Transformer

Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P.
Sasidhara Rao

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Transformers
1 Introduction
Michael Faraday propounded the principle of electro-magnetic induction in 1831.
It states that a voltage appears across the terminals of an electric coil when the ux linked
with the same changes. The magnitude of the induced voltage is proportional to the rate of
change of the ux linkages. This nding forms the basis for many magneto electric machines.
The earliest use of this phenomenon was in the development of induction coils. These coils
were used to generate high voltage pulses to ignite the explosive charges in the mines. As
the d.c. power system was in use at that time, very little of transformer principle was made
use of. In the d.c. supply system the generating station and the load center have to be
necessarily close to each other due to the requirement of economic transmission of power.
Also the d.c. generators cannot be scaled up due to the limitations of the commutator. This
made the world look for other ecient methods for bulk power generation and transmis-
sion. During the second half of the 19th century the alternators, transformers and induction
motors were invented. These machines work on alternating power supply. The role of the
transformers became obvious. The transformer which consisted of two electric circuits linked
by a common magnetic circuit helped the voltage and current levels to be changed keeping
the power invariant. The eciency of such conversion was extremely high. Thus one could
choose a moderate voltage for the generation of a.c. power, a high voltage for the transmis-
sion of this power over long distances and nally use a small and safe operating voltage at
the user end. All these are made possible by transformers. The a.c. power systems thus got
well established.
1
Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P. Sasidhara Rao


Transformers can link two or more electric circuits. In its simple form two electric
circuits can be linked by a magnetic circuit, one of the electric coils is used for the creation
of a time varying magnetic led. The second coil which is made to link this eld has an
induced voltage in the same. The magnitude of the induced emf is decided by the number
of turns used in each coil. Thus the voltage level can be increased or decreased by changing
the number of turns. This excitation winding is called a primary and the output winding
is called a secondary. As a magnetic medium forms the link between the primary and the
secondary windings there is no conductive connection between the two electric circuits. The
transformer thus provides an electric isolation between the two circuits. The frequency on
the two sides will be the same. As there is no change in the nature of the power, the re-
sulting machine is called a transformer and not a converter. The electric power at one
voltage/current level is only transformed into electric power, at the same frequency, to an-
other voltage/current level.
Even though most of the large-power transformers can be found in the power systems,
the use of the transformers is not limited to the power systems. The use of the principle
of transformers is universal. Transformers can be found operating in the frequency range
starting from a few hertz going up to several mega hertz. Power ratings vary from a few
milliwatts to several hundreds of megawatts. The use of the transformers is so wide spread
that it is virtually impossible to think of a large power system without transformers. Demand
on electric power generation doubles every decade in a developing country. For every MVA
of generation the installed capacity of transformers grows by about 7MVA. These gures
show the indispensable nature of power transformers.
2


2 Basic Principles
As mentioned earlier the transformer is a static device working on the principle of
Faradays law of induction. Faradays law states that a voltage appears across the terminals
of an electric coil when the ux linkages associated with the same changes. This emf is
proportional to the rate of change of ux linkages. Putting mathematically,
e =
d
dt
(1)
Where, e is the induced emf in volt and is the ux linkages in Weber turn. Fig. 1 shows a
Figure 1: Flux linkages of a coil
coil of N turns. All these N turns link ux lines of Weber resulting in the N ux linkages.
In such a case,
= N (2)
and
e = N
d
dt
volt (3)
The change in the ux linkage can be brought about in a variety of ways
coil may be static and unmoving but the ux linking the same may change with time.
3


ux lines may be constant and not changing in time but the coil may move in space
linking dierent value of ux with time.
both 1 and 2 above may take place. The ux lines may change in time with coil moving
in space.
These three cases are now elaborated in sequence below, with the help of a coil with a simple
geometry.
L
B
X
+ -
Figure 2: Static coil
Fig. 2 shows a region of length L m, of uniform ux density B Tesla, the
ux lines being normal to the plane of the paper. A loop of one turn links part of this ux.
The ux linked by the turn is L B X Weber. Here X is the length of overlap in meters
as shown in the gure. If now B does not change with time and the loop is unmoving then
no emf is induced in the coil as the ux linkages do not change. Such a condition does not
yield any useful machine. On the other hand if the value of B varies with time a voltage is
induced in the coil linking the same coil even if the coil does not move. The magnitude of B
4


is assumed to be varying sinusoidally, and can be expressed as,
B = B
m
sin t (4)
where B
m
is the peak amplitude of the ux density. is the angular rate of change with
time. Then, the instantaneous value of the ux linkage is given by,
= N = NLXB
m
sin t (5)
The instantaneous value of the induced emf is given by,
e =
d
dt
= N
m
. cos t = N
m
.. sin(t +

2
) (6)
Here
m
= B
m
.L.X. The peak value of the induced emf is
e
m
= N
m
. (7)
and the rms value is given by
E =
N
m
.
2
volt.
Further, this induced emf has a phase dierence of /2 radian with respect to the
ux linked by the turn. This emf is termed as transformer emf and this principle is used
in a transformer. Polarity of the emf is obtained by the application of Lenzs law. Lenzs
law states that the reaction to the change in the ux linkages would be such as to oppose
the cause. The emf if permitted to drive a current would produce a counter mmf to oppose
this changing ux linkage. In the present case, presented in Fig. 2 the ux linkages are
assumed to be increasing. The polarity of the emf is as indicated. The loop also experiences
a compressive force.
Fig. 2(b) shows the same example as above but with a small dierence. The ux
density is held constant at B Tesla. The ux linked by the coil at the current position is
5


= B.L.X Weber. The conductor is moved with a velocity v = dx/dt normal to the ux,
cutting the ux lines and changing the ux linkages. The induced emf as per the application
of Faradays law of induction is e = N.B.L.dx/dt = B.L.v volt.(Here N=1)
Please note,the actual ux linked by the coil is immaterial. Only the change in the
ux linkages is needed to be known for the calculation of the voltage. The induced emf is
in step with the change in and there is no phase shift. If the ux density B is distributed
sinusoidally over the region in the horizontal direction, the emf induced also becomes sinu-
soidal. This type of induced emf is termed as speed emf or rotational emf, as it arises out of
the motion of the conductor. The polarity of the induced emf is obtained by the application
of the Lenzs law as before. Here the changes in ux linkages is produced by motion of the
conductor. The current in the conductor, when the coil ends are closed, makes the conductor
experience a force urging the same to the left. This is how the polarity of the emf shown in
g.2b is arrived at. Also the mmf of the loop aids the eld mmf to oppose change in ux
linkages. This principle is used in d.c machines and alternators.
The third case under the application of the Faradays law arises when the ux changes
and also the conductor moves. This is shown in Fig. 2(c).
The uniform ux density in space is assumed to be varying in magnitude in time as
B = B
m
sin t. The conductor is moved with a uniform velocity of
dx
dt
= v m/sec. The
change in the ux linkages and hence induced emf is given by
e = N.
d(B
m
. sin t.L.X)
dt
= N.L.X.B
m
.. cos t. + N.B
m
. sin t.L.
dx
dt
V olt. (8)
6


The rst term is due to the changing ux and hence is a transformer emf. The second
term is due to moving conductor or is a speed emf. When the terminals are closed such as
to permit a current the conductor experiences a force and also the mmf of the coil opposes
the change in ux linkages. This principle is used in a.c. machines where the eld is time
varying and conductors are moving under the same.
The rst case where there is a time varying eld and a stationary coil resulting in
a transformer emf is the subject matter in the present section. The case two will be re-
visited under the study of the d.c machines and synchronous machines. Case three will be
extensively used under the study of a.c machines such as induction machines and also in a.c.
commutator machines.
Next in the study of the transformers comes the question of creating a time varying
led. This is easily achieved by passing a time varying current through a coil. The winding
which establishes the eld is called the primary. The other winding, which is kept in that
eld and has a voltage induced in it, is called a secondary. It should not be forgotten that
the primary also sees the same time varying eld set up by it linking its turns and has an
induced emf in the same. These aspects will be examined in the later sections. At rst
the common constructional features of a transformer used in electric power supply system
operating at 50 Hz are examined.
7


3 Constructional features
Transformers used in practice are of extremely large variety depending upon the
end use. In addition to the transformers used in power systems, in power transmission and
distribution, a large number of special transformers are in use in applications like electronic
supplies, rectication, furnaces, traction etc. Here the focus is on power transformers only.
The principle of operation of these transformers also is the same but the user requirements
dier. Power transformers of smaller sizes could be air cooled while the larger ones are
oil cooled. These machines are highly material intensive equipments and are designed to
match the applications for best operating conditions. Hence they are tailor made to a
job. This brings in a very large variety in their constructional features. Here more common
constructional aspects alone are discussed. These can be broadly divided into
1. Core construction
2. Winding arrangements
3. Cooling aspects
3.1 Core construction
Transformer core for the power frequency application is made of highly permeable
material. The high value of permeability helps to give a low reluctance for the path of
the ux and the ux lines mostly conne themselves to the iron. Relative permeability
r
well over 1000 are achieved by the present day materials. Silicon steel in the form of thin
laminations is used for the core material. Over the years progressively better magnetic prop-
erties are obtained by going in for Hot rolled non-oriented to Hot rolled grain oriented steel.
8


Later better laminations in the form of cold Rolled Grain Oriented (CRGO), -High B (HiB)
grades became available. The thickness of the laminations progressively got reduced from
over 0.5mm to the present 0.25mm per lamination. These laminations are coated with a thin
layer of insulating varnish, oxide or phosphate. The magnetic material is required to have
a high permeability and a high saturation ux density, a very low remanence B
r
and a
small area under the B-H loop-to permit high ux density of operation with low magnetizing
current and low hysteresis loss. The resistivity of the iron sheet itself is required to be high
to reduce the eddy current losses. The eddy current itself is highly reduced by making the
laminations very thin. If the lamination is made too thin then the production cost of steel
laminations increases. The steel should not have residual mechanical stresses which reduce
their magnetic properties and hence must be annealed after cutting and stacking.
In the case of very small transformers (from a few volt-amperes to a few kilo volt-
amperes) hot rolled silicon steel laminations in the form of E & I, C & I or O as shown in
Fig. 3 are used and the core cross section would be a square or a rectangle. The percentage
of silicon in the steel is about 3.5. Above this value the steel becomes very brittle and also
very hard to cut. The saturation ux density of the present day steel lamination is about 2
Tesla.
Broadly classifying, the core construction can be separated into core type and
shell type. In a core type construction the winding surrounds the core. A few examples of
single phase and three phase core type constructions are shown in Fig. 4. In a shell type on
the other hand the iron surrounds the winding.
In the case of very small transformers the conductors are very thin and round.
These can be easily wound on a former with rectangular or square cross section. Thus no
special care is needed for the construction of the core. The cross section of the core also
would be square or rectangular. As the rating of the transformer increases the conductor size
9


(a ) (b)
(c)
Figure 3: E and I,C and I and O Type Laminations
10


HV
LV
HV
LV
core
HV
LV
Single phase Three phase
1.phase
3.phase
(a)Core type (b) Shell type
Figure 4: Core and Shell Type Construction
also increases. Flat conductors are preferred to round ones. To wind such conductor on a
rectangular former is not only dicult but introduces stresses in the conductor, at the bends.
From the short circuit force with stand capability point of view also this is not desirable.
Also, for a given area enclosed the length of the conductor becomes more. Hence it results in
more load losses. In order to avoid all these problems the coils are made cylindrical and are
wound on formers on heavy duty lathes. Thus the core construction is required to be such as
to ll the circular space inside the coil with steel laminations. Stepped core construction thus
becomes mandatory for the core of large transformers. Fig. 5 shows a few typical stepped core
constructions. When the core size increases it becomes extremely dicult to cool the same
(Even though the core losses are relatively very small). Cooling ducts have to be provided
in the core. The steel laminations are grain oriented exploiting the simple geometry of the
transformer to reduce the excitation losses. The iron losses in the lamination, when the ux
11


d d
d
duct
duct
0.71D
0.16
0.16
0.1
0.1
0.53
0.14 0.14
0.42
0.12
0.12
0.09 0.09
0.07
0.07
0.3
Figure 5: Stepped Core Construction
12


is oriented in the direction of grain orientation, is about 30% of that in the normal direction.
Another important aspect to be carefully checked and monitored is the air gaps in
Windings
Core
Path of
flux
LV
HV
(a) (b)
Figure 6: Typical stacked Core and wound core Construction
series in the path of the main ux. As the reluctance of air path is about 1000 times more
than that of the steel, an air path of 1mm will require a mmf needed by a 1 meter path in iron.
Hence butt joints between laminations must be avoided. Lap joints are used to pro-
vide alternate paths for ux lines thus reducing the reluctance of the ux paths. Some typical
constructional details are shown in Fig. 6. In some power transformers the core is built up
by threading a long strip of steel through the coil in the form of a toroid. This construction
is normally followed in instrument transformers to reduce the magnetizing current and hence
the errors.
13


Large cores made up of laminations must be rendered adequately sti by the provi-
sion of stiening plates usually called as itch plates. Punched through holes and bolts are
progressively being avoided to reduce heating and melting of the through bolts. The whole
stack is wrapped up by strong epoxy tapes to give mechanical strength to the core which
can stand in upright position. Channels and angles are used for the frame and they hold the
bottom yoke rigidly.
3.2 Windings
Windings form another important part of transformers. In a two winding trans-
former two windings would be present. The one which is connected to a voltage source and
creates the ux is called as a primary winding. The second winding where the voltage is
induced by induction is called a secondary. If the secondary voltage is less than that of the
primary the transformer is called a step down transformer. If the secondary voltage is more
then it is a step up transformer. A step down transformer can be made a step up transformer
by making the low voltage winding its primary. Hence it may be more appropriate to desig-
nate the windings as High Voltage (HV) and Low Voltage (LV) windings. The winding with
more number of turns will be a HV winding. The current on the HV side will be lower as
V-I product is a constant and given as the VA rating of the machines. Also the HV winding
needs to be insulated more to withstand the higher voltage across it. HV also needs more
clearance to the core, yoke or the body. These aspects inuence the type of the winding
used for the HV or LV windings.
Transformer coils can be broadly classied in to concentric coils and sandwiched
coils Fig. 7. The former are very common with core type transformers while the latter one
14


LV
HV
Core
HV
LV
(a)Concentric coil
LV
HV
Core
(b) Sandwich coil
Figure 7: Concentric and Sandwich Coils
15


are common with shell type transformers. In the gure the letters L and H indicate the low
voltage and high voltage windings. In concentric arrangement, in view of the lower insulation
and clearance requirements, the LV winding is placed close to the core which is at ground
potential. The HV winding is placed around the LV winding. Also taps are provided on HV
winding when voltage change is required. This is also facilitated by having the HV winding
as the outer winding.
Three most common types of coils viz. helical, cross over and disc coils are shown in Fig. 8.
cross over coils
Disc coils
Helical coils
Figure 8: Disc, Crossover and Helical Coil Construction
Helical Windings One very common cylindrical coil arrangement is the helical winding.
This is made up of large cross section rectangular conductor wound on its at side.
The coil progresses as a helix. This is commonly used for LV windings. The insulation
16


requirement also is not too high. Between layers no insulation (other than conductor
insulation) is needed as the voltage between layers is low. The complexity of this
type of winding rapidly increases as the current to be handled becomes more. The
conductor cross section becomes too large and dicult to handle. The eddy current
losses in the conductor rapidly increases. Hence two or more conductors have to be
wound and connected in parallel. The parallel circuits bring in problems of current
sharing between the circuits. Transpositions of the parallel paths have to be adopted
to reduce unequal current distribution. The modern practice is to use continuously
transposed and bunched conductors.
Cross over coils The second popular winding type is the cross over coil. These are made
of circular conductors not exceeding 5 to 6 sq mm in cross section. These are used for
HV windings of relatively small transformers. These turns are wound in several layers.
The length and thickness of each block is made in line with cooling requirements. A
number of such blocks can be connected in series, leaving cooling ducts in between the
blocks, as required by total voltage requirement.
Disc coils Disc coils consist of at conductors wound in a spiral form at the same place
spiralling outwards. Alternate discs are made to spiral from outside towards the center.
Sectional discs or continuous discs may be used. These have excellent thermal prop-
erties and the behavior of the winding is highly predictable. Winding of a continuous
disc winding needs specialized skills.
Sandwich coils Sandwich windings are more common with shell type core construction.
They permit easy control over the short circuit impedance of the transformer. By
bringing HV and LV coils close on the same magnetic axis the leakage is reduced
and the mutual ux is increased. By increasing the number of sandwiched coils the
17


reactance can be substantially reduced.
3.3 Insulation
The insulation used in the case of electrical conductors in a transformer is varnish
or enamel in dry type of transformers. In larger transformers to improve the heat transfer
characteristics the conductors are insulated using un-impregnated paper or cloth and the
whole core-winding assembly is immersed in a tank containing transformer oil. The trans-
former oil thus has dual role. It is an insulator and also a coolant. The porous insulation
around the conductor helps the oil to reach the conductor surface and extract the heat. The
conductor insulation may be called the minor insulation as the voltage required to be with-
stood is not high. The major insulation is between the windings. Annular bakelite cylinders
serve this purpose. Oil ducts are also used as part of insulation between windings. The oil
used in the transformer tank should be free from moisture or other contamination to be of
any use as an insulator.
3.4 Cooling of transformers
Scaling advantages make the design of larger and larger unit sizes of transformers
economically attractive. This can be explained as below. Consider a transformer of certain
rating designed with certain ux density and current density. If now the linear dimensions
are made larger by a factor of K keeping the current and ux densities the same the core and
conductor areas increase by a factor of K
2
. The losses in the machine, which are proportional
to the volume of the materials used, increase by a factor of K
3
.The rating of the machine
increases by a factor of K
4
.
18


The surface area however increases by a factor of K
2
only. Thus the ratio of loss per
surface area goes on increasing by a factor of K. The substantial increase in the output is
the major attraction in going in for larger units. However cooling of the transformer becomes
more and more dicult. As the rating increases better cooling techniques are needed.
Simple air cooling of the transformers is adopted in dry type transformers. The limit
for this is reached by the time the rating is a few kVA. Hence air cooling is used in low
voltage machines. This method of cooling is termed as AN(Air Natural). Air Blast(AB)
method improves on the above by directing the blast of air at the core and windings. This
permits some improvement in the unit sizes.
Substantial improvement is obtained when the transformer is immersed in an oil tank.
The oil reaches the conductor surface and extracts the heat and transports the same to the
surface of the tank by convection. This is termed as ON (Oil Natural) type of cooling. This
method permits the increase in the surface available for the cooling further by the use of
ducts, radiators etc.
OB(Oil Blast) method is an improvement over the ON-type and it directs a blast of
air on the cooling surface. In the above two cases the ow of oil is by natural convective
forces. The rate of circulation of oil can be increased with the help of a pump, with the
cooling at the surface remaining natural cooling to air. This is termed as OFN (Oil Forced
Natural). If now a forced blast of air is also employed, the cooling method become OFB(
Oil Forced Blast). A forced circulation of oil through a radiator is done with a blast of air
19


Tubes
Radiator
Main tank
(a)
Radiator
water inlet
water outlet
oil pump
Bushing
Conservator
& Breather
(b)
Conservator&
Breather
Radiator
Fan motor
Oil pump
for O.F.B
Bushing
(c)
Figure 9: Some Typical Cooling Arrangements
20


over the radiator surface. Substantial amount of heat can be removed by employing a water
cooling. Here the hot oil going into the radiator is cooled by a water circuit. Due to the
high specic heat of water, heat can be evacuated eectively. Next in hierarchy comes OFW
which is similar to OFB except that instead of blast of air a forced circulation of cool water
in the radiator is used in this. Some cooling arrangements are shown in Fig. 9.
In many large sized transformers the cooling method is matched with the amount
of heat that is required to be removed. As the load on the transformer changes the heat
generated within also changes. Suitable cooling method can be pressed into service at that
time. This gives rise to the concept of mixed cooling technique.
ON/OB Works as ON but with increased load additional air blast is adopted. This gives
the ratings to be in the ratio of 1:1.5
ON/OB/OFB Similarly gives the ratings in the ratio of 1:1.5:2
The temperature rise permitted in the British standard specication for power transformers
are tabulated below.
Type winding oil core
Class A Class B
C

C

C
AN,AB 55 75 - As
ON,OB,OW 60 - 50 for
OFN,OFB 65 - 50 adjacent
OFW 70 - 50 winding
21


3.4.1 Properties of the transformer coil
Even though the basic functions of the oil used in transformers are a) heat conduc-
tion and b) electrical insulation, there are many other properties which make a particular oil
eminently suitable. Organic oils of vegetative or animal origin are good insulators but tend
to decompose giving rise to acidic by-products which attack the paper or cloth insulation
around the conductors.
Mineral oils are suitable from the point of electrical properties but tend to form sludge.
The properties that are required to be looked into before selecting an oil for transformer
application are as follows:
Insulting property This is a very important property. However most of the oils naturally
full this. Therefore deterioration in insulating property due to moisture or contami-
nation may be more relevant.
Viscosity It is important as it determines the rate of ow of the uid. Highly viscous uids
need much bigger clearances for adequate heat removal.
Purity The oil must not contain impurities which are corrosive. Sulphur or its compounds
as impurities cause formation of sludge and also attack metal parts.
Sludge formation Thickening of oil into a semisolid form is called a sludge. Sludge for-
mation properties have to be considered while choosing the oil as the oil slowly forms
semi-solid hydrocarbons. These impede ows and due to the acidic nature, corrode
metal parts. Heat in the presence of oxygen is seen to accelerate sludge formation. If
the hot oil is prevented from coming into contact with atmospheric air sludge formation
22


can be greatly reduced.
Acidity Oxidized oil normally produces CO
2
and acids. The cellulose which is in the paper
insulation contains good amount of moisture. These form corrosive vapors. A good
breather can reduce the problems due to the formation of acids.
Flash point And Fire point Flash point of an oil is the temperature at which the oil
ignites spontaneously. This must be as high as possible (not less than 160
C from the
point of safety). Fire point is the temperature at which the oil ashes and continuously
burns. This must be very high for the chosen oil (not less than 200
C).
Inhibited oils and synthetic oils are therefore used in the transformers. Inhibited oils
contain additives which slow down the deterioration of properties under heat and moisture
and hence the degradation of oil. Synthetic transformer oil like chlorinated diphenyl has
excellent properties like chemical stability, non-oxidizing, good dielectric strength, moisture
repellant, reduced risk due re and explosion.
It is therefore necessary to check the quality of the oil periodically and take corrective
steps to avoid major break downs in the transformer.
There are several other structural and insulating parts in a large transformer. These
are considered to be outside the scope here.
23


4 Ideal Transformer
Earlier it is seen that a voltage is induced in a coil when the ux linkage associated
with the same changed. If one can generate a time varying magnetic eld any coil placed in
the eld of inuence linking the same experiences an induced emf. A time varying eld can
be created by passing an alternating current through an electric coil. This is called mutual
induction. The medium can even be air. Such an arrangement is called air cored transformer.
Indeed such arrangements are used in very high frequency transformers. Even though the
principle of transformer action is not changed, the medium has considerable inuence on the
working of such devices. These eects can be summarized as the followings.
1. The magnetizing current required to establish the eld is very large, as the reluctance
of the medium is very high.
2. There is linear relationship between the mmf created and the ux produced.
3. The medium is non-lossy and hence no power is wasted in the medium.
4. Substantial amount of leakage ux exists.
5. It is very hard to direct the ux lines as we desire, as the whole medium is homogeneous.
If the secondary is not loaded the energy stored in the magnetic eld nds its way
back to the source as the ux collapses. If the secondary winding is connected to a load then
part of the power from the source is delivered to the load through the magnetic eld as a link.
The medium does not absorb and lose any energy. Power is required to create the eld and
not to maintain the same. As the winding losses can be made very small by proper choice
of material, the ideal eciency of a transformer approaches 100%. The large magnetizing
24


x
Primary
Leakage
flux
Mutual flux
Secondary
(a)
Leakage flux
Primary
Mutual flux
Secondary
Iron core
X
(b)
Figure 10: Mutual Induction a) air core b) iron core
25


current requirement is a major deterrent. However if now a piece of magnetic material is
introduced to form the magnetic circuit Fig. 10(b) the situation changes dramatically. These
can be enumerated as below.
1. Due to the large value for the permeance (
r
of the order of 1000 as compared to
air) the magnetizing current requirement decreases dramatically. This can also be
visualized as a dramatic increase in the ux produced for a given value of magnetizing
current.
2. The magnetic medium is linear for low values of induction and exhibits saturation type
of non-linearity at higher ux densities.
3. The iron also has hysteresis type of non-linearity due to which certain amount of power
is lost in the iron (in the form of hysteresis loss), as the B-H characteristic is traversed.
4. Most of the ux lines are conned to iron path and hence the mutual ux is increased
very much and leakage ux is greatly reduced.
5. The ux can be easily directed as it takes the path through steel which gives great
freedom for the designer in physical arrangement of the excitation and output windings.
6. As the medium is made of a conducting material eddy currents are induced in the
same and produce losses. These are called eddy current losses. To minimize the
eddy current losses the steel core is required to be in the form of a stack of insulated
laminations.
From the above it is seen that the introduction of magnetic core to carry the ux
introduced two more losses. Fortunately the losses due to hysteresis and eddy current for
the available grades of steel is very small at power frequencies. Also the copper losses in the
26


winding due to magnetization current is reduced to an almost insignicant fraction of the
full load losses. Hence steel core is used in power transformers.
In order to have better understanding of the behavior of the transformer, initially
certain idealizations are made and the resulting ideal transformer is studied. These ideal-
izations are as follows:
1. Magnetic circuit is linear and has innite permeability. The consequence is that a van-
ishingly small current is enough to establish the given ux. Hysteresis loss is negligible.
As all the ux generated connes itself to the iron, there is no leakage ux.
2. Windings do not have resistance. This means that there are no copper losses, nor there
is any ohmic drop in the electric circuit.
In fact the practical transformers are very close to this model and hence no major
departure is made in making these assumptions.
Fig. 11 shows a two winding ideal transformer. The primary winding has T
1
turns and is
connected to a voltage source of V
1
volts. The secondary has T
2
turns. Secondary can be
connected to a load impedance for loading the transformer. The primary and secondary are
shown on the same limb and separately for clarity.
As a current I
0
amps is passed through the primary winding of T
1
turns it sets up an
mmf of I
0
T
1
ampere which is in turn sets up a ux through the core. Since the reluctance
of the iron path given by R = l/Ais zero as , a vanishingly small value of current
I
0
is enough to setup a ux which is nite. As I
0
establishes the eld inside the transformer
27


+
+
+
-
-
T1
T2
e1
e2

~
8 v1=V1mcost
io
0
+
e
1
i
1
+
e
2
i
2
+-
v
1
=V
1
sint
(a)Unloaded machine (b) Circuit
form
N
+
+
+
-
-
T1
T2
e1
e2

8
-
i1
i2
ZL
v1=V1cost
(c)Loaded machine
Figure 11: Two winding Ideal Transformer unloaded and loaded
28


it is called the magnetizing current of the transformer.
Flux =
mmf
Reluctance
=
I
0
T
1
l
A
=
I
0
T
1
A
l
. (9)
This current is the result of a sinusoidal voltage V applied to the primary. As the
current through the loop is zero (or vanishingly small), at every instant of time, the sum of
the voltages must be zero inside the same. Writing this in terms of instantaneous values we
have,
v
1
e
1
= 0 (10)
where v
1
is the instantaneous value of the applied voltage and e
1
is the induced emf due to
Faradays principle. The negative sign is due to the application of the Lenzs law and shows
that it is in the form of a voltage drop. Kirchos law application to the loop will result in
the same thing.
This equation results in v
1
= e
1
or the induced emf must be same in magnitude to
the applied voltage at every instant of time. Let v
1
= V
1peak
cos t where V
1peak
is the peak
value and = 2f t. f is the frequency of the supply. As v
1
= e
1
; e
1
= d
1
/dt but
e
1
= E
1peak
cos t E
1
= V
1
. It can be easily seen that the variation of ux linkages can
be obtained as
1
=
1peak
sin t. Here
1peak
is the peak value of the ux linkages of the
primary.
Thus the RMS primary induced emf is
e
1
=
d
1
dt
=
d(
1peak
sin t)
dt
(11)
=
1peak
.. cos t or the rms value (12)
E
1
=

1peak
.
2
=
2fT
1
2
= 4.44f
m
T
1
volts
29


Here
1peak
is the peak value of the ux linkages of the primary. The same mutual
ux links the secondary winding. However the magnitude of the ux linkages will be
2peak
=
T
2
.
m
. The induced emf in the secondary can be similarly obtained as ,
e
2
=
d
2
dt
=
d(
2peak
sin t)
dt
(13)
=
2peak
.. cos t or the rms value (14)
E
2
=
2fT
2
2
= 4.44f
m
T
2
volt
which yields the voltage ratio as
E
1
E
2
=
T
1
T
2
(15)
+
-
E
1
I
1
V
1
+
-
E
2
I
2
V
2
Figure 12: Dot Convention
The voltages E
1
and E
2
are obtained by the same mutual ux and hence they are
in phase. If the winding sense is opposite i.e., if the primary is wound in clockwise sense
and the secondary counter clockwise sense then if the top terminal of the rst winding is
at maximum potential the bottom terminal of the second winding would be at the peak
potential. Similar problem arises even when the sense of winding is kept the same, but the
30


two windings are on opposite limbs (due to the change in the direction of ux). Hence in
the circuit representation of transformers a dot convention is adopted to indicate the ter-
minals of the windings that go high (or low) together. (Fig. 12). This can be established
experimentally by means of a polarity test on the transformers. At a particular instant of
time if the current enters the terminal marked with a dot it magnetizes the core. Similarly
a current leaving the terminal with a dot demagnetizes the core.
So far, an unloaded ideal transformer is considered. If now a load impedance Z
L
is
connected across the terminals of the secondary winding a load current ows as marked in
Fig. 11(c). This load current produces a demagnetizing mmf and the ux tends to collapse.
However this is detected by the primary immediately as both E
2
and E
1
tend to collapse.
The current drawn from supply increases up to a point the ux in the core is restored back
to its original value. The demagnetizing mmf produced by the secondary is neutralized by
additional magnetizing mmf produces by the primary leaving the mmf and ux in the core
as in the case of no-load. Thus the transformer operates under constant induced emf mode.
Thus,
i
1
T
1
i
2
T
2
= i
0
T
1
but i
0
0 (16)
i
2
T
2
= i
1
T
1
and the rms value I
2
T
2
= I
1
T
1
. (17)
If the reference directions for the two currents are chosen as in the Fig. 12, then the above
equation can be written in phasor form as,
I
1
T
1
=

I
2
T
2
or

I
1
=
T
2
T
1
.
I
2
(18)
Also
E
1
E
2
=
T
1
T
2
=
I
2
I
1
E
1
I
1
= E
2
I
2
(19)
31


Thus voltage and current transformation ratio are inverse of one another. If an impedance
of Z
L
is connected across the secondary,
I
2
=
E
2
Z
L
or

Z
L
=
E
2
I
2
(20)
The input impedance under such conditions is
Z
i
=
E
1
I
1
= (
T
1
T
2
)
2
.
E
2
I
2
= (
T
1
T
2
)
2
.

Z
L
(21)
An impedance of Z
L
when viewed through a transformer of turns ratio (
T
1
T
2
) is seen
as (
T
1
T
2
)
2
.Z
L
. Transformer thus acts as an impedance converter. The transformer can be
interposed in between a source and a load to match the impedance.
E
1
I
1
V
1
E
2
I
2
V
2
Figure 13: Phasor diagram of Operation of an Ideal Transformer
Finally, the phasor diagram for the operation of the ideal transformer is shown in
Fig. 13 in which
1
and
2
are power factor angles on the primary and secondary sides. As
32


the transformer itself does not absorb any active or reactive power it is easy to see that
1
=
2
.
Thus, from the study of the ideal transformer it is seen that the transformer provides
electrical isolation between two coupled electric circuits while maintaining power invariance
at its two ends. However, grounding of loads and one terminal of the transformer on the
secondary/primary side are followed with the provision of leakage current detection devices
to safe guard the persons working with the devices. Even though the isolation aspect is
a desirable one its utility cannot be over emphasized. It can be used to step up or step
down the voltage/current at constant volt-ampere. Also, the transformer can be used for
impedance matching. In the case of an ideal transformer the eciency is 100% as there are
no losses inside the device.
33


5 Practical Transformer
An ideal transformer is useful in understanding the working of a transformer. But it
cannot be used for the computation of the performance of a practical transformer due to the
non-ideal nature of the practical transformer. In a working transformer the performance as-
pects like magnetizing current, losses, voltage regulation, eciency etc are important. Hence
the eects of the non-idealization like nite permeability, saturation, hysteresis and winding
resistances have to be added to an ideal transformer to make it a practical transformer.
Conversely, if these eects are removed from a working transformer what is left behind is an
ideal transformer.
Finite permeability of the magnetic circuit necessitates a nite value of the current
to be drawn from the mains to produce the mmf required to establish the necessary ux.
The current and mmf required is proportional to the ux density B that is required to be
established in the core.
B = H; B =

A
(22)
where A is the area of cross section of the iron core m
2
. H is the magnetizing force which is
given by,
H = i.
T
1
l
(23)
where l is the length of the magnetic path, m. or
= B.A =
A(iT
1
)
l
= permeance mmf(here that of primary) (24)
The magnetizing force and the current vary linearly with the applied voltage as long
as the magnetic circuit is not saturated. Once saturation sets in, the current has to vary in
34


a nonlinear manner to establish the ux of sinusoidal shape. This non-linear current can be
resolved into fundamental and harmonic currents. This is discussed to some extent under
harmonics. At present the eect of this non-linear behavior is neglected as a secondary
eect. Hence the current drawn from the mains is assumed to be purely sinusoidal and
directly proportional to the ux density of operation. This current can be represented by a
current drawn by an inductive reactance in the circuit as the net energy associated with the
same over a cycle is zero. The energy absorbed when the current increases is returned to
the electric circuit when the current collapses to zero. This current is called the magnetizing
current of the transformer. The magnetizing current I
m
is given by I
m
= E
1
/X
m
where X
m
is called the magnetizing reactance. The magnetic circuit being lossy absorbs and dissipates
the power depending upon the ux density of operation. These losses arise out of hysteresis,
eddy current inside the magnetic core. These are given by the following expressions:
P
h
B
1.6
f (25)
P
e
B
2
f
2
t
2
(26)
P
h
-Hysteresis loss, Watts
B- Flux density of operation Tesla.
f - Frequency of operation, Hz
t - Thickness of the laminations of the core, m.
For a constant voltage, constant frequency operation B is constant and so are these
losses. An active power consumption by the no-load current can be represented in the input
circuit as a resistance R
c
connected in parallel to the magnetizing reactance X
m
. Thus the
no-load current I
0
may be made up of I
c
(loss component) and I
m
(magnetizing component
35


as )
I
0
=

I
c
j

I
m
(27)
I
2
c
R
c
gives the total core losses (i.e. hysteresis + eddy current loss)
I
2
m
X
m
- Reactive volt amperes consumed for establishing the mutual ux.
Finite of the magnetic core makes a few lines of ux take to a path through the air.
Thus these ux lines do not link the secondary winding. It is called as leakage ux. As the
path of the leakage ux is mainly through the air the ux produced varies linearly with the
primary current I
1
. Even a large value of the current produces a small value of ux. This
ux produces a voltage drop opposing its cause, which is the current I
1
. Thus this eect of
the nite permeability of the magnetic core can be represented as a series inductive element
jx
l1
. This is termed as the reactance due to the primary leakage ux. As this leakage ux
varies linearly with I
1
, the ux linkages per ampere and the primary leakage inductance
are constant (This is normally represented by l
l1
Henry). The primary leakage reactance
therefore becomes
x
l1
= 2fl
l1
ohm (28)
A similar eect takes place on the secondary side when the transformer is loaded.
The secondary leakage reactance jx
l2
arising out of the secondary leakage inductance l
l2
is
given by
x
l2
= 2fl
l2
(29)
Finally, the primary and secondary windings are wound with copper (sometimes alu-
minium in small transformers) conductors; thus the windings have a nite resistance (though
36


~
+
+
+
-
Rc
I2
-
ZL
I
2
V2
r1
r2
I1
jXm
E1
-
V1
E2
T2
Io
jxl1
jxl2
T1
(a)Physical arrangement
r
1
R
c
jX
m
V
1
I
c
I
m
I
o
Z
L
V
2
E
1
E
2
I
2
I
1
I
2
r
2
jX
l1
jX
l2
(b)Equivalent circuit
Figure 14: A Practical Transformer
37


small). This is represented as a series circuit element, as the power lost and the drop pro-
duced in the primary and secondary are proportional to the respective currents. These are
represented by r
1
and r
2
respectively on primary and secondary side. A practical transformer
sans these imperfections (taken out and represented explicitly in the electric circuits) is an
ideal transformer of turns ratio T
1
: T
2
(voltage ratio E
1
: E
2
). This is seen in Fig. 14. I
2
in the circuit represents the primary current component that is required to ow from the
mains in the primary T
1
turns to neutralize the demagnetizing secondary current I
2
due to
the load in the secondary turns. The total primary current
vectorially is

I
1
=

I
2
+

I
0
(30)
Here I
2
T
1
= I
2
T
2
or I
2
= I
2
T
2
T
1
(31)
Thus

I
1
=

I
2
T
2
T
1
+

I
0
(32)
By solving this circuit for any load impedance Z
L
one can nd out the performance of the
loaded transformer.
The circuit shown in Fig. 14(b). However, it is not very convenient for use due to
the presence of the ideal transformer of turns ratio T
1
: T
2
. If the turns ratio could be made
unity by some transformation the circuit becomes very simple to use. This is done here by
replacing the secondary by a hypothetical secondary having T
1
turns which is equivalent
to the physical secondary. The equivalence implies that the ampere turns, active and reactive
power associated with both the circuits must be the same. Then there is no change as far
as their eect on the primary is considered. Thus
V
2
= aV
2
, I
2
=
I
2
a
, r
2
= a
2
r
2
, x
l2
= a
2
x
l2
Z
L
= a
2
Z
L
.
where a -turns ratio
T
1
T
2
38


This equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. ??(a). As the ideal transformer in this
case has a turns ratio of unity the potentials on either side are the same and hence they
may be conductively connected dispensing away with the ideal transformer. This particular
equivalent circuit is as seen from the primary side. It is also possible to refer all the pri-
mary parameters to secondary by making the hypothetical equivalent primary winding on
the input side having the number of turns to be T
2
. Such an equivalent circuit having all
the parameters referred to the secondary side is shown in g. 15.
The equivalent circuit can be derived, with equal ease, analytically using the Kir-
chos equations applied to the primary and secondary. Referring to g. 14(a), we have (by
neglecting the shunt branch)
V
1
= E
1
+ I
1
(r
1
+ jx
l1
) (33)
E
2
= V
2
+ I
2
(r
2
+ jx
l2
) (34)
T
1
I
0
= T
1
I
1
+ T
2
I
2
or I
1
=
I
2
a
+ I
0
(35)
=
I
2
a
+ I
c
+ I
m
a =
T
1
T
2
.
Multiply both sides of Eqn.34 by a [This makes the turns ratio unity and retains the power
invariance].
aE
2
= aV
2
+ aI
2
(r
2
+ jx
l2
) but aE
2
= E
1
(36)
Substituting in Eqn.33 we have
39


V
1
= aV
2
+ aI
2
(r
2
+ jx
l2
) + I
1
(r
1
+ jx
l1
)
= V
2
+ I
1
(a
2
r
2
+ ja
2
x
l2
) + I
1
(r
1
+ jx
l1
)
= V
2
+ I
1
(r
1
+ r
2
+ jx
l1
+ x
l2
) (37)
A similar procedure can be used to refer all parameters to secondary side. (Shown in g. 15.)
r
1
R
c
jX
m V
1
I
o
Z
L
V
2
jx
l1
jx
l2
r
2
I
2
I
1
I
c I
m
Figure 15: Equivalent Circuit Referred to the Secondary Side
40


6 Phasor diagrams
r
1
R
c
jX
m V
1
I
o
Z
L V
2
jx
l1
jx
l2
r
2
I
c I
m
I
1
(a)
r
1
I
o
Z
L
jxl1
jx
l2
r
2
I
2 I
1
I
c I
m
jxm
R
c
V
1
V
2
V
2
V
1
I
1
R
jX
I
2
R=r
1
+r
2
x=x
l1
+x
l2
I
1
=I
2
(b) (c)
Figure 16: Exact,approximate and simplied equivalent circuits
The resulting equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 16 is known as the exact
equivalent circuit. This circuit can be used for the analysis of the behavior of the transform-
ers. As the no-load current is less than 1% of the load current a simplied circuit known
as approximate equivalent circuit (see Fig. 16(b)) is usually used, which may be further
41


simplied to the one shown in Fig. 16(c).
On similar lines to the ideal transformer the phasor diagram of operation can be
drawn for a practical transformer also. The positions of the current and induced emf phasor
are not known uniquely if we start from the phasor V
1
. Hence it is assumed that the phasor
is known. The E
1
and E
2
phasor are then uniquely known. Now, the magnetizing and loss
components of the currents can be easily represented. Once I
0
is known, the drop that takes
place in the primary resistance and series reactance can be obtained which when added to
E
1
gives uniquely the position of V
1
which satises all other parameters. This is represented
in Fig. 17(a) as phasor diagram on no-load.
Next we proceed to draw the phasor diagram corresponding to a loaded transformer.
The position of the E
2
vector is known from the ux phasor. Magnitude of I
2
and the load
power factor angle
2
are assumed to be known. But the angle
2
is dened with respect
to the terminal voltage V
2
and not E
2
. By trial and error the position of I
2
and V
2
are
determined. V
2
should also satisfy the Kirchos equation for the secondary. Rest of the
construction of the phasor diagram then becomes routine. The equivalent primary current
I
2
is added vectorially to I
0
to yield I
1
. I
1
(r
1
+jx
l1
)is added to E
1
to yield V
1
. This is shown
in g. 17(b) as phasor diagram for a loaded transformer.
42


V
1
E
1
I
o
X
l1
I
o
r
1
I
o
I
m
I
l
E
2
(a)No-load
V
1
E
1
I
1
X
l1
I
1
r
1
I
o
I
2
I
l
E
2
V
2
I
2
I2x2
I2r2
(b)On-load
Figure 17: Phasor Diagram of a Practical Transformer
43


7 Testing of Transformers
The structure of the circuit equivalent of a practical transformer is developed earlier.
The performance parameters of interest can be obtained by solving that circuit for any load
conditions. The equivalent circuit parameters are available to the designer of the transformers
from the various expressions that he uses for designing the transformers. But for a user
these are not available most of the times. Also when a transformer is rewound with dierent
primary and secondary windings the equivalent circuit also changes. In order to get the
equivalent circuit parameters test methods are heavily depended upon. From the analysis of
the equivalent circuit one can determine the electrical parameters. But if the temperature
rise of the transformer is required, then test method is the most dependable one. There are
several tests that can be done on the transformer; however a few common ones are discussed
here.
7.1 Winding resistance test
This is nothing but the resistance measurement of the windings by applying a small
d.c voltage to the winding and measuring the current through the same. The ratio gives
the winding resistance, more commonly feasible with high voltage windings. For low voltage
windings a resistance-bridge method can be used. From the d.c resistance one can get the
a.c. resistance by applying skin eect corrections.
44


V
1
V
2
V
3
V
s
~
A
2
A
1
a
2
a
1
V
S
+
-
+
A2
A1
a2
a1
(a)A.C.test (b)D.C.test
Figure 18: Polarity Test
7.2 Polarity Test
This is needed for identifying the primary and secondary phasor polarities. It is
a must for poly phase connections. Both a.c. and d.c methods can be used for detecting
the polarities of the induced emfs. The dot method discussed earlier is used to indicate the
polarities. The transformer is connected to a low voltage a.c. source with the connections
made as shown in the g. 18(a). A supply voltage V
s
is applied to the primary and the
readings of the voltmeters V
1
, V
2
and V
3
are noted. V
1
: V
2
gives the turns ratio. If V
3
reads
V
1
V
2
then assumed dot locations are correct (for the connection shown). The beginning and
end of the primary and secondary may then be marked by A
1
A
2
and a
1
a
2
respectively.
If the voltage rises from A
1
to A
2
in the primary, at any instant it does so from a
1
to a
2
in
the secondary. If more secondary terminals are present due to taps taken from the windings
they can be labeled as a
3
, a
4
, a
5
, a
6
. It is the voltage rising from smaller number towards
larger ones in each winding. The same thing holds good if more secondaries are present.
45


Fig. 18(b) shows the d.c. method of testing the polarity. When the switch S is closed if the
secondary voltage shows a positive reading, with a moving coil meter, the assumed polarity
is correct. If the meter kicks back the assumed polarity is wrong.
7.3 Open Circuit Test
A
V
V
1
W
V
2
Rc
jXm
V1
Ic Im
Io
(a)Physical Arrangement
(b)Equivalent Circuit
Figure 19: No Load Test
As the name suggests, the secondary is kept open circuited and nominal value
of the input voltage is applied to the primary winding and the input current and power are
measured. In Fig. 19(a) V, A, W are the voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter respectively.
Let these meters read V
1
, I
0
and W
0
respectively.Fig. 19(b) shows the equivