst Control Iourself, .o Phan in
TA! Internal Part* "tud* (ocument, in Tibetan, issue 'o& #, "eptember $%K%, p&#$ ff&D&
In a report of torture in )a* $%%9, a pregnant detainee was forced to stand for more than twelve hours, and denied
sleep, resulting in a miscarriage&
Prisoners are presume# guilty
In the Chinese legal s*stem the most basic safeguard - the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilt* be*ond
reasonable doubt - does not e0ist&
;nder Chinese law in Tibet, it is an e0ception rather than the rule that a person ta1en into custod* is told the grounds
for arrest& An arrest, once made, is never announced until a couple of da*s or so before a trial&
"entences imposed on political prisoners are often out of all proportions to the degree of the alleged crime& Prisoners
are often detained for an e0tended period without charges and are seldom brought before a court of law&
Administrative detention is imposed b* police or local authorities without supervision b* an independent -udiciar*&
The police have wide powers to impose periods of administrative detention - var*ing from a few da*s to several *ears
- without -udicial review& Though China.s Administrative Procedure Act provides for the right to appeal, it is made
practicall* impossible to invo1e&
There is no right to have ade7uate time and facilities to prepare a defence, or the right to be tried in an open court&
(efence argument, when permitted, is restricted to appeal for mitigation of punishment, not for pleading innocence&
The role of -udges is restricted to passing sentences determined b* the political authorities& It is not surprising,
therefore, that Tibetans refer to the -udges as /sentencing officers/&
No free#om of movement
In flagrant violation of Article $9 of the ;niversal (eclaration of uman !ights, China has imposed a series of
regulations restricting the free movement of Tibetans within their own countr*& People have to be registered at a
particular place and are onl* entitled to reside and bu* food rations there& Going from one place to another for an*
purpose, even for a short duration, re7uires official permission&
There had been man* instances when Tibetans have been e0pelled from +hasa to their native villages& It occurred
when China was preparing to celebrate the fortieth anniversar* of its anne0ation of Tibet on )a* #9, $%%$& 3ollowing
the crac1down on the demonstrations of )arch @-6, $%K%, ?A,AAA Tibetans were e0pelled from +hasa to their native
villages& In August $%%#, the Chinese authorities e0pelled around C,AAA Tibetans, the homeless as well as pilgrims,
from the ground behind eastern +hasa.s hospital& The ground is now occupied b* Chinese office buildings and shops&
1nternational con#emnation of violation of human rights
China.s claims that its P+A entered Tibet to /liberate/ the countr* stand star1l* e0posed b* the $%CA report of the
International Commission of 2urists on Tibet& The report states that China committed s*stematic violations of human
rights in Tibet, including acts of genocide B"ee $%CA IC2 !eportD& Three ;' resolutions in $%@% B;'GA !es&$9@9
E4IHFD, $%C$ B;'GA !es&$6#9 E4HIFD and $%C@ B;'GA !es&#A6% E44FD calling on China to respect the human
rights of Tibetans, including their right to self-determination, reinforced the findings of the Commission&
Government and parliamentar* support
A number of countries have passed parliamentar* resolutions and motions on Tibet calling on the Chinese
Government to respect the human rights of the Tibetan people& Among them are the 8uropean Parliament EOctober $?,
$%K6, )arch $@, $%K% and April #@-#C, $%%AF, West German* EOctober $@, $%K6F, Ital* EApril $#, $%K%F, Australia
E(ecember C, $%%A, 2une C, $%%$F, ,elgium E)arch #%, $%%?F and Canada E2une $?, $%%@F&
The ;nited "tates. "enate and the ouse of !epresentatives together have passed more than ten resolutions calling on
China to respect the political and human rights of the Tibetan people& On October #K, $%%$ the ;" President, George
,ush, signed into law a Congressional resolution declaring Tibet /an occupied countr* under established principles of
international law, whose true representatives are the (alai +ama and the Tibetan Government as recogni=ed b* the
Tibetan people/& "imilarl*, man* governments e0pressed their concern directl* to the Chinese Government&
The ,ritish Parliament.s 3oreign Affairs "elect Committee held a hearing on Tibet on (ecember K, $%%9& On 2une $%,
$%%@, the ,undestag, the German Parliament, held a comprehensive hearing on the current situation in Tibet to which
is oliness the (alai +ama was a special guest& These hearings have materiali=ed in spite of strong opposition from
China and China lobb* groups&
Concern at the situation in occupied-Tibet was also raised b* parliamentarian support groups of various countries,
such as India EApril #6, $%K%F, Austria E)a* #?, $%K%F, Australia E)arch %, $%K%F, "wit=erland E)arch $C, $%K%F,
'orwa* E(ecember @, $%%$, +ithuania E3ebruar* #6, $%%#F, Poland E)a* 9A, $%%?F, +atvia E"eptember K, $%%?F and
8stonia E"eptember #6, $%%?F&
Tibet at the "nite# Nations in recent years
In $%K@ the human rights situation in Tibet was, once again, discussed at the ;nited 'ations& Harious non-
governmental organi=ations called on the ;' Commission on uman !ights E;'C!F to address the human rights
situation in Tibet& "ince then Tibet figured prominentl* at various human rights fora of the ;'O and at almost all the
succeeding sessions of the ;'C! and its sub-commissions&
At the fift* first session of the ;'C!, held in Geneva from 2anuar* 9A to )arch $A, $%%@, 'GOs and governments,
including those from 3rance Ewhich headed the 8; countries. delegatesF, the ;", Ireland, the ;G, 'orwa* and
Australia spo1e on the critical nature of the human rights situation in Tibet in such areas as the denial of the right of
the Tibetan people to self-determination, religious freedom and human rights of Tibetans arbitraril* arrested and held
in incommunicado detention& 'GOs. statements to this effect were published b* the ;nited 'ations& A number of
"pecial !apporteurs and Wor1ing Groups, particularl* those on religious freedom and arbitrar* detention, made
damning indictments of the Chinese polic* and practices in Tibet&
Harious other committees and organs of the ;'O and sub-committees held detailed hearings on the human rights
situation in Tibet and evasive Chinese responses were consistentl* critici=ed& These included the fourth session of the
Committee Against Torture in April $%%A and the Committee on the 8limination of All 3orms of !acial
(iscrimination&
The issue of the situation of Tibetan children in Tibet was raised b* a number of Tibetan and non-Tibetan 'GOs and
e0perts, who presented alternative reports at the pre-sessional Wor1ing Group of the ;' Committee on the !ights of
the Child& The issue of the disappearance of the si0-*ear-old reincarnation of the Panchen +ama, recogni=ed b* is
oliness the (alai +ama, figured prominentl* and will undoubtedl* figure in the Committee.s concluding
observations&
On August #9, $%%$ the ;' "ub-Commission on Prevention of (iscrimination and Protection of )inorities passed
the /"ituation in Tibet/ !esolution E$%%$J$AF, e0pressing concern at /continuing reports of violations of fundamental
human rights and freedoms which threaten the distinct cultural, religious and national identit* of the Tibetan people/&
Ironicall*, this seems to confirm )ao.s dictum that a -ust cause alwa*s receives man* supporters&
The m*th of Tibetan self-rule
In its White Paper, China claims that under the /(emocratic !eform in $%@%/ it /introduced the new political s*stem
of peoLple.s democrac*/ and that the Tibetan people /have become masters of the countr*/& 'othing could be further
from the truth& Though the /TA!/ is claimed to be /autonomous/, Tibetans have little or no sa* in running their own
affairs& 3inal decision-ma1ing power has alwa*s been held b* the Chinese Communist Part* through its /TA!
!egional/ Part*.s 3irst "ecretar* who has alwa*s been a Chinese& In $%@% it was 5hang Guhua< he was followed
successivel* b* Tseng Iun Ia, !en !ong, Iin 3atang, Wu 2inhua, u 2intao and Chen Gui*uan&
8ven the highest Tibetan officials, li1e 'gapo 'gawang 2igme, cannot ma1e an* decisions without the consent of
their Chinese /subordinates/& The* are not even allowed to sta* in Tibet: visits are made onl* to fulfil Chinese
Government needs and purposes& "uch restrictions were especiall* applied to the movement of the late Panchen +ama&
At all /democratic meetings/, pre-determined proposals of the concerned Chinese Communist Part* bod* are tabled
onl* to be praised and approved b* a show of hands& )a1ing criticisms, amendments or alternaLtive suggestions are
impermissible profanities& The pre-determined outcome of such a meeting is then declared to be the /democratic
decision of the people/&
Whatever position a Tibetan occupies in the Chinese hierarch* in Tibet, he alwa*s has a /-unior/ Chinese official
/under/ him who e0ercises the real power& In most important offices, such as the so-called /TA!/ 8conomic Planning
(epartment and the Personnel (epartment, Chinese officials and clerical staff far outnumber Tibetans&
As regards the so-called elected deputies of the people, all candidates are pre-determined b* the concerned Chinese
leaders& After voting, the winners are again chosen b* the same authorities who had selected the candidates&
And the population of about a half of Tibet, now merged into neighbouring Chinese provinces, have been completel*
deprived of their political identit* and rendered an insignificant minorit* of electorates in their own land&
Socio-economic !on#itions an# !olonialism
/The price Tibet paid for this development was higher than the gains&/ This was the late Panchen +ama.s last verdict
on three decades of Chinese rule in Tibet&
Iear after *ear, the Chinese Government claims great economic advancement in Tibet< bumper crops, industrial
growth, improvement of infrastructure and so forth& These claims were made even when Tibet was suffering its onl*
famines in the nation.s recorded histor* E$%C$-$%C? and $%CK-$%69F& +ater, the Chinese Government admitted the
disastrous effects of certain economic and social policies forced upon the Tibetan people&
Given China.s record in Tibet, two things must be borne in mind when assessing social and economic developments in
Tibet: the first is that the Chinese Government claims cannot be ta1en at face value& 8ven official statistics appear to
be drawn up to prove a particular political point rather than to present an ob-ective picture of the situation& "econdl*,
evidence shows that it is not the Tibetans who benefit from an* economic development of Tibet& The primar*
beneficiaries of China.s new open economic polic* are the Chinese settlers in Tibet, their Government and militar*,
and their business enterprises&
One Chinese leader who had the honest* and courage to admit the failure of Chinese policies supposedl* designed to
bring improvement to the lives of Tibetans was u Iaobang, former Communist Part* "ecretar*& (uring his visit to
Tibet in 2une $%KA, u publicl* ac1nowledged that Tibetans had not benefited from the much-vaunted Chinese
/assistance/& e visited Tibetan families in several communes, including one called the /Anti-Imperialist Commune/&
(isgusted b* the ab-ect povert* of Tibetans, he called a meeting of top functionaries of the /TA!/ and demanded to
1now if all the financial assistance earmar1ed for Tibet had been /thrown into the Iarlung river/& e complained that,
contrar* to Chinese propaganda claims, the living standards of Tibetans had gone down since $%@%, and that the large
Chinese presence in Tibet - particularl* of government cadres - was an obstacle to development& e immediatel*
announced that steps should be ta1en to raise the standard of living to pre-$%@% levels in three *ears, and withdraw
eight*-five percent of Chinese cadres& The /TA!/ Part* "ecretar*, Iin 3atang, summed up u.s impression of Tibet as
a region steeped in /povert* and bac1wardness/ B!ed 3lag, 'o& K, $%K9D&
The hiatus between China.s claims and true conditions in Tibet is easier to understand if one reali=es that Chinese rule
in Tibet is essentiall* colonialist in nature& In colonial times it was 7uite common for the colonial power to ma1e loft*
claims about the economic and social progress it brought to its /bac1ward/ colonies& In man* cases it was true that
economic development did occur, but the native population contributed more to the reali=ation of profits for the
colonial power and its business entrepreneurs than it ever got in return&
One of the defining characteristics of colonialism is the e0ploitation of the colon* for the primar* benefit of the
colonial power& That, toda*, is ver* much the case in Tibet&
Socio-economic reform from 19*9 onar#s
"oon after the invasion of Tibet, China imposed far-reaching collectivi=ation programmes& 'omads, li1e farmers, had
all their herds confiscated and were themselves divided into brigades and communes& The nomads tended their herds
with no right to the product of their labour< the same case applied to farmers& The* survived each *ear on an average
rationed diet of five or si0 pounds of butter, ten pounds of meat and four or five 1hel Ea 1hel is between twent*-five
and thirt* poundsF of tsampa&
In the periods $%C$-$%C? and $%CK-$%69 famine became widespread in Tibet.s pastoral areas& Thousands upon
thousands of Tibetans had to survive on rodents, dogs, worms and whatever the* could forage for survival& In $%6%
the new Chinese leadership set in motion a polic* of liberali=ation& This brought in its wa1e a programme of
decollectivi=ation which has improved the conditions in Tibet to some e0tent&
owever, things are far from satisfactor* even toda*& With an estimated per capita income of MKA in $%%A, an adult
literac* rate of #$&6 percent and an average life e0pectanc* of fort* *ears, /Tibet Autonomous !egion/ scores -ust
A&AK6 on the ;'(P.s uman (evelopment Inde0 for $%%$& This would theoreticall* place it between Chad and
(-ibouti at position $@9 out of the world.s $CA nations&
The Chinese authorities are aware of these facts& "pea1ing in ,ei-ing at the third meeting of the "eventh "ession of
the Chinese 'ational People.s Congress in )arch $%%A, the Chairman of the /TA! People.s Government/, (or-e
Tsering, said that Tibet EAutonomous !egionF was still a ver* poor region with a per capita income of onl* about #AA
*uan& An increase in the number of beggars is a star1 reminder of economic problems faced b* Tibetans there& On the
sacred fifteenth da* of sa1adawa Ein fourth month of the Tibetan calendarF in $%%#, when the father of )s& (ro1*i
from "o1 (=ong gave alms of five fen E$AA fen N one *uanF to each beggar in +hasa town, he handed out @AA *uan
without covering half the number of beggars&
In its White Paper, the Chinese Government again claims that its rule has brought great prosperit* and vast social,
political and cultural benefits to the Tibetan people& It complains that its /civili=ing/ mission in Tibet is costing the
Government and people of China large amounts in terms of subsidies to an under-developed region& According to
official Chinese statistics, the level of annual subsidies to the /TA!/ in the late $%KAs was around one billion *uan or
;"M#6A million&
What the Chinese Government would not admit is that it has earned far more from Tibet than it has given& In
monetar* terms, the volume of Tibetan timber ta1en to China far e0ceeds the amount of financial assistance it claims
to have given& And this does not even ta1e into account the vast mineral resources such as uranium, gold, silver, iron,
copper, bora0, lithium, chromite, etc, as well as priceless art treasures, carted awa* to China&
In an* case, the bul1 of China.s financial subsid* goes towards the maintenance of Chinese personnel in Tibet& It also
goes to pa* incentives to Chinese settlers& The Tibetans benefit ver* little from it&
This becomes clear when one studies the deep urban-rural divide in subsidies& (uring the late $%6As and earl* $%KAs
an average subsid* of M$#K was spent on ever* town-dweller, and onl* M?&@A on each rural inhabitant& The urban areas
of the /TA!/ are dominated b* Chinese settlers and personnel, who form overwhelming ma-orities in ma-or towns
li1e +hasa, '*ingtri, G*angtse, 'agchu, 'gari, "higatse, Tsethang, Chamdo, etc& The Tibetan population, on the other
hand, is concentrated mainl* in rural areas& Therefore, in the ultimate anal*sis, the vast bul1 of China.s subsidies is
meant to support the ma-orit* urban-living Chinese population and their associated infrastructures&
8ven the items subsidi=ed are those that are consumed b* the Chinese rather than Tibetans& The staple diet of Tibetans
is barle* Efor tsampaF, though urban or richer families add wheat and sometimes rice to their diet& owever, it is onl*
the price of rice and wheat which is subsidi=ed& These form the staple diet of the ma-orit* Chinese settlers& ,* $%K@,
the price of barle* was left to mar1et forces and was 6C fen a 1g& !ice, on the other hand, was sold at ?A fen a 1g after
being bought b* the Government at %A fen a 1g< wheat sold at ?? to ?K fen a 1g after being bought at $$# to $#C fen a
1g E;'(P $%KCF& This pattern of subsid* ma1es living in the /TA!/ more attractive to Chinese settlers while at the
same time ma1ing it harder for poorer Tibetans to survive at a standard to which the* were accustomed&
Timber and mining industries are other enterprises that not onl* receive large chun1s of China.s /finacial assistance/,
but are also among the most important emplo*ers of Chinese immigrants in Tibet& The products of these industries are
transported to China and other countries and benefit onl* the colonial power&
Tibetans, on the other hand, are marginali=ed and have little control over their own natural resource base& Ta1e the
case of road construction& The primar* ob-ective of constructing roads in Tibet is to deplo* occup*ing forces li1e the
P+A, along with defence materials, and the immigration of Chinese, as well as to e0ploit the natural resources of Tibet
li1e forests and minerals, which reach China overland& !oads ma* run through most Tibetan villages, but a public
transport s*stem is almost non-e0istent in the ma-orit* of rural Tibet& China.s modern transport s*stem does not
benefit the ma-orit* of Tibetans& In some villages, buses do carr* people once a wee1& ,ut the passengers are all
cadres& Tibetans in most regions continue to use horses, mules, *a1s, don1e*s and sheep as modes of transportation&
Truc1s, pl*ing goods for the Chinese Government, have become a necessar* means of mobilit* for man* Tibetans&
Therefore, the Chinese pattern of development in Tibet is intended to control the Tibetan econom* rather than
stimulate initiative, enterprise and production& It wor1s b* creating a vicious circle in which local demand for goods is
served b* "tate-owned enterprises in China& Profits from these enterprises are then ploughed bac1 as subsidies,
serving to create conditions for the further e0traction of natural resources needed b* China.s own industrial
enterprises&
In the light of these e0periences, we cannot but view the recent opening of Tibet.s econom* to foreign investment as a
move to accelerate the transfer of Chinese citi=ens to Tibet and to further e0ploit Tibet.s natural resources for the sole
benefit of the colonial power&
In an* case - in the ultimate anal*sis - the moot point is not who is able to build more factories or effect a higher G'P&
The point is that, however efficient or modern, no foreign power has the right to impose its rule on another nation&
8ealth #iscrimination
The health service is not onl* urban-biased, but serves the rich better than the poor& Onl* ten percent of the financial
outla* for health goes to rural areas: ninet* percent goes to urban centres where Chinese settlers are concenLtrated and
where most of the hospitals are located&
8ven when available, medical facilities are prohibitivel* e0pensive for most Tibetans& 3or admission to hospital as an
in-patient, one has to ma1e an initial deposit of 9AA to @AA *uan E;"M KA to $99F, an enormous sum in a countr*
where the average per capita income is #AA *uan& +i1ewise, surger* and blood transfusions are reserved onl* for those
who can pa*& The average Tibetan is substantiall* poorer than the Chinese&
The Chinese claim that there are 9,6AA doctors and health personnel in the /TA!/& +et us e0amine this claim& )ost of
the doctors are un7ualified - having failed or performed poorl* in their e0aminations in China - and have little
prospect of finding emplo*ment in China& "ome have been trained for three *ears in the /TA!/ itself at primar* health
training centres& In the district clinics, staffed b* bare-foot doctors, personnel are trained for about one-and-a-half
*ears mainl* to provide emplo*ment for famil* members and children of Chinese offiLcials&
There have been numerous reports of Chinese doctors and health personnel using Tibetan patients as guinea pigs to
practise their s1ills& It is commonplace that Chinese medical graduates sent to Tibet for internship are given sole
charge of Tibetan patients whom the* are free to treat in an* wa* the* wish& Allegations are widespread that ordinar*
Tibetan patients are being sub-ected to e0aminations for diseases other than those the* complained of& 8speciall*,
operations are being carried out without an* obvious or actual need&
We cite some e0amples: In August $%6K, Gelsang Efrom )ar1hamF with his wife Ioudon too1 their #$-*ear-old
daughter, who was three months pregnant, to the /TA! ospital 'o& #/ Ethen 1nown as /Wor1er.s ospital/F for a
ph*sical e0amination& The Chinese doctor carried out an appaLrentl* unnecessar* operation on her& "he died two
hours later, cr*ing in great ph*sical agon*&
Again, around the same period, when a wor1er named )igmar of the +hasa 8lectric Power "tation too1 his #@-*ear-
old wife to +hasa cit* hospital for deliver*, both the mother and child died after a failed attempt at caesarian deliver*&
When the mother was dismembered at her /s1* burial/ a pair of scissors was discovered in her bod*&
In prisons such medical deaths are legion& In "ang*ip Prison, a tutor of the late Panchen +ama, 'gulchu !inpoLche,
and a man named Tethong Chi-2igme, died after being in-ected with an un1nown substance& In (rapchi, a prisoner
named "onam ,hagdro, though perfectl* health*, was given an in-ection after severe torture& e died as a result& )ore
recentl*, after $%K6, Tibetans li1e +ha1pa Tsering, Tsamla, )eto1 Choe=ed, etc, have died in similar circumstances
after /medical treatment/&
The conse7uences of the poor health service for Tibetans and the bad state of public h*giene are higher mortaLlit*
rates for Tibetans& In $%K$ crude death rates per thouLsand were 6&?K in the /TA!/ and %&%# in Amdo, as against an
average of C&C in China, according to the report of the World ,an1 in $%K? and of the ;'(P in $%%$& Child mortalit*
rates are also high: a hundred and fift* per thousand against fort* three for China& The T, morbidit* rate, according to
the World ,an1, is $#A&# per $,AAA in the /TA!/ and C?6 per $,AAA in Amdo&
"tatistics for life e0pectanc* in Tibet are not reliable and var* widel*& World ,an1 data suggests an average of around
si0t* one *ears for both the /TA!/ and Amdo as against a figure of sevent* *ears for China in $%%A, up from fort*
seven *ears in $%CA, according to ;'(P $%%$& owever, an independent source, based on admissions made b* the
Chinese themselves, estimates an average Tibetan life e0pectanc* of around fort* *ears onl*&
$iscrimination in e#ucation
The P!C.s education polic* in Tibet over the last three decades can be summed up in the following words of the late
Panchen +ama& "pea1ing at the first meeting of China.s Institute of Tibetolog* in $%KK, he said: /The land which
managed itself well for $,9AA *ears, from the seventh centur*, lost its language after it was liberated& Whether we
remained bac1ward or made mista1es, we managed our life on the world.s highest plateau b* using onl* Tibetan& We
had ever*thing written in our own language, be it ,uddhism, crafts, astronom*, astrolog*, poems, logic& All
administrative wor1s were also done in Tibetan& When the Institute of Tibetolog* was founded, I spo1e in the People.s
Palace and said that the Tibetan studies should be based on the foundation of Tibet.s own religion and culture& "o far
we have underestimated these sub-ects&
/It ma* not be the deliberate goal of the Part* to let Tibetan culture die, but I wonder whether the Tibetan language
will survive or be eradicated&/
In independent Tibet, over si0 thousand monasteries and nunneries served as schools and universities, fulfilling Tibet.s
educational needs& In addition, Tibet had man* la* schools run b* the Government as well as b* individuals& 3or the
Chinese Government, these traditional learning centres were fountainheads of /blind faith/ and nurturing grounds for
/feudal oppression/& In the place of Tibetan monasteries, China forced the Tibetans in rural and nomadic areas to
found independentl*-funded /People.s "chools/& 'ot a single cent of Chinese Government grants was spent on these
schools&
These schools served to create impressive statistics for China.s propaganda purposes& )ost of the statistics regarding
education are deceptive& China claims that it has opened around #,@AA primar* schools in the /TA!/& owever, the
ma-orit* of them cannot be regarded as schools in an* sense of the word& )ost of the teachers are not capable of
teaching even rudimentar* Tibetan language& Children were naturall* not interested in going to these schools& 3or all
practical purposes, the bul1 of these People.s "chools have ceased to e0ist&
In the Chinese official publication, Tibet !eview E'o& #, $%KCF three Chinese sociologists admitted: /There are onl*
@K middle-level schools Ein the /TA!/F& Out of them onl* $9 are real middle schools& Altogether, there are #,?@A
primar* schools in Tibet& Out of them onl* ?@$ are funded b* the Government& Over two thousand of these schools
are funded b* the people& These schools do not have a sound foundation and are not properl* e7uipped& The level of
education is either completel* nil or e0tremel* low& Therefore, the 7uestion of scientific s1ills can be ruled out among
them& At present %A percent of farmers and herders do not receive lower middle-level education& In view of this,
tal1ing about upper-middle class and universit* education is li1e as1ing people to eat well when there are no food
grains available& Onl* ?@ percent of the children of school-going age go to primar* schools& 3rom them $A&C percent
manage to graduate to the lower-middle school& In other words, @@ percent of the children do not even get primar*-
level education& In the whole of the /TA!/, there are over %,AAA teachers of various levels, far fewer than the actual
number re7uired& @A percent of these teachers are not 7ualified enough& 87ualit* among nationalities will come about
onl* if this is reformed and improved&/
,etween $%@% and $%CC the Chinese Government launched numerous /thought control/ campaigns to consolidate its
hold over Tibet& +earned and capable Tibetans, li1e lamas, abbots, geshes, la* scholars were sent to -ails or labour
camps& "o while 7ualified teachers were languishing in -ail, each school was run with one or two un7ualified teachers&
)embers of the Tibetan Government-in-80ile.s third fact-finding delegation investigating education were told b* the
Chinese Government that there were #,@$$ schools in Tibet& )rs& 2etsun Pema, leader of the delegation, sa*s:
/Wherever we went it was e0tremel* difficult to arrange a visit to a school& LThe school is closed for summer
vacation, the headmaster is awa*, the children have gone for lunch. Eat $A:AA amOF, were some of the e0cuses& After
one such e0cuse, the delegation loo1ed into the classrooms and found them stac1ed from floor to ceiling with timber&
Another time, on being shown a rural tent classroom, the delegates lifted the groundsheet and found the grass still
green underneath&/
2ohn ,illington, director of studies at !epton "chool in 8ngland, travelled e0tensivel* through Tibet in $%KK and
reported the following: /In rural areas especiall*, a large number of children can be seen wor1ing in the fields, cutting
grass, herding sheep, collecting *a1 dung and wor1ing at stalls& 8n7uir* reveals that the* do not go to school, in most
cases because no schools e0ist& It was sad to hear older people sa* that there had been schools in the past attached to a
monaster*, but that when the monasteries were destro*ed the little rural schools have not been replaced& Well off the
beaten trac1, I met elderl* nomads who could read and write< it was too often a brutal reminder of Chinese neglect
that their grandchildren could not&/
An important 7uestion is about the beneficiaries of the educational facilities in Tibet& In its White Paper, the Chinese
Government claims that it has invested $&$ billion *uan to develop education in Tibet&
Whatever the veracit* of this claim, one thing is clear: Chinese students residing in Tibet are the chief beneficiaries of
this grant& 3rom thirt* to fift* percent of the educational outla* for the /TA!/ goes to the Tibetan 'ationalit*
;niversit* in the Chinese cit* of "hen*ang& This universit* offers the best facilities among all the schools meant for
Tibetans& )ost of the Chinese teachers and staff of the universit* are former members of the $Kth Arm* which
invaded Tibet& +i1ewise, most of the students are the children and relatives of Chinese officials in Tibet and
elsewhere&
In Tibet, the best schools are in +hasa, "higatse, G*angtse, Chamdo, "illing, G*igudo, (artsedo and (echen& ,ut
these schools are meant primaril* for the children of Chinese cadres& In these Chinese Government-funded urban
schools, there are separate classes for Chinese and Tibetan students, with the best teachers assigned to Chinese classes&
The* also have two different messes, 1nown as the /tsampa-eaters. mess/ and /rice-eaters. mess/& The food at the
Chinese /rice-eaters. mess/ is far superior&
8ver* *ear a certain number of universit* seats are officiall* reserved for Tibetan students and their e0penses form
part of the budget for Tibetan education& owever, most of these seats go to Chinese students& To go to universit*, the
student must pass a competitive e0amination after graduating from upper-middle school& "ince the e0aminations are
conducted in Chinese, Tibetan students are disadvantaged and lose places to Chinese students& The growing trend is
that Chinese students who have failed to ma1e it to universities in their homeland go to Tibet to resit their
e0amination& ,ecause the general standard of education in Tibet is much lower than in China, these students fare well
against Tibetans, and thus ta1e Tibetan places in universities&
The first Australian uman !ights (elegation to Tibet and China in $%%$ also stated in its report: /Though the
delegation noted an official determination to raise educational standards for Tibetans, man* Tibetan children appear to
still go without formal education& Tibetan children in the +hasa area seemingl* have access to a ver* limited s*llabus
at both primar* and secondar* levels& "ome testified to never having been at school, or having to leave for economic
reasons as earl* as ten *ears old&/
In a petition, dated 3ebruar* #A, $%KC, submitted to the Chinese authorities, Tashi Tsering, an 8nglish teacher at
+hasa.s Tibet ;niversit*, stated: /In $%6% si0 hundred students from the Tibet Autonomous !egion were pursuing
universit* education in Tibet and China& Of them, onl* si0t* were Tibetans& In $%K? Tibet.s three big schools had
$,%K? students on their rolls, out of which onl* CCC were Tibetans& In the same *ear #@A students from Tibet ma* have
been sent to universities in the )ainland& ,ut onl* si0t* to sevent* of them were Tibetans&&&& )ost of the government
outla* meant for Tibetan education is used on Chinese students& 8ven toda*, sevent* per cent of Tibetans are illiterate&
/Out of twent* eight classes in +hasa.s )iddle "chool 'o&$, twelve are for Tibetans&&&& Out of $,?@$ students, %99 are
Tibetans and @$K Chinese& 'ot onl* are the Chinese students not learning Tibetan, 9K6 of the Tibetan students are not
learning Tibetan either& Onl* @?C Tibetans are learning their language& Of the $$$ teachers, onl* thirt* are Tibetans
and seven teach Tibetan& I have heard that the best 7ualified teachers are assigned to teach the Chinese classes whereas
un7ualified teachers teach the Tibetan classes&
/In +hasa.s Primar* "chool 'o& $, there are thirt* four classes with the Tibetans and Chinese sharing the same number
of classes& One thousand students are Tibetans and nine hundred Chinese& Two hundred Tibetans do not learn Tibetan&
Of the $9C teachers, onl* eighteen teach Tibetan&&& )an* rural schools have closed after decollectivisation of farm
lands and animals< either there are no students or no teachers&
/In +hasa.s Tibet ;niversit*, there are ?$9 Tibetan students and #@K Chinese& Two hundred fift*-one Tibetans are in
the Tibetan +anguage and +iterature "tream and twent* seven in the Tibetan )edical "tudies "tream& Onl* $9@
Tibetan students get to stud* modern sub-ects&&& The Tibetan departments are generall* 1nown as the L(epartments of
Political )anipulation.& This is because, while the authorities have fi0ed si0t* percent of seats for Tibetan students and
fort* per cent for Chinese students, most of the Tibetan students are absorbed into these two Tibetan departments,
leaving the ma-orit* of the seats in modern education streams to the Chinese&&& The 8nglish (epartment of this
universit* has two Tibetan students and fourteen Chinese&/
3rom $%CC onwards complete sinici=ation became the watchword& Tibetan was labelled as the language of religion
and its teaching was forbidden& "ome time in the $%CAs mon1 and nun teachers as well as 7ualified la* Tibetan
teachers were all ordered to leave their teaching -obs& Tibetan language and grammar boo1s were labelled /boo1s of
blind faith/ and thus discouraged from being taught& In their place, boo1s of )ao 5edong.s thoughts and newspapers
were put on the school s*llabus& Children were taught that the Tibetan religion was blind faith, Tibetan customs and
habits /old green thin1ing/, Tibetan was a /useless, bac1ward language/, old Tibetan societ* was /e0tremel*
bac1ward, savage, and oppressive/& Those who agreed with the Chinese were considered progressive whereas those
who disagreed were termed variousl* as counter-revolutionaries, reactionaries or class enemies& 'aturall*, a whole
generation of Tibetan children grew up completel* ignorant of their own culture, histor* and wa* of life&
Chinese names with )ar0ist connotations replaced Tibetan names for houses, streets and places& )an* Tibetans had
to change their names into Chinese& 'orbuling1a Ethe -ewel par1F, the summer palace of the (alai +amas, was given a
Chinese name meaning /people.s common par1/& The Tibetan language was deliberatel* bastardi=ed with Chinese
words and phrases&
In a boo1 entitled "pecial Compilation on Tibetan 'ationalities: $%C@-$%K@, a Chinese official in the /TA!/, made a
critical observation on the Chinese polic* of discouraging the use and learning of the Tibetan language in Tibet& e
observed: /Tibetan teachers and those able to translate in Tibetan have become ver* rare& As a result, it has become
ver* difficult to teach or issue official documents in both the Tibetan and Chinese languages& A good number of
Tibetan officials cannot read and write properl* in Tibetan& 'either can the* announce the Part* polic* to the masses
in Tibetan&/
In a publication of China.s Institute of Tibetolog* E$%%$F, "anga*, a -unior lecturer of >inghai 'ationalities
;niversit*, wrote: /There is one group of people who hold the view that the use of the Tibetan language will wor1 as
obstacles on the wa* to economic development&&& The local authorities have decided that onl* the Chinese language
should be taught and used&&& This polic* has been implemented for man* *ears& 3inal result: People could write neither
in Tibetan nor in Chinese& ,ut economic stagnation has continued&/
The Chinese authorities are averse to improving educational infrastructures in Tibet& 3rom $%K@, some efforts have
been made to provide higher education to Tibetans& ,ut this has been achieved b* increasing the number of students
sent to universities and schools in China, rather than b* improving the educational infrastructure within Tibet&
Tibetan children with intellectual aptitude are pluc1ed from schools in Tibet and sent to schools in China& Tibetans
rightfull* resent this as a polic* aimed at undermining their own culture& The late Panchen +ama said that sending
Tibetan children to China would onl* have the effect of alienating them from their cultural roots&
Catriona ,ass, author of Inside the Treaure ouse and 8nglish teacher in +hasa in $%K@, said: /3our thousand Tibetan
children were stud*ing in China at this time& ;ndoubtedl* these children benefited academicall*& Given the still ver*
basic resources in Tibet, it might be an effective wa* of educating Tibetans, in the short term& ,ut this polic* dates
from the $%@As& 'ow instead of reducing the number of children sent to China, and investing more in improving
facilities in Tibet, the Government has announced plans to send as man* as ten thousand children b* $%%9&
/3or man* Tibetans we met, this polic* posed the most serious threat to Tibetan cultural identit*& With more and more
*oung adults returning to Tibet, ignorant or scornful of Tibetan traditions, some people saw the polic* as a conspirac*
on the part of the Government to erode cultural values from within&/
4chievements of e5ile Tibetans
China insists that the Chinese presence in Tibet is -ustified because of the help that is offered to develop and civili=e
the culturall* and economicall* bac1ward Tibetan people& +eft to themselves, Tibetans are 7uite capable of managing
their own affairs& The thriving e0ile communit* is the best evidence of this&
The Tibetan Government-in-80ile, the host Indian Government, and international aid agencies have invested upwards
of Indian !upees $&@ billion in educating Tibetans in e0ile since $%@%& The Tibetan Government-in-80ile allocates
si0t* five percent of its annual budget to the education of its children& This does not include the amount invested in
monastic education&
Toda*, in the newl*-established Tibetan monasteries and nunneries in India, 'epal and ,hutan, there are about $$,AAA
mon1s and nuns& )an* speciali=ed institutions have been established in India to preserve the now-endangered Tibetan
culture& The Central Institute of igher Tibetan "tudies in Haranasi, ;ttar Pradesh, provides traditional and modern
education to Tibetans and to students from imala*an ,uddhist regions, man* of whom now serve in various Tibetan
schools and centres of higher education& "ome of them wor1 in the more than seven hundred Tibetan religious and
cultural centres established around the world toda*& Tibet.s native religion, ,Ln, has re-established its head7uarters in
imachal Pradesh state, India&
The Tibetan )edical and Astro& Institute in (haramsala provides traditional Tibetan medical services to patients all
over the world& It also educates students in Tibetan medicine and astro-science& Graduates of the institute now serve as
doctors in various Tibetan settlements in 'epal, India, ,hutan as well as in other parts of the world&
The +ibrar* of Tibetan Wor1s and Archives E+TWAF in (haramsala, and Tibet ouse in 'ew (elhi, serve as facilities
to educate foreign students in Tibetan histor*, language and culture& The +TWA is the premier internationall*-
recogni=ed centre for studies in Tibetolog*& ;p to $%%# it had assisted more than five thousand research students from
over thirt* countries&
The Tibetan Institute of Performing Arts ETIPAF in (haramsala has preserved traditional Tibetan opera, dance, songs
and music, and has performed with outstanding success around the world& )an* of the performing arts teachers in the
various Tibetan schools in India, 'epal and ,hutan have been trained here&
The Tibetan Cultural Printing Press in (haramsala, and other Tibetan publishing centres, preserve the culture b*
printing the ,uddhist canon, the Gag*ur and Teng*ur, along with thousands of other traditional Tibetan publications
and scriptures&
Toda* there are eight* four Tibetan schools in India, 'epal and ,hutan with an enrolment of over #C,AAA students at
primar*, middle and secondar* levels& Of these, seventeen are residential and seven more have hostel facilities& In
addition, there are fift* five pre-primar* schools& According to statistics compiled b* the Planning Council of the
Tibetan Government-in-80ile in (haramsala, altogether about ninet* two percent of Tibetan children in e0ile, aged si0
to seventeen, are attending schools, with about eight* four percent of them enrolled in Tibetan schools& In these
schools there are a total of $,#KA teachers with an average teacher-student ratio of $:#A& "chool education is available
free for all Tibetan children& )eritorious students are granted scholarships for degree and professional courses, while
others are given vocational training& ;p to $%%#, three thousand students in e0ile had completed their universit*
education& 8ver* *ear four hundred to five hundred students finish their senior secondar* school education& Of these,
two hundred to two hundred and fift* graduates -oin universities for further studies in India and abroad&
Toda*, education in e0ile has produced Tibetan medical doctors, administrators, Ph&(s, )&Phils, engineers, post-
graduate teachers, -ournalists, social wor1ers, law*ers, computer programmers, etc& The students, after completing
higher education, serve in the Government-in-80ile and other institutions& 'inet* nine percent of the officials in the
Tibetan Government-in-80ile toda* have received their education in e0ile in India&
!onclusion
Over the *ears thousands of *oung Tibetans have underta1en ha=ardous, heart-brea1ing -ourne*s over the imala*as
to come to India where the* and their parents see the onl* hope for meaningful and free education& The first Australian
uman !ights (elegation to China and Tibet also stated in its report: /Ioung people, while spea1ing of their desire
for education, saw their onl* choice being to attempt to reach the Tibetan communities in India where, the* said, at
least education was freel* available irrespective of all the other hardships&/
"ince $%6%, over five thousand mon1s and nuns have fled to India to pursue religious studies& In addition, over three
thousand new refugees in the age group of five to fourteen, and over one thousand in the age group of fifteen to
twent* five have been admitted to various Tibetan schools in India&
If China.s claim on education were true, there would be no need for these *oung Tibetans to leave their homeland and
parents to flee to India& 'oticing that such a large number of Tibetans stud*ing in schools set up b* the Tibetan
Government-in-80ile was a damning indictment of the pathetic educational scenario in Tibet, the Chinese authorities
in $%%@ ordered Tibetan parents to recall their children from schools in India within a specified time upon pain of
punishments& ,ut as e0pected, the Tibetans largel* ignored the Chinese order&
'ot onl* do the Chinese authorities refrain from ma1ing a whole-hearted attempt to improve educational opportunit*
and facilities for Tibetans in Tibet but it also prohibits Tibetans from see1ing better educational opportunities outside
the countr* b* imposing deterrents&
Religion an# National 1#entity
Tibet.s earliest religion is ,Ln, founded b* "henrab )iwo of "hangshung in Western Tibet& With the advent of
,uddhism, the ,Ln religion diminished in influence, but it continues to thrive toda* with an active communit* of
Tibetan refugees still practising their faith in India and 'epal& Tashi )enri, Iungdrungling, and Gharna were some of
the ma-or ,Ln monasteries in Tibet& The ,Ln religion has imbibed man* characteristics of ,uddhism over the course
of its historical development& Tibetan ,uddhism, in turn, has also ta1en much from ,Ln&
,uddhism flourished in Tibet in the seventh centur*& !eceiving ro*al patronage, it spread throughout Tibet& With the
assumption of power b* the (alai +amas from $C?# onwards, the era of /harmonious blend of religion and politics/
was established in Tibet& "ince then, for three-and-a-half centuries, ten successive (alai +amas have been the spiritual
and temporal rulers of Tibet&
The cumulative effect of ,uddhism.s long patronage b* successive 1ings of Tibet, and the countr* being later ruled b*
successive religious heads, has been immense, both to Tibet as a nation and to its people& ,uddhism has not been a
mere s*stem of belief to the Tibetans< it encompasses the entiret* of their culture and civili=ation and constitutes the
ver* essence of their lives& ,uddhism permeated the dail* lives of the Tibetan people and formed the social fabric
connecting them to the land& Of all the bonds which defined Tibetans as a people and as a nation, religion was
undoubtedl* the strongest&
Through the centuries, highl* 7ualified Tibetans studied, practised, e0pounded, preserved, and taught the meaning of
this religion and its social and spiritual relevance to peoples throughout the Asian regions sharing the Tibetan cultural
tradition, including )ongolia&
In the words of the 3ourteenth (alai +ama, ,uddhism thus caused the /metamorphosis that changed the entire course
of Tibet.s histor*& Generations of Tibetan intellectuals studied and developed a profound culture that closel* accorded
with the original principles and philosoph* of the dharma& (own through the centuries their dedicated services
brought about e0traordinar* developments which are uni7ue among the literar* and cultural achievements of the
nations of the world&/
)onasteries, temples, and hermitages were founded in ever* village and town throughout Tibet, together with resident
mon1s and nuns& uge monasteries, which were more li1e monastic cities, such as (repung, "era, and Gaden in
+hasa, Tashilhunpo in "higatse, "a1*a )onaster* in "a1*a, Tsurphu in Central Tibet, )indroling in Central Tibet,
+abrang Tashi-1*il in Amdo, Gaden 2ampaling in Chamdo, +ithang Gonchen, etc, became high seats of learning&
8ver* Tibetan ,uddhist home had its altar&
,* $%@% there were at least C,#@% monasteries with about @%#,@@K resident mon1s and nuns& These religious centres
also housed tens of thousands of statues, religious artifacts made of gold, silver and other metals - studded with
-ewels& "imilarl*, tens of thousands of chorten EstupasF were built out of precious metal& ,esides te0ts on ,uddhism,
these monasteries were storehouses of wor1s on literature, medicine, astrolog*, art, politics, etc, and thus were the real
/treasure houses/ of the Tibetan people&
Tibetan national identit* became indistinguishable from its religion& ,uddhist fol1lore and teachings regulated the
people.s lives, festivals, holida*s, wor1 ethics, famil* chores as well as national issues& Tibet remained a proud and
independent ,uddhist nation until its occupation b* China&
Tibet also had a compact communit* of )uslims who had their own mos7ues& These, too, suffered damage at the
hands of the Chinese& In addition, there were a small numbers of followers of induism and Christianit*& The* were
all tolerated and given e7ual rights&
?iolation of religious free#om: 19*9-1929
The Chinese Government initiall* proclaimed that while complete consolidation of its anne0ation of Tibet was
underwa*, no restrictions would be imposed on the practice of religion& Its formal pledge to protect and respect Tibet.s
religious tradition was stated even in the /"eventeen-Point Agreement/ of $%@$& This /agreement/ e0plicitl* stated
that the traditional status, functions and powers of the (alai +ama would not be altered and that /the polic* of
freedom of religious beliefs laid down in the Common Programme of the Chinese People.s Political Consultative
Conference will be protected/&
owever, the Chinese soon began to undermine the traditional social s*stem and religion of Tibet& People were told
that /!eligion is the enem* of our materialist ideolog* and believing in religion is blind faith& Therefore, *ou should
not onl* not have faith in religion but should also condemn it&/ While the Chinese constitution and initial assurances
made to the Tibetans purported to allow a semblance of religious freedom, their resolve to undermine Tibetan religion
was absolute from the ver* beginning&
The Chinese Government pronounced: /The Chinese Communist Part* considers that its ideolog* and that of religion
are two forces that cannot co-e0ist and occup* the same spot at the same time&&&the differences between the two Bie,
science and religionD can be li1ened to those between light and dar1ness, between truth and falsehood& There is
absolutel* no possibilit* to reconcile the mutuall*-opposed world views of science and religion&/
This Communist Chinese view was all-pervasive& In )ao 5edong.s own words, /&&& but of course, religion is poison& It
has two great defects: It undermines the race&&&BandD retards the progress of the countr*& Tibet and )ongolia have both
been poisoned b* it&/
,* the middle of the $%@As, the Chinese authorities reali=ed that religion was the principal obstacle to their control of
Tibet& Therefore, from the beginning of $%@C the so-called /(emocratic !eform/ was carried out, first in Gham and
Amdo, and later Efrom $%@%F in Central Tibet& )onasteries, temples, and cultural centres were s*stematicall* looted of
all articles of value and then dismantled&
3irst, special teams of mineralogists visited religious buildings to locate and e0tract all the precious stones& 'e0t came
the metallurgists who mar1ed all metal ob-ects which were subse7uentl* carted awa* in truc1s re7uisitioned from
arm* head7uarters& )onaster* walls were then d*namited and all the wooden beams and pillars ta1en awa*& Cla*
images were destro*ed in the e0pectation of finding precious metals inside& 3inall*, whatever remained - bits of wood
and stone - were removed& +iterall*, hundreds of tons of valuable religious statues, thang1as Escroll paintingsF, metal
artifacts, and other treasures were shipped to China either to be sold in international anti7ue mar1ets or to be melted
down&
When a team of Tibetans visited China in $%K#-K9 to retrieve Tibetan artifacts, a Chinese man in ,ei-ing told them
that /EmFost of the Tibetan cultural artifacts carted to China were destro*ed& The statues and ritual ob-ects of pure gold
and silver were never seen again& Those of gilded copper, bell-metal, red copper, brass, etc, were ferried to +u*un,
from where the* were eventuall* sold to foundries in "hanghai, "ichuan, Tai Iun, ,ei-ing, Tian-in, etc& The foundr*
called 4i-*ou >ing-shu Tie Eprecious metal foundr*F situated about five 1ilometers to the east of ,ei-ing cit*, alone
purchased about CAA tons of Tibetan crafted metals&/ The team found out that almost all artifacts ta1en b* other
foundries had alread* been melted down&
This ph*sical desecration and destruction was accompanied b* public condemnation of religion, and humiliation and
ridicule of religious persons& !eligious te0ts were burnt and mi0ed with field manure< the sacred mani stones Estones
or slates with pra*ers engravedF were used for ma1ing toilets and pavements< mon1s and nuns were forced to copulate
in public and taunted to perform /miracles/< ruined monasteries and temples were turned into pigsties< starving mon1s
and nuns in Chinese prisons were told to get /food from the ,uddha/&
$estruction before the !ultural Revolution
Contrar* to official Chinese assertions, much of Tibet.s culture and religion was destro*ed between $%@@ and $%C$,
and not solel* during the Cultural !evolution E$%CC-$%6CF& This was confirmed b* ,huchung, the then Hice President
of the so-called TA! People.s Government, at a press conference on 2ul* $6, $%K6, when he stated that what little
remained to be destro*ed was obliterated during the Cultural !evolution under the slogan /"mash the 3our Olds/&
Out of Tibet.s total of C,#@% monasteries and nunneries onl* about eight remained b* $%6C& Among those destro*ed
were the seventh centur* "am*e, the first monaster* in Tibet< Gaden, the earliest and holiest monastic universit* of
the Gelugpas< "a1*a, the main seat of the "a1*as< Tsurphu, one of the holiest monasteries of the Gag*uds<
)indroling, one of the most famous monasteries of the '*ingmapas< )enri, the earliest and most sacred ,on
monaster*, etc& Out of @%#,@@K mon1s, nuns, rinpoches EreincarnatesF and ngagpas Etantric practitionersF, over $$A,AAA
were tortured and put to death, and over #@A,AAA were forcibl* disrobed&
The e0tent of religious destruction in Tibet was referred to b* the late Panchen +ama in $%KK in ,ei-ing during the
first General )eeting of China.s Institute of Tibetolog*& e said: /The destruction suffered b* monasteries in the
Tibetan inhabited areas was total and a hundred percent& About %% percent suffered total destruction& Those seven or
eight which remained also did not escape damage& The condition of the Potala Palace was the best among those which
remained& ,ut it too suffered damage& Therefore, I sa* that the destruction caused was a hundred percent&/
1929-199*: Religious free#om< a ritualistic faca#e
"ince $%6%, a much-heralded programme of /liberali=ation/ began in Tibet under which some superficial facade of
religious freedom was allowed& This includes limited and selective renovation of places of worship, and allowing
people a degree of ritual practices - such as ma1ing prostrations, circumambulating places of worship, offering butter
lamps, reciting mantras, turning pra*er wheels, burning incense, putting up pra*er flags, etc& These are onl* e0ternal
acts of worship& ,ut propagation of the teachings of the ,uddha is either banned or, when permitted, strictl*
controlled&
The essence of ,uddhism lies in mental and spiritual development achieved through intensive stud* with 7ualified
lamas, understanding and practice& ,ut the Chinese discourage this in their campaign to misrepresent the Tibetan
religion as nothing more than practices in superstition and blind faith rather than what it reall* is: a functional and
scientific philosoph*& The (alai +ama, in his )arch $A, $%K6 statement, said: /The so-called religious freedom in
Tibet toda* amounts to permitting our people to worship and practice religion in a merel* ritualistic and devotional
wa*& There are both direct and indirect restrictions on the teaching and stud* of ,uddhist philosoph*& ,uddhism, thus,
is being reduced to blind faith which is e0actl* how the Communist Chinese view and define religion&/
Toda*.s Chinese polic* is aimed at bringing about a gradual and natural death of Tibetan culture and religion, thus
reducing the Tibetans to an uncultured, superstitious nation, fit onl* to be ruled and reformed b* them& In this wa*
the* hope to validate their /liberation/ of - and claim to - Tibet&
Reconstruction an# renovation
Almost all Chinese state-sponsored reconstruction of Tibetan monuments has been highl* selective, intended onl* to
serve their political and economic aims& These serve as museums to attract tourists rather than living cultural and
religious institutions& Also, contrar* to the Chinese claim, most of the rebuilt or renovated monasteries, including the
/state-sponsored/ ones, came through the initiative of Tibetans who contributed their labour and finances&
The aid sanctioned b* the Chinese Government forms onl* a ver* small fraction of the total e0penses incurred& On the
other hand, China confiscates the income of the monasteries from entr* fees Eimposed b* the ChineseF and offerings
made b* pilgrims&
!econstruction and renovation of monasteries can be done onl* after receiving permission from the Chinese ,ureau of
!eligious Affairs& "uch permission is given with great reluctance following a long period of bureaucratic red tape
during which Tibetans have to ma1e repeated appeals and listen, in return, to constant lectures about the negative
influences of religion to /national interests/& The limited number of mon1s allowed to -oin these monasteries serve
more as showpieces for tourists and, in most cases, careta1ers rather than true religious students and practitioners&
In independent Tibet, the ma-or Tibetan monastic universities served as cultural and learning centres for large numbers
of students from Inner Asia& These institutions each had from three to ten thousand students and the rigorous
curriculum began around the age of eighteen and culminated around the age of fort* five& The basic units of Tibet.s
monastic universities were its colleges, each universit* having at least two& These had their own administration,
facult* and te0tboo1s& 3or centuries, the monastic colleges functioned to promote critical and creative spiritual
thought&
!hinese :overnment control over religious institutions
China toda* refuses to let the colleges - the functioning units of the monastic universities - to continue in the
traditional wa*& It has also placed a ceiling on the number of mon1s allowed in each universit*& ,efore the Chinese
invasion, "era had 6,%%6 mon1s on its rolls< it is now permitted to have onl* about three hundred< (repung, which
used to have ten thousand mon1s, is now permitted onl* four hundred< and Gaden which numbered @,CAA mon1s is
now permitted onl* one hundred and fift*&
In addition, the dail* functions of the monasteries are regimented through a ma=e of state bureaucracies, such as the
;nited 3ront Wor1 (epartment, !eligious Affairs ,ureau, Tibetan ,uddhist Association, (emocratic )anagement
Committee, Political 8ducation and Investigation Wor1 Inspection Teams, securit* organs, etc&
China has, in part, laid down the following criteria for admission to a monaster*: The candidate should be at least
eighteen *ears old< should /love/ the countr* and the Communist Part*< should have the consent of parents< should
obtain formal approval from the monasteries. (emocratic )anagement Committee< should have the consent of local
authorities< should have the consent of count* or provincial authorities< should obtain clearance from the Public
"ecurit* ,ureau< the candidate and the candidate.s parents should have a /good political bac1ground/< should have
been raised in a certain geographical area Eeg, Tibetans from Gham and Amdo ma* not be admitted to monasteries in
Central TibetF< should stud* )ar0ism< should be aware that materialism and spiritualit* are contradictor*, etc&
4#mit only the 6politically correct6
China.s guiding principle behind admission to monasteries and nunneries is that /We must foster a large number of
fervent patriots in ever* religion who accept the leadership of the Part* and government, firml* support the "ocialist
path, and safeguard national and ethnic unit*/, and that /seminaries should hold entrance e0aminations and admit
upright, patriotic *oung people &&& who have reached a certain level of cultural development&/ These principles are
clearl* laid down in the Chinese /,asic Hiewpoint and Polic* on the !eligious >uestion (uring Our Countr*.s
"ocialist Period,/ and /!ules for (emocratic )anagement of Temples,/ etc& Iet another organ 1nown as the Tibetan
,uddhism Guidance Committee is being set up to /oversee the practice of ,uddhism in Tibet ETA!F, >inghai, Gansu,
"ichuan, and Iunnan EAmdo and Gham areas of Tibet incorporated into Chinese provincesF& 3oremost among its tas1s
will be the implementation of government policies, education of mon1s and nuns in the patriotic mould, and
supervision over monaster* management&/
In addition to the above, there are other subtle and insidious methods of undermining religion which are not easil*
discerned b* the uninformed& These include persistent anti-religious publications and theatrical performances,
restricting religious teachings, educating Tibetan *ouths along )ar0ist lines with heav* anti-religious overtones, lac1
of a regular curriculum in the monasteries, lac1 of te0tboo1s and teachers, forcing mon1s to perform for tourists,
1eeping police and para-militar* forces at the monasteries, arresting and torturing those suspected of having
independent thoughts, planting informers in monasteries, conducting political education and investigation in the
monasteries b* Wor1 Inspection Teams and a ban on even apolitical pra*ers composed b* the (alai +ama&
On account of such restrictions, the Panchen +ama, on "eptember #K, $%KK, called for the eradication of Chinese
/administrative interference in the religious activities in Tibet Eread TA!F and other Tibetan-inhabited regions and
increased Tibetan regulation of religious affairs/&
!onclusion
Though China no longer bombs or sends !ed Guards to destro* Tibet.s monasteries, its aim still remains the same as
before: total elimination of Tibetan religion and culture&
This is clear from an official document, Polic* on !eligious 3reedom, prepared b* Gan=e EGar=eF Prefectural
Propaganda Committee and dated 3ebruar* $%%A, which states: /With the development of our socialist s*stem, the
social s*stem for the natural e0tinction of religion was established&/ Iet, another official document entitled Polic* on
'ationalities and !eligion brought out in $%%$, states: /We should oppose all those who wor1 to split the motherland
in the name of nationalit* and religion& There should be no hesitation in ta1ing harsh decisions to deal with an*
political disturbance carried out in the name of nationalit* and religion, and in doing so the state.s political, -udicial,
and even militar* powers should be used&/
In carr*ing out its unremitting persecution of Tibetan religion, China continues to violate not onl* the ;' ;niversal
(eclaration of uman !ights but also all the clauses of the ;nited 'ations (eclaration on the 8limination of All
3orms of Intolerance and of (iscrimination ,ased on !eligion and ,elief&
In its reports of $%@% and $%CA, the +egal In7uir* Committee of the International Commission of 2urists said: /The
Committee found that acts of Genocide had been committed in Tibet in an attempt to destro* the Tibetans as a
religious group, and that such acts are acts of genocide independent of an* conventional obligation&/
Population Transfer an# !ontrol
The transfer of civilians b* an occup*ing power into the territor* it occupies is a violation of international law,
according to the IHth Geneva Convention of $%?%& owever, it is a practice which man* occup*ing powers, colonial
administrations and totalitarian rulers have used and still use to brea1 resistance to their rule and consolidate control
over a particular territor*& itler developed large-scale population transfer plans and "talin carried out man* such
plans with the tragic results we are seeing toda* in the former "oviet ;nion&
Toda*, China is implementing the same polic* in Tibet& ,egun as earl* as $%?%, when China started the invasion of
Tibet, this polic* poses the greatest threat to the survival of the Tibetan nation and people& ,esides inundating the
countr* with millions of settlers from China, the Chinese Government is also emplo*ing various coercive birth-
control measures to stem the growth of the Tibetan population&
The aim of this twin demographic polic* is to ensure that the Tibetans are reduced to an insignificant minorit* in their
own countr* so as to render an* resistance against China.s rule ineffective& It is e0actl* for this reason that some
observers have termed this polic* as China.s /3inal "olution/&
Population transfer as an e5plicit official policy
China.s /White Paper/ states, /Another lie is the claim that a large number of ans have migrated to Tibet, turning the
ethnic Tibetans into a minorit*&/
owever, ample evidence confirms that the contrar* is true& The first public indication of Chinese population transfer
to Tibet came in $%@#, in the /(irective of the Central Committee of the CPC on Policies for Wor1 in Tibet/, issued
b* )ao 5edong himself& Proposing a five-fold increase in the population of the western half of Tibet, later to be
named as the /Tibet Autonomous !egion/, )ao said, /Tibet covers a large area but is thinl* populated& Its population
should be increased from the present two or three million to five or si0 million, and then to over ten million&/ B!enmin
!ibao, 'ovember ##, $%@#D&
In a statement to the +egal In7uir* Committee of the International Commission of 2urists on August #%, $%@%, the
(alai +ama said: /In $%@@ -ust before returning to +hasa we had been to see +iu "hao-chi& e mentioned to the
Panchen +ama that Tibet was a big countr* and unoccupied and that China had a big population which can be settled
there&/
In $%CA, in the aftermath of the Chinese occupation of Tibet, Premier 5hou 8nlai said, /The Chinese are greater in
number and more developed in econom* and culture but in the regions the* inhabit there is not much arable land left
and underground resources are not as abundant as in the regions inhabited b* fraternal nationalities&/
In 3ebruar* $%K@ the Chinese 8mbass* in 'ew (elhi announced its Government.s intention to /change both the
ecological imbalance and the population lac1/ not -ust in Tibet but also in other /sparsel* populated outl*ing regions/&
Chinese /migration should be welcomed b* the local population, and should result in a population increase of si0t*
million over the ne0t thirt* *ears in those regions/& The announcement went on to sa*, /This is a ver* conservative
estimate& As a matter of fact, the increase might swell to a hundred million in less than thirt* *ears&/ B)ovement
Westward, !eference )aterial 'o& #, 8mbass* of the People.s !epublic of China, 'ew (elhi, 3ebruar* ?, $%K@D&
Two *ears later, in 2une $%K6, (eng 4iaoping admitted that the Chinese were being encouraged to move to Tibet
because, according to him, the local population /needs an immigrants as the EAutonomousF !egion.s population of
about two million is inade7uate to develop its resources/& B(eng 4iaoping, during his meeting with e0-;" President
2imm* Carter, 2une #%, $%K6< !euters. report, ,ei-ing, 2une 9A, $%K6D&
!hinese population in the 6T4R6
3rom $%K9 there has been a sharp increase in the transfer of Chinese settlers to Central Tibet& In )a* $%K? !adio
,ei-ing reported that: /Over CA,AAA wor1ers, representing the vanguard groups to help in the construction wor1 in the
TA! are arriving in Tibet dail* Enumber of da*s not specifiedF and have started their preliminar* wor1& The* will be
helping in the electricit* department, schools, hotels, cultural institutions and construction of mills and factories&/
B!adio ,ei-ing, $6AA hrs, )a* $?, $%K?D&
Another CA,AAA Chinese /wor1ers/, mainl* from "ichuan province, arrived in the /Tibet Autonomous !egion/ in the
summer of $%K@& BChina.s Population, ,ei-ing, $%KKD& In $%%$ China announced that /technicians from all over China
have come to wor1 at various construction sites and about 9AA,AAA wor1ers are prepared to -oin in the pro-ect/&
B,ei-ing !eview, 2anuar* #$-#6, $%%$D
The Times of India E'ew (elhiF of "eptember #6, $%KK 7uoted )ao !ubai, the then Hice-Chairman of the TA!
Government, as sa*ing that there were one million Chinese settlers Ee0cluding militar* personnelF in the region&
In $%K@, in +hasa alone, there were @A,AAA to CA,AAA Chinese civilian residents& 3rom $%K@ to $%KK a further influ0 of
Chinese immigrants doubled the population of +hasa& That this migration created problems for the Tibetan population
was also recogni=ed b* the /TA!/ Government& In )arch $%K% 'gapo 'gawang 2igme, a Hice-President of the
Chinese 'ational People.s Congress, said that /toda*, because of so man* Chinese shop1eepers and settler coming
into Tibet Esome $AA,AAA of them being in +hasa aloneF great disturbance has been caused to public securit*/&
!hinese population in ;ham an# 4m#o
Tibetan areas outside the /Tibet Autonomous !egion/ include the whole of present-da* >inghai Province and the
portions of Gham and Amdo merged with the Chinese provinces of "ichuan, Gansu and Iunnan& It is in these eastern
Tibetan regions where the concentration of Chinese population is highest& Chinese settlement in these regions
followed close on the heels of the invading P+A troops in $%?%& ,* $%@%, when China installed its own government in
the Tibetan capital, the Chinese population in this eastern half of Tibet had alread* reached an alarming figure& The
influ0 escalated from $%C# onwards when thousands upon thousands of additional Chinese settlers began to be sent
into these areas as /builders, wor1ers, and technicians/&
As there was no apparent need for them, Tibetans considered them onl* to be a drain on the econom* and interpreted
the polic* as an insidious attempt to complete the sinification of their countr*& According to the late Panchen +ama:
/The e0pense of 1eeping one Chinese in Tibet is e7ual to that of four in China& Wh* should Tibet spend its mone* to
feed themL &&& Tibet has suffered greatl* because of the polic* of sending a large number of useless people& The
Chinese population in Tibet started with a few thousand and toda* it has multiplied manifold&/B"peech on the situation
in Tibet b* the Panchen +ama at a meeting of the "ub-Committee of the 'ational People.s Congress in ,ei-ing, )arch
#K, $%K6D&
China.s fourth population census in $%%A put the Chinese population Eincluding a small number of )ongolsF in these
non-/TA!/ Tibetan regions at ?,%#6,9C%& owever, it is said that there is at least one non-registered Chinese against
ever* two who are registered& This means the actual Chinese population, both registered and unregistered, in the
non-/TA!/ Tibetan regions of Gham and Amdo is estimated to be about 6&? million&
1ncentives for !hinese to move to Tibet
To encourage Chinese settlement in Tibet, the ,ei-ing Government offers an arra* of benefits to its emplo*ees and the
whole of the Chinese civilian population&
The following statement is t*pical of China.s rationale for providing conditions and services which are significantl*
better than those available to Tibetans: /The personnel brought in from developed regions EChinaF cannot be e0pected
to live on the local fare of tsampa Eroasted barle* flourF and raw meat& The* need good housing, hospitals, cinemas
and schools for their children&/ BThe Povert* of Plent*, Wang and ,ai, +ondon, p&$?KD&
ousing, health care, leave to China, cultural and educational facilities are all part of an enormousl* e0pensive
underta1ing to provide incentives for the Chinese to wor1 in Tibet& Other costl* subsidies include a high-altitude
allowance, and transporting wheat and rice b* truc1 to Tibet&
Annual wages for Chinese migrants are eight* seven percent higher in Tibet than in China& The longer the sta* in
Tibet, the higher the benefits& Hacations for Chinese personnel in Tibet are far longer than those in China& 3or ever*
eighteen months of wor1 in Tibet, the* receive a three-month leave bac1 to China with all the e0penses paid b* the
Government&
Chinese entrepreneurs receive special ta0 e0emptions and loans at low interests rates in Tibet, whereas for Tibetans
starting an enterprise in their own homeland, even obtaining a licence is difficult&
6T4R6 opene# to bolster population transfer
In late $%%# China announced the opening up of Tibet.s econom* to /foreign investments/& In realit*, this economic
open-door polic* is designed onl* to encourage the settlement of more Chinese in Tibet& This fact has been borne out
b* the recent Chinese demographic polic* in Tibet& The Chinese Government is alread* persuading its massive
drifting population to ma1e a home in the /TA!/&
ectic activities to build new Chinese townships and villages have been reported from man* areas of the /TA!/<
these include (romo EIatungF, 8magang, Phenpo, Tsethang, Toelung, '*emo, Gongpo '*ingtri and )aldro G*ama&
It is believed that a large proportion of Chinese displaced b* the /Three-Gorges/ h*dro-electricit* pro-ect in China
will be relocated in these areas&
0irth control< force# abortion an# sterili@ation
3rom $%K? China imposed its polic* allowing Tibetan couples to have onl* two children& It was announced that onl*
twelve percent of the population in the /TA!/ fell within the ambit of this polic*& This was because in the countr*side
and pastoral areas, Tibetans were supposed to be e0empt from such restrictions& ,ut in realit* orders were issued for
fines ranging from $,@AA to 9,AAA *uan E;"M ?AA to KAAF for the birth of a third child& 80tra children were denied
ration cards and wor1ers violating the rule had their pa* cut b* upto fift* percent, or in some cases withheld altogether
for three to si0 months&
"uch coercive measures were - and still are - emplo*ed in a number of ingenious wa*s& On 'ovember @, $%K6, the
head of the /TA!/ 3amil* Planning (epartment, Tsering (ol1ar, stated at a meeting: /There are $A?,A#? women of
child-bearing age, of whom 6C,##A are married& Of them ##,C9? have alread* undergone birth control operations,
constituting thirt* percent of women in the TA! of child-bearing age& In $%K@, after the science of famil* planning
was announced in the countr*side and pastoral areas, there has been a perceptible change in the mental outloo1 and
birth rates in these areas& In $%KC, nineteen percent of women in '*ingtri, +ho1ha and "higatse were sterili=ed&/
According to the Civil Affairs (epartment of "higatse, in 2ul* $%%A a team from "higatse Child and )aternit*
ospital visited a remote and poor area of ,huchung district to carr* out e0aminations& It was found that 9K6 women
in this small area had been sterili=ed& The team had gone to ten districts to propagate famil* planning, resulting in the
sterili=ation of $,A%# women out of #,?$%&
In G*atsa district of +ho1ha, Tsering Ioudon, a doctor wor1ing at the child and maternit* clinic, stated that in her
district there were more than four thousand women of child-bearing age of whom over one thousand too1 birth control
measures and seven hundred of whom were sterili=ed&
In Gham and Amdo, an even more repressive polic* is being enforced& 3or e0ample, in /Gansu Parig Tibetan
Autonomous (istrict/ #,?$@ women were sterili=ed in $%K9, of whom eight* two percent were Tibetans& In $%K6, 6C?
women of child-bearing age were sterili=ed in 5achu district in /Gan=e Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture/: CCA were
Tibetans& )obile birth control teams roam the countr*side and pastoral areas where the* round up women for abortion
and sterili=ation& 8ven women well advanced in their pregnanc* are forced to undergo abortion followed b*
sterili=ation&
As a rule, the enforcement of birth control measures in Tibet is highl* erratic, differing from place to place and time to
time, and depends largel* on the =eal of individual local officials who are given carte blanche to implement this
polic*&
The /White Paper/ sa*s on this sub-ect: /Onl* twelve percent of the people in Tibet are covered b* the famil*
planning polic*& In the process of carr*ing out famil* planning the Government alwa*s persists in the principle of L
mainl* publicit*, volunteering and service. and prohibits an* form of forced abortion&/
These words are entirel* at odds with strong evidence that the contrar* is true&
Tibetan population
China often ridicules the Tibetan claim that their population is si0 million& /Where did the si0 million come fromL (id
the* drop from the s1*L/, Iang oudi, director of Polic* and +egislation (epartment of the "tate 'ationalities Affairs
Commission, said& Although there is no independent census report of the Tibetan population in Tibet toda*, historical
Tibetan sources show that the population before the Chinese invasion was at least si0 million& The Chinese sa* that the
total Tibetan population is onl* slightl* more than four million& owever, a loo1 at statistics provided b* the Chinese
themselves suggest that it was over si0 million in $%@%&
According to China.s "tate "tatistical ,ureau, the western half of Tibet Elater named as the /TA!/F had $,#69,%C%
people in 'ovember $%@%& The eastern part of Gham, then named 4i1ang b* China, had 9,9K$,AC? Tibetans& In
>inghai and other Tibetan areas incorporated into Gansu, Tibetans were reported to number $,C6@,@9?& BPeople.s
(ail*, ,ei-ing, 'ovember $A, $%@%D& If these three figures are totalled, the Tibetan population then stood at C,99A,@C6&
In 3ebruar* $%KK, uan 4iang, director of the Centre for International "tudies under the "tate Council in ,ei-ing,
stated that /of the present population of si0 million Tibetans onl* two million are living in Tibet Eread TA!F while the
remaining four million are in other provinces of China/& B,ei-ing !eview, Hol& 9$, 'o& 6 and KD&
!onclusion
As a result of Chinese population transfer, Tibetans find themselves marginali=ed in economic, political, educational
and social spheres& In the earl* $%KAs the Tibetan Government-in-80ile estimated the Chinese population in the whole
of Tibet at 6&@ million& The figure toda* ma* be well in e0cess of this&
In Gham and Amdo, most of the fertile land in the valle*s has been given to Chinese settlers, driving the Tibetans to
more and more barren terrain& Almost all 1e* administrative positions in Tibet are held b* Chinese& 3urthermore,
Chinese settlers are given preference over Tibetans in -obs created b* forestr* and mineral e0ploitation in Tibet&
The general economic impact of privileged Chinese settlers on Tibetans ma* be gauged from the following statistics:
Of the $#,##6 shops and restaurants in +hasa cit* Ee0cluding the ,ar1horF, in $%%#, onl* three hundred were owned
b* Tibetans& In Tsawa Pasho, southern Gham, in $%%#, the Chinese owned one hundred and thirt* three business
enterprises whereas the Tibetans owned onl* fifteen& The ownership ratio in the same *ear was similar in other
Tibetan towns: 6?K to %# in Chamdo, ##% to three in Powo Tramo& The situation is far worse in the urban centres of
Amdo, where, according to one ,ritish -ournalist, Tibetans are reduced to /tourist curios/&
The State of Tibet3s 'nvironment
Tibet is the prime source of Asia.s great rivers& It also has the earth.s loftiest mountains as well as the world.s most
e0tensive and highest plateau, ancient forests, and man* deep valle*s untouched b* human disturbances&
Traditional Tibetan economic and religious value s*stems led to the evolution of successful environmental protection
practices& Their belief in the ,uddhist teaching of !ight +ivelihood leads to understanding the importance of
/contentment/, and discourages over-consumption& It also frowns upon over-e0ploitation of the earth.s natural
resources as this is perceived to harm other living beings and their habitat& As earl* as $C?#, the 3ifth (alai +ama
issued a (ecree for the Protection of Animals and the 8nvironment& "ince then, such decrees have been issued
annuall*&
With the coloni=ation of Tibet b* Communist China, Tibet.s traditional environmental protection s*stem has given
wa* to an /ecocide/ of appalling proportions& The effects of this are especiall* notable on the grassland areas, the
cropland areas, the forests, the water resources and the wildlife&
:rasslan#< croplan# an# !hinese agricultural policies
Tibet is sevent* percent grassland& Grasslands form the bac1bone of the countr*.s animal husbandr*-dominated
agrarian econom*& The domestic animal population is as big as sevent* million and supports nearl* a million
herdsmen& Tibet.s nomads have traditionall* adapted themselves well to the needs of their fragile grasslands& Annual
records of pasture use, s*stematic migrations of their herds of dri and *a1, sheep and goats, and responsibilit* for
sustainable use at the individual and communit* levels are traditional habits&
Over the last four decades there has been widespread degradation of these vital pastures& The conversion of marginal
lands to agriculture for Chinese settlers has become the greatest threat to Tibet.s grasslands& This has led to e0tensive
desertification, rendering the land unusable for agriculture or gra=ing& This problem has especiall* devastated the vast
grasslands in Amdo&
The situation is made worse b* the fencing of grasslands which has restricted Tibetan nomads to ever smaller areas
and disrupted their traditional migration practice& In )achu district of Amdo alone, one-third of the total area of over
$A,AAA s7uare 1ilometres has been fenced for the horses, sheep and cattle of the Chinese arm*& "imilarl*, most of the
better pasture lands in 'gapa, Golo1 and />inghai/ have been reserved for the Chinese&
Traditionall*, the principal croplands are arable niches along the river valle*s of Gham, the Tsangpo valle* in ;-
Tsang, and the )achu valle* in Amdo& The staple crop is barle*, grown with other cereals and legumes& The
traditional agricultural s*stem has organic principles, crop rotation, mi0ed crops, and periodic failures which are
sustainable and appropriate to a fragile mountain environment& Grain *ields in Tibet average #,AAA 1gJha in ;-Tsang
and higher still in the lower valle*s of Amdo and Gham& This e0ceeds *ields in comparable climates such as in !ussia
E$,6AA 1gJhaF and Canada E$,KAA 1gJhaF&
The need to feed the ever-increasing number of Chinese militar* and civil personnel and settlers, and the e0port of
agricultural produce, has led to the e0tension of farmland onto steep and marginal terrain, an increase in the area
under wheat Ewhich the Chinese prefer to the Tibetan staple, barle*F and the introduction of h*brid seeds, pesticides
and chemical fertili=ers& (isease has been regularl* attac1ing new wheat varieties, and in $%6% destro*ed the entire
wheat crop& Prior to the influ0 of millions of Chinese settlers, Tibetans had no need to increase production so
drasticall*&
Forests an# #eforestation
In $%?% Tibet.s ancient forests covered ##$,KAA s7uare 1ilometres& ,* $%K@ the* stood at $9?,AAA s7uare 1ilometres -
almost half& )ost forests grow on steep, isolated slopes in the river valle*s of Tibet.s low-l*ing southeastern region&
The principal t*pes are tropical montane and subtropical montane coniferous forest, with spruce, fir, pine, larch,
c*press, birch, and oa1 among the main species& The tree line varies from 9,KAA metres in the region.s moist south to
?,9AA metres in the semi-dr* north&
Tibet.s forests are primaril* old growth, with trees over two hundred *ears old predominating& The average stoc1
densit* is #6# cubic metresJha, but ;-Tsang.s old growth areas reach #,9AA cubic metresJha - the world.s highest stoc1
densit* for conifers&
As new roads penetrate remote areas of Tibet the rate of deforestation increases& All roads, it should be noted, are built
or aided b* People.s +iberation Arm* or China.s 3orestr* )inistr* teams of engineers and their costs are counted as
e0penditure to /develop/ Tibet& Once roads open up, and pristine forest areas are reached, the most common method
of cutting is clear felling, which has led to the denudation of vast hillsides& Timber e0traction up to $%K@ totalled #,??#
million cubic metres, or fort* percent of the $%?% forest stoc1< this is worth ;"M@? billion&
(eforestation is a ma-or emplo*er in Tibet< in the fertile Gongpo area of the /TA!/ alone, over #A,AAA Chinese
soldiers and Tibetan prisoners are involved in tree felling and transportation of timber&
In $%?% 'gapa, Amdo, had #&#A million hectares of land under forest cover& Its timber reserve then stood at 9?A
million cubic metres& In the $%KAs it was reduced to $&$6 million hectares, with a timber reserve of onl* $KA million
cubic metres& B'gapa Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, "ichuan Publishing ouse, $%K@, p&$?%-$@?D& "imilarl*, during
thirt* *ears till $%K@, China e0tracted C&?? million cubic metres of timber from /Ganlho Tibetan Autonomous
Prefecture/& Cut into logs measuring thirt* centimetres wide and three metres long, and la*ed from end to end, this
would encircle the globe twice& BGanlho Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Gansu People.s Publishing ouse, $%K6,
p&$?@D&
The growing degradation and desertification of the Tibetan Plateau - uni7ue on earth and the planet.s most e0tensive
high land form - is continuing& This area influences atmospheric circulation and -et stream wind patterns over Asia
and, according to scientists, ma* be related to the destabili=ation of weather patterns over the northern hemisphere&
!egeneration and afforestation have been minimal due to the e0treme degree of land slope, soil and moisture,
including high diurnal temperature variations and high soil surface temperatures& With such natural conditions, the
destructive effects of clear-felling are irreversible&
Aater resources an# hy#ropoer
Tibet is Asia.s principal watershed and the source of its ma-or rivers& A substantial proportion of river flows in Tibet
are stable or base flows coming from ground water and glacial sources& This is in mar1ed contrast to river flows in
most neighbouring countries, which are determined b* seasonal rainfall patterns&
'inet* percent of Tibet.s river run off flows down across its borders, internal use accounting for less than one percent
of total river run off& Toda* Tibet.s rivers have developed e0tremel* high sediment rates: the )achu Euang o, or
Iellow !iverF, the Tsangpo E,rahmaputraF, the (richu EIangt=eF, and the "enge Ghabab EIndusF are among the five
most heavil*-silted rivers in the world& The total area irrigated b* these rivers, from the )achu basin in the east to the
"enge Ghabab in the west, supports fort* seven per cent of the earth.s human population& Tibet also has over two
thousand natural la1es - some of which are sacred or otherwise pla* a special role in the people.s culture - with a
combined area of more than 9@,AAA s7uare 1ilometres&
"teep slopes and abundant river flows give Tibet an e0ploitable h*dropower potential of #@A,AAA megawatts, the
highest of an* countr* in the world& The /TA!/ alone has a potential of #AA,AAA megawatts&
Tibet possesses the world.s highest solar energ* potential per unit after the "ahara, an estimated annual average of #AA
1ilocalorieJcm, as well as significant geothermal resources&
(espite such abundant potential from small, environmentall*-benign sources, the Chinese have built huge dams, such
as +ong*ang 4ia, and are continuing to do so, such as the h*dro-power station at Iamdro1 Iutso&
)an* of these pro-ects are designed to tap Tibet.s h*dro potential to provide power and other benefits to the Chinese
population and industries both in Tibet and China& ,ut the environmental, human and cultural toll of these h*dro-
electricit* pro-ects will be borne onl* b* Tibetans& While the Tibetans are displaced from their homes and lands, tens
of thousands of Chinese wor1ers are brought in from China to construct and maintain these dams&
These dams have ver* little benefit for local Tibetans who have no sa* over them& Ta1e the case of Iamdro1 Iutso
h*dro-power pro-ect& The Chinese claim that this pro-ect will greatl* benefit Tibetans&
Tibetan people in general, and particularl* the late Panchen +ama and 'gapo 'gawang 2igme, opposed and
effectivel* dela*ed its construction for several *ears& The Chinese, nevertheless, went ahead with the construction and
toda* more than one thousand five hundred P+A troops are guarding the construction area and no civilians are
allowed near it&
&inerals an# mining
According to official Chinese sources, Tibet has proven deposits of a hundred and twent* si0 minerals, with a
significant share of the world.s reserves of uranium, lithium, chromite, copper, bora0, and iron& Amdo.s oil fields
produce over one million tons of crude oil per *ear&
The networ1 of roads and communications built b* the Chinese in Tibet mirrors the locations of forests and mineral
reserves indiscriminatel* e0ploited b* the Chinese Government& With seven of China.s fifteen 1e* minerals due to run
out within this decade, and ma-or non-ferrous minerals virtuall* e0hausted, the rate of mineral e0traction from Tibet is
rapidl* increasing& It is believed that China plans to shift its ma-or mining operations into Tibet b* the end of this
centur*&
8nvironmental safeguards are virtuall* non-e0istent in Tibet.s mines& Particularl* in fragile terrain, this is leading to
slope destabili=ation, land degradation, and ha=ards to human health and life&
Ail#life
)an* wild animals and birds have vanished through destruction of their habitat or have been slaughtered b*
indiscriminate hunting for sport and to furbish China.s illicit trade in wildlife products& There have been numerous and
continuing reports of Chinese soldiers using automatic weapons to wipe out herds of wild *a1 and wild asses for
sport&
;nrestricted hunting of wildlife continues to ta1e place& unting /tours/ organi=ed for wealth* foreign clients - for
trophies of endangered species - appear in the official Chinese news media regularl*& 3or instance, /hunting tours/ are
being organi=ed for wealth* sportsmen from the ;nited "tates of America and Western 8urope& These /hunters/ can
bag trophies of endangered species such as the Tibetan antelope EPantholops hodgsoniF and the Argali sheep EOvis
ammon hodgsoniF, species supposedl* accorded the highest level of official protection& The hunts cost up to
;"M9@,AAA for a Tibetan antelope, M#9,AAA for an Argali, M$9,AAA for a white-lipped deer ECervus albirostrisF, M6,%AA
for a blue sheep EPseudois na*aurF, and M9,@AA for a red deer ECerrus elaphusF&
The present scenario is li1el* to result in the irrevocable loss of countless Tibetan species even before the* have been
discovered and studied& Also, it constitutes a 1nown threat to the ver* survival of species treasured in Tibetan culture
and of immeasurable value to the world&
China.s White Paper does admit that a number of animals are /on the verge of e0tinction/& In confirmation, the
International ;nion for Conservation of 'ature.s $%%A !ed +ist of 8ndangered Animal "pecies mentions thirt*
Tibetan animals&
Chinese conservation measures for Tibet, e0cept for areas now merged into Chinese provinces, were initiated long
after similar efforts in China itself& (eclared protected areas were said to cover 9$A,AAA s7&1m& or appro0imatel*
twelve percent of Tibet b* $%%$ end& The effectiveness of protection cannot be measured because of China.s strictl*
limited access, plus secrec* concerning actual data&
Nuclear an# other to5ic astes
China is reported to have stationed appro0imatel* ninet* nuclear warheads in Tibet& The 'inth Academ*, China.s
'orth-west 'uclear Weapons !esearch and (esign Academ* in Tibet.s north-eastern area of Amdo, is reported to
have dumped an un1nown 7uantit* of radioactive waste on the Tibetan plateau&
According to a report released b* International Campaign for Tibet, a Wastington, (C-based organi=ation: /Waste
disposal methods were reported to be casual in the e0treme& Initiall*, waste was put in shallow, unlined landfills &&& The
nature and 7uantit* of radioactive waste generated b* the 'inth Academ* is still un1nown&&& (uring the $%CAs and
$%6As, nuclear waste from the facilit* was disposed of in a roughshod and hapha=ard manner& 'uclear waste from the
Academ* would have ta1en a variet* of forms - li7uid slurr*, as well as solid and gaseous waste& +i7uid or solid waste
would have been in ad-acent land or water sites&/ B'uclear Tibet, Washington, (C, p&$KD&
Official Chinese pronouncements have confirmed the e0istence in Tibet of the biggest uranium reserves in the world&
!eports sa* that uranium is processed in Tibet itself and that man* local Tibetans died after drin1ing contaminated
water near a uranium mine in 'gapa, Amdo& The local Tibetans have also reported the birth of deformed humans and
animals&
In $%%$ Greenpeace e0posed plans to ship to0ic municipal sludge from the ;"A to China for use as /fertili=er/ in
Tibet& The use of similar to0ic waste as fertili=er in the ;"A has been lin1ed to outbrea1s of diseases&
!onclusion
Tibet.s comple0 environmental problems cannot be addressed b* cosmetic changes li1e designating swathes of land as
nature reserves or ma1ing laws for the people when the real perpetrator of environmental damage is the government
itself& There should be political will on the part of the Chinese leadership to restore rights over the environment to the
Tibetan people and allow them to follow their traditional conservationist practices&
In 1eeping with the vision of the (alai +ama, all of Tibet should be transformed into a =one of peace where humans
and nature can dwell in harmonious coe0istence& "uch a Tibet, as the (alai +ama said, should be completel*
demilitari=ed and must have a democratic form of government and an economic s*stem that ensures the sustainable
use of the countr*.s natural resources to provide a decent standard of living for its people&
;ltimatel*, this is in the long-term interests of all the neighbouring countries as environmental conditions in Tibet
have ma-or transboundar* effects, notabl* in India, China, ,angladesh and Pa1istan& 'earl* half of the global
population, particularl* in these four countries, depend on the rivers of Tibet for their sustenance& "ome of the ma-or
floods in these countries during the last decade have been attributed to deforestation-related siltation of Tibet.s rivers&
The destructive potential of these rivers increases each *ear as China continues its deforestation and uranium-related
activities on the !oof of the World&
;nless urgent action is ta1en now to stop this, the rivers of Tibet - which traditionall* brought -o* and sustenance -
ma* one da* bring death and destruction&
&ilitari@ation an# Regional Peace
In $%?% the first vanguard of the PeopleLs +iberation Arm* entered Tibet& In the spring of $%@A ChinaLs $Kth Arm*
entered Tibet through (artsedo EChinese: (a-ianluF in the east, and through Amdo in the northeast& The $?th (ivision
entered through (echen in the southeast of Tibet& After occup*ing Gham and Amdo, the advance part* of the $Kth
Arm* entered +hasa on "eptember %, $%@$, followed b* the unitLs main force on October #C, $%@$& This was onl* the
start of a vast programme of militar* build up in Tibet&
&ilitary e5pansion on the Tibetan plateau
;ntil $%KC areas under Communist Chinese rule were divided into eleven militar* regions, and Tibet was put under
the control of three regions& In $%KC, when the total number of militar* regions was reduced to seven, the whole of
Tibet was put under two militar* regions: "outhwest )ilitar* !egion with its head7uarters at Chengdu and the
+an=hou )ilitar* !egion with its head7uarters at +an=hou&
Toda* the /TA!/, /Gan=e EGar=eF Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture/, /Aba E'gapaF Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture/,
/(echen Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture/, and /)ili Tibetan Autonomous (istrict/ fall under the "outhwest )ilitar*
!egion< while >inghai Province, /Ganlho Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture/ and /Tian=hu Tibetan Autonomous
(istrict/, fall under +an=hou )ilitar* !egion&
The Chinese militar* presence in the whole of Tibet is toda* conservativel* estimated to number around @AA,AAA
uniformed personnel& The Chinese official figure of ?A,9%? P+A personnel in the /TA!/ is misinformation& According
to our information, the strength of armed forces in the region is around #@A,AAA& This does not include the local militia
establishment which was set up in $%C9&
There are si0 sub-militar* districts in the /Tibet Autonomous !egion/, having two independent infantr* divisions, si0
border defence regiments, five independent border defence battalions, three artiller* regiments, three engineersL
regiments, one main signal station and two signal regiments, three transport regiments and three independent transport
battalions, four air force bases, two radar regiments, two divisions and a regiment of para-militar* forces Ereferred to
as (i-fang 2un or /local arm*/F, one independent division and si0 independent regiments of PeopleLs Armed Police&
In addition, there are twelve units of what is 1nown as the /second artiller* Eor missileF division/& Out of the man* air
bases built, currentl* onl* four are in active use& The PeopleLs Armed Police are regular P+A troops, redesignated as
such recentl*&
The frontline P+A troop concentrations in the /TA!/ are stationed at !utho1, G*amu1 EChinese: "i7enhoF, (rongpa,
"aga, (rangso E(hingriF, Gampa-la, (romo, Tsona, +huntse (=ong, 5a*ul, etc& The second line of defence stations
are concentrated at "higatse, +hasa, 'agchu1ha, Tsethang, 'angartse district, G*amdha, '*ingtri, )iling, Powo
Tramo, Tsawa Pomdha, Chamdo, etc& In addition, China regularl* deplo*s the "ichuan-based $?% Airborne (ivision
in the /TA!/, as it did in the wa1e of the Tibetan demonstrations in +hasa in $%K6 and thereafter&
China has also shifted the head7uarters of the Tibet )ilitar* (istrict from Chengdu to a site located to the south-west
of +hasa, along the highwa* to Gong1ar airport& !eports sa* that the +hasa P+A head7uarters - stretching for more
than a 1ilometre in length - ma* also see a /part of ChinaLs "outh-Western command head7uarters Ethe Chengdu
militar* regionF &&& moving to +hasa/& The new comple0, under construction, includes about fort* three-store*
buildings, each containing about fort* rooms, and capable of accommodating up to $@,AAA men&
The largest militar* bases in Amdo are in 4inning E"illingF, Chabcha, and Golmud EGarmuF& All three locations also
have air force bases&
The once-deserted wasteland of Garmu has now been turned into a ma-or militar* base& +ocated strategicall* to cover
both Tibet and 8astern Tur1estan, this region is connected b* road, rail and air&
The Chinese militar* build-up in Gham and 'gapa regions is concentrated on +ithang, Gar=e, Tawu, (artsedo, etc, in
Gham, and ,ar1ham in 'gapa& owever, there are radar stations and dormant air strips at various strategic locations
in Gham&
Nuclear bases
The e0istence of nuclear bases and nuclear weapons manufacturing centres in Tibet have been reported from time to
time& China is believed to have nuclear manufacturing centres at (hashu EChinese: ai*anF which is in the /aibei
Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture/ and Tong1hor EChinese: uang*uanF in Amdo&
ChinaLs primar* weapons research and design facilit* in (hashu was constructed in the earl* si0ties& According to
'uclear Tibet, the facilit* is based near +a1e Go1onor& It is 1nown as the 'orthwest 'uclear Weapons !esearch and
(esign Academ*, or the /'inth Academ*/, because it was under the -urisdiction of the 'inth ,ureau&
The facilit* is the most secret organi=ation in ChinaLs entire nuclear programme and remains toda* an important and
high securit* militar* weapons plant& It was responsible for designing all of ChinaLs nuclear bombs through the mid-
seventies& It also served as a research centre for detonation development, radio-chemistr* and man* other nuclear
weapons-related activities& It also assembled components of nuclear weapons&
)issile bases are located to the south of +a1e Go1onor in Amdo, and to the northwest of 'agchu1ha&
According to 'uclear Tibet, the first nuclear weapon was brought onto the Tibetan plateau in $%6$ and stationed in
the Tsaidam basin, in northern Amdo& China currentl* has appro0imatel* three hundred to four hundred nuclear
warheads, of which several do=en are believed to be in Tibet& As ChinaLs ground-based nuclear missiles can be
transported and fired from trailers, efforts to locate and count missiles in certain areas remain difficult&
To the west of (hashu, China established a nuclear missile deplo*ment and launch site for (3-? missiles EChinaLs
first inter-continental ballistic missileF in the Tsaidam basin in the earl* seventies& The report mentions that the +arger
Tsaidam site has two missiles stored hori=ontall* in tunnels near the launch pad& 3uel and o0idiser is stored in separate
tunnels with lines to the launch pad& The "maller Tsaidam site is presumed to be organi=ed similarl* to the +arger
Tsaidam deplo*ment and launch site&
Another nuclear missile site in Tibet is located at (elingha, about two hundred 1m southeast of +arger Tsaidam& It
also houses (3-?s, and is the missile regimental head7uarters for Amdo containing four associated launch sites& A new
nuclear division has also been established in Amdo& 3our C""-? missiles are reported to be based there, which have a
range of K,AAA miles E$#,K6? 1mF, capable of stri1ing the ;nited "tates, 8urope and all of Asia&
In $%KK China carried out in Tibet what the 2iefang-un ,ao of "eptember $C, $%KK called /chemical defence
manoeuvres in the high altitude =one to test newl*-developed e7uipment/& According to a TA"" report of 2ul* 9,
$%K#, /China has been conducting nuclear tests in several areas of Tibet in order to determine the radiation levels
among the people living in those parts/&
!onclusion
'uclear weapons are the ver* antithesis of the Tibetan cultural tradition and spirit& 3ree Tibet will have no place for
such armaments of mass destruction& It is in view of this fact that the (alai +ama said in his "trasbourg Proposal of
2une $@, $%KK:
/)* countr*.s uni7ue histor* and profound spiritual heritage render it ideall* suited for fulfilling the role of a
sanctuar* of peace at the heart of Asia& Its historic status as a neutral buffer state, contributing to the stabilit* of the
entire continent, can be restored& Peace and securit* for Asia as well as for the world at large can be enhanced& In the
future, Tibet need no longer be an occupied land, oppressed b* force, unproductive and scarred b* suffering& It can
become a free haven where humanit* and nature live in harmonious balance< a creative model for the resolution of
tensions afflicting man* areas throughout the world&/
The Buest for a Solution
3rom $%@% until $%6% the Tibetan Government-in-80ile and the Chinese Government had no contact& owever,
throughout this period the (alai +ama retained his hope of finding a peaceful solution to the problem of Tibet through
contact and dialogue with the Chinese Government& "oon after coming to India, the (alai +ama issued a press
statement in )ussoorie on 2une #A, $%@%, wherein he said:
/Although recent actions and policies of the Chinese authorities in Tibet have created strong feelings of bitterness and
resentment against the Government of China, we, Tibetans, la* and mon1 ali1e, do not cherish an* feelings of enmit*
and hatred against the great Chinese people& &&& We must also insist on the creation of a favourable climate b* the
immediate adoption of the essential measures as a condition precedent to negotiations for a peaceful settlement&/
In the light of political changes in China, the (alai +ama, in his )arch $A, statement to the Tibetan people in $%6K,
said:
/ETFhe Chinese should allow the Tibetans in Tibet to visit their parents and relatives now in e0ile&&& "imilar
opportunit* should be given to the Tibetans in e0ile& ;nder such an arrangement we can be confident of 1nowing the
true situation inside Tibet&/
Towards the end of $%6K, )r G*alo Thondup Ean elder brother of the (alai +amaF was contacted through a common
friend, b* )r +i 2uisin, director of 4inhua 'ews Agenc*, in ong Gong& A meeting was arranged in 2anuar* $%6%
during which )r +i e0tended )r (eng 4iaoping.s invitation to )r Thondup to visit ,ei-ing to discuss the Tibet
problem& With the approval of the (alai +ama, )r Thondup made a private visit to ,ei-ing in late 3ebruar* $%6%&
)r Thondup met with leading Chinese officials in ,ei-ing& The* told him that under the /Gang of 3our/ China had
suffered great instabilit*, affecting its development in the fields of industr* and agriculture& Tibet also suffered as a
result of this, the* said, and added that the $%@% uprising in Tibet was inspired b* a number of factors for which the
(alai +ama and the Tibetan people could not be blamed&
)r (eng 4iaoping said during his meeting with )r Thondup that as it is better to see things once with one.s own e*es
than to hear a hundred times, he would invite e0ile Tibetans of all ages to visit Tibet and see the actual situation for
themselves& )r (eng went on to sa* that China was willing to discuss and resolve with Tibetans all issues other than
the complete independence of Tibet&
The (alai +ama and the Tibetan Government responded b* sending three fact-finding delegations to Tibet in $%6% and
$%KA& The fourth delegation, consisting of si0teen members representing various Tibetan ,uddhist schools and people
from other wal1s of life, was also arranged& owever, on August C, $%KA China e0pressed its inabilit* to receive this
delegation on the grounds that it would not be able to accord the delegates a proper reception as /the weather in Tibet
is going to be cold, and also because some development wor1 is in progress/& "o, this visit did not materiali=e&
After repeated reminders to the Chinese Government of (eng 4iaoping.s invitation, the fourth delegation, led b*
former Galon E)inisterF W&G& Gundeling, was allowed to visit onl* the north-eastern region of Tibet in 2ul* $%K@& At
the end of the visit, the delegation told the Chinese Government about the problems the* had observed in Tibet and
as1ed for them to be rectified& "ince then no delegation has been allowed to visit Tibet&
owever, the (alai +ama and the Tibetan Government-in-80ile continued to ma1e sincere efforts to develop closer
contact and a better understanding with the Chinese Government& The (alai +ama and the Tibetan Government too1
several confidence-building steps and other initiatives&
On 2ul* #$, $%KA it was suggested that travel restrictions on Tibetans wishing to visit their relatives in and outside
Tibet should be eased& This was re-ected b* ,ei-ing& The bac1ground of Tibetans wishing to visit their relatives
outside Tibet is thoroughl* scrutini=ed, and in most cases, the* are also re7uired to leave members of their families
behind as hostages& "imilarl*, e0ile Tibetans wishing to visit Tibet are re7uired to travel on Chinese-issued documents
describing them as /Overseas Chinese/&
In "eptember $%KA the e0ile government offered to send about fift* trained Tibetan teachers to help in Tibet& In
response, China first stalled the matter b* stating that since these Tibetan *ouths were brought up and educated in
India with good facilities, the* would face difficulties in ad-usting to the poor living conditions in Tibet& Instead, the*
proposed that the teachers should first be sent to wor1 in various 'ationalities "chools within China& The e0ile
Tibetan government replied that the Tibetan volunteers were full* aware of the poor facilities in Tibet& +eft with no
valid reasons to den* permission, the Chinese Government put forward unacceptable pre-conditions b* suggesting
that the Tibetan teachers must first accept Chinese nationalit*&
Around the same time the Tibetan suggestion to open a liaison office in ,ei-ing to foster closer contacts was also
turned down&
On (ecember $?, $%KA the Government-in-80ile as1ed the Chinese authorities to allow eleven Tibetan scholars,
living in Tibet, to attend a conference of Tibetologists& This met with an outright re-ection&
On )arch $9, $%K$ the (alai +ama wrote a letter to (eng 4iaoping, in which, amongst other things, he stated:
/The time has come to appl* our common wisdom in a spirit of tolerance and broad-mindedness to achieve genuine
happiness for the Tibetan people with renewed urgenc*& On m* part, I remain committed to contribute to the welfare
of all human beings and, in particular, the poor and wea1, to the best of m* abilit*, without ma1ing an* discrimination
based on nationalities& I hope *ou will let me 1now *our views on the foregoing points&/
There was no repl* to this letter& Instead, on 2ul* #K, $%K$ General-"ecretar* u Iaobang gave )r G*alo Thondup a
document, entitled /3ive-point Polic* Towards the (alai +ama/, which reduced the issue of Tibet.s occupation to the
personal status of the (alai +ama&
"ince the onl* real issue is the future well-being of the Tibetan people, in April $%K# the (alai +ama sent a three-
member, high-level delegation to ,ei-ing to have e0plorator* tal1s with the Chinese leadership& This delegation put
forward a number of broad proposals for consideration b* the Chinese leaders&
In 3ebruar* $%K9 the (alai +ama e0pressed his desire to visit Tibet around $%K@& In the meantime, under the so-called
Anti-pollution Campaign, a new phase of political repression was unleashed in Tibet, leading to the arrest and
imprisonment of a number of persons&
In October $%K? another three-member, high-level delegation was sent to ,ei-ing to as1 the Chinese Government to
end its latest political repression in Tibet, discuss arrangements for the possible visit of the (alai +ama, and to e0plore
possibilities for further tal1s& The Chinese responses to all these overtures were negative& Contrar* to the
understanding to 1eep these bi-lateral discussions confidential, the Chinese Government chose to ma1e its re-ection
public through its media&
It is clear from the above facts that the (alai +ama and his Government did tr* to initiate meaningful, direct, bi-lateral
dialogues with the Chinese Government& When all these attempts failed the (alai +ama was left with no alternative,
but to ma1e his position public and appeal for international support&
Addressing the ;nited "tates Congress. uman !ights Caucus on "eptember #$, $%K6, the (alai +ama proposed a
3ive Point Peace Plan for Tibet& The five points are:
$& Transformation of the whole of Tibet into a =one of peace<
#& Abandonment of China.s population transfer polic* which threatens the ver* e0istence of the Tibetans as a
people<
9& !espect for the Tibetan people.s fundamental human rights and democratic freedoms<
?& !estoration and protection of Tibet.s natural environment and the abandonment of China.s use of Tibet for the
production of nuclear weapons and dumping of nuclear waste<
@& Commencement of earnest negotiations on the future status of Tibet and of relations between the Tibetan and
Chinese peoples&
!e-ecting this proposal on October $6, $%K6, the Chinese leadership accused the (alai +ama of widening the gulf
between himself and their Government& (espite the uncivil response, the (alai +ama made an earnest effort to clarif*
the Tibetan position in a detailed fourteen-point note, conve*ed to the Chinese Government on (ecember $6, $%K6&
On 2une $@, $%KK, at the 8uropean Parliament in "trasbourg, the (alai +ama made another detailed proposal which
elaborated on the last point of the 3ive Point Peace Plan regarding negotiations&
An advance cop* of the te0t of this speech was given to the Chinese Government through its 8mbass* in 'ew (elhi&
"ubse7uentl*, the (alai +ama.s !epresentative in 'ew (elhi met the Chinese Charge d.Affaires in 'ew (elhi on
August ## and #% to clarif* some of the misgivings the Chinese Government had raised through various press
statements& Amongst other things, the !epresentative emphasi=ed that the "trasbourg Proposal was ver* much within
the parameters of (eng 4iaoping.s statement to G*alo Thondup in $%6%, when he said that ever*thing, e0cept the
7uestion of complete independence, could be discussed& In the "trasbourg Proposal, the (alai +ama had put forward
the notion of association with China rather than separation from it&
On "eptember #$, $%KK the Chinese 8mbass* in 'ew (elhi informed a senior official of the (alai +ama that its
Government was willing to have tal1s with the representative of the (alai +ama at the venue and time of the latter.s
choice&
Welcoming the Chinese announcement, the Gashag ECabinetF, on "eptember #9, $%KK, said: /We hope this positive
response to our suggestion is an indication that the Chinese sincerel* wish to deal with the issue this time&/
On October #@, $%KK the Chinese Government was informed through it 'ew (elhi 8mbass* that the venue for tal1s
should be Geneva which is the most convenient and neutral place, and that the tal1s should begin in 2anuar* $%K%&
In earl* 'ovember $%KK )r Iang )infu, head of China.s ;nited 3ront Wor1 (epartment, told )r G*alo Thondup
that although the* differed in thin1ing over some points of the "trasbourg Proposal, these could be discussed and
resolved&
owever, on 'ovember $K, $%KK the Chinese Government, through its 'ew (elhi 8mbass*, put forward the
following pre-conditions for the tal1s:
The Chinese Government disapproves of the wa* the venue and date for the proposed tal1s were publicl*
announced& The most suitable venue for tal1s is ,ei-ing&
The si0-member negotiating team appointed b* the (alai +ama is not acceptable as all of them have alwa*s
engaged in splittist activities& 'either is the (utch law*er acceptable as this tal1 deals with internal matters
onl*&
The Chinese Government would li1e to have direct tal1s with the (alai +ama& owever, it is also willing to
accept a trusted representative of the (alai +ama, li1e G*alo Thondup&
The "trasbourg Proposal cannot be the basis for tal1s& The pre-conditions for holding the tal1s is to accept and
support the unit* of the /)otherland/&
The Tibetan Government was naturall* disappointed b* this communication as it was inconsistent with the earlier
public statements and official communications received from ,ei-ing&
On (ecember @, $%KK the Tibetan Government responded to the Chinese communication and said:
"ince the Chinese Government left the choice of venue and date for tal1s to the (alai +ama, he responded in
good faith b* proposing Geneva as the venue and 2anuar* $%K% as the date for starting the negotiations&
On numerous occasions, the Chinese Government stated publicl*, as well as through messages conve*ed to
the Tibetan Government, that it was willing to meet and negotiate with an* persons appointed b* the (alai
+ama& The Tibetan Government, therefore, fails to understand the Chinese refusal to accept the delegation
appointed b* the (alai +ama& It should be the prerogative of the (alai +ama to appoint whomsoever he
chooses to negotiate on his behalf& (r )ichael van Walt van Praag is not a member of the negotiating team&
e is onl* a legal advisor&
As suggested b* the Chinese Government, )r G*alo Thondup will be associated with the tal1s as an advisor
of the Tibetan team&
3air and meaningful negotiations on the future of Tibet can onl* ta1e place without the imposition of pre-
conditions b* either side& The proposals contained in the "trasbourg statement provide the most reasonable
and realistic basis for such discussions&
In 2anuar* $%K%, when the Panchen +ama passed awa* in Tibet, the (alai +ama proposed to send a ten-member
Tibetan religious delegation to Tashilhunpo )onaster* in "higatse and other areas in Tibet, such as +hasa, Gumbum
and +abrang Tashi-1*il for the purpose of offering pra*ers and performing a Galacha1ra ceremon* for the late
Panchen +ama& China re-ected the re7uest and stated that there was no precedence for pra*ers of this scale and that it
could not accept two leaders of the delegation who, the* said, were officials of the Gashag& The Tibetan Government
agreed to withdraw them and approached the Chinese Government once again&
On )arch $6, $%K% the repl* came through the Chinese 8mbass*& China agreed to receive onl* two or three lamas as
representatives of the (alai +ama& ,ut the lamas must go onl* to Tashilhunpo, that too via ,ei-ing, and must return to
India immediatel* after offering the pra*ers& In the same message, the Chinese Government accused the Tibetan
Government-in-80ile of having plotted the /troubles/ in +hasa, and critici=ed the (alai +ama for appealing to world
leaders for help in getting )artial +aw in Tibet lifted&
On )arch #9, $%K% the Tibetan Government gave the following repl* to the Chinese 8mbass*: /!efusal to allow the
proposed religious delegation to visit Tibet to ma1e religious offerings and perform a special Galacha1ra Pra*er
Ceremon* for the late Panchen !inpoche, even after we agreed to ma1e some changes in the members of the
delegation and e0plained the re7uirement of the minimum number of mon1s we had suggested for performing the
Galacha1ra Pra*er Ceremon*, is *et another disappointing e0perience for us& Obviousl* there is no point in sending
two or three mon1s&
/We wish to den* categoricall*, once again, the allegation that we were behind the recent troubles in Tibet and that we
are engaging in some 1ind of terrorist activities b* smuggling into Tibet trained persons and arms& We would li1e the
Government to produce substantive evidence to support these serious allegations and also allow an independent
international commission to visit Tibet to determine the real causes of the trouble in Tibet&
/It is within the right of an* person to appeal for help when faced with a desperate situation& In order to avoid further
bloodshed and repression, is oliness the (alai +ama appealed to various world leaders, including Chairman (eng
4iaoping& is oliness. consistent effort for direct dialogue and peaceful resolution of the problem is well 1nown&
/We, once again, urge the Government of the P!C to commence the proposed negotiations soon& An* attempt to dela*
it on one e0cuse or the other will not be helpful& is oliness made the proposal last 2une and suggested the
commencement of the tal1s in 2anuar* this *ear& "ince (ecember @, $%KK we had both in writing and messages
through the 8mbass* in 'ew (elhi conve*ed our sincere clarifications to the doubts and ob-ections raised b* the
Government& The latest accusation against us for spoiling the atmosphere and blaming us for the dela* in starting tal1s
is unfair&
/2udging b* our e0perience so far, we feel that the Government of the P!C still has not given up its authoritarian
attitude and bull*ing tactics& If this continues there will be the need of the presence of a third part* in our proposed
negotiations to ensure that there are no further accusations and intimidations&/
8ven after the imposition of )artial +aw in Tibet in $%KK, the (alai +ama offered to send some representatives to
ong Gong to have preparator* meetings with the representatives of the Chinese Government& In order to create a
conducive atmosphere for dialogue, the (alai +ama re7uested an earl* end to )artial +aw&
In a repl*, received through the Chinese 8mbass* in 'ew (elhi on )a* $6, $%K%, the Chinese Government -ustified
the imposition of )artial +aw /to deal with a handful of criminals indulging in beating, robber* and banditr*/, and
stated that appealing for its end was tantamount to supporting the criminals& The repl* further stated that the (alai
+ama.s proposal for turning the whole of Tibet into a 5one of Peace would never be accepted b* the Chinese
Government& It did not respond to the Tibetan proposal for preliminar* tal1s in ong Gong&
The (alai +ama waited for two *ears for a positive response from the Chinese side to his proposal for negotiations&
Then, in $%%$, during his )arch $A statement, the (alai +ama warned that unless the Chinese Government responded
positivel* to his proposal without further dela*s, he would consider himself free from an* obligations to abide b* the
concessions he had made in the "trasbourg Proposal&
On )arch #@, $%%$ the Chinese Government was informed through its 'ew (elhi 8mbass* that the (alai +ama
wished to assist in the search for the authentic reincarnation of the late Panchen +ama& To facilitate this, the Chinese
Government was informed that the (alai +ama wished to send a delegation of high lamas and abbots to +hamoi
+hatso, the sacred la1e near +hasa, to pra* and observe prophetic visions in the la1e which would guide them to the
genuine reincarnation& After more than three months, the Chinese Government replied that there was no need for
outside interference in this matter and that the reincarnation of the Panchen +ama would be found b* the officials
responsible at Tashilhunpo )onaster*&
'otwithstanding these frustrating and disappointing e0periences, the (alai +ama did not want the situation to remain
at a stalemate& In his address to Iale ;niversit* in October $%%$, the (alai +ama made a fresh overture to the Chinese
Government b* suggesting a personal visit to Tibet, accompanied b* some senior Chinese leaders, to ma1e an on-the-
spot assessment of the actual situation in Tibet&
In the same spirit, the (alai +ama sought a meeting with the Chinese Premier, +i Peng, during the latter.s visit to India
in (ecember $%%$& These positive and constructive initiatives were also re-ected&
In view of these facts, the Assembl* of Tibetan People.s (eputies, on 2anuar* #9, $%%#, passed a resolution stating
that the Tibetan e0ile government should not initiate an* new move for negotiations with China unless there was a
positive change in the attitude of the Chinese leadership& The resolution, however, noted that the Tibetan Government
would have no ob-ection to negotiations if the overture came from the Chinese Government, either directl* or through
a third part*&
In April $%%# the Chinese Ambassador in 'ew (elhi called on )r G*alo Thondup and told him that the Chinese
Government.s position in the past had been /conservative/, but that it was willing to be /fle0ible/ if the Tibetans were
prepared to be /realistic/& e invited )r Thondup to visit China& In 2une )r Thondup went to ,ei-ing with the
approval of the (alai +ama and the Tibetan Government-in-80ile&
On his return, he reported to the (alai +ama and the Gashag of his meetings with Chinese officials& The report was
discussed b* the Assembl* of Tibetan People.s (eputies during its third session& Contrar* to what the Chinese
Ambassador had told )r Thondup, there was no indication of fle0ibilit* in the Chinese Government.s attitude& As a
matter of fact, ver* serious accusations were made against the (alai +ama and the Tibetan Government-in-80ile&
The Tibetan Government-in-80ile, therefore, sent a two-member delegation to China in 2une $%%9 to e0plain and
clarif* its views on the points raised b* the Chinese Government& The delegation carried a personal letter and a
detailed memorandum from the (alai +ama to Chinese leaders (eng 4iaoping and 2iang 5emin&
In the memorandum, the (alai +ama stated: /If China wants Tibet to sta* with China, then it must create the
necessar* conditions for this& The time has come now for the Chinese to show the wa* for Tibet and China to live
together in friendship& A detailed step b* step outline regarding Tibet.s basic status should be spelled out& If such a
clear outline is given, regardless of the possibilit* and non-possibilit* of an agreement, we Tibetans can then ma1e a
decision whether to live with China or not& If we Tibetans obtain our basic rights to our satisfaction, then we are not
incapable of seeing the possible advantages of living with the Chinese&/
This suggestion was also ignored& Instead, China continued to impose unacceptable preconditions and narrow down
the issue for negotiations to the return of the (alai +ama&
3aced with such an intransigent position on the part of the Chinese leadership, the (alai +ama said in his )arch $A
statement of $%%?: /I must now recogni=e that m* approach has failed to produce an* progress either for substantive
negotiations or in contributing to the overall improvement of the situation in Tibet& )oreover, I am conscious of the
fact that a growing number of Tibetans, both inside as well as outside Tibet, have been disheartened b* m*
conciliator* stand not to demand complete independence for Tibet&/
The (alai +ama and the Tibetan Government firml* believe that the onl* wa* to start negotiations for the peaceful
solution of the Tibet problem is without pre-conditions from either side& It is encouraging to find that an increasing
number of governments and world leaders are supporting this ver* reasonable proposition&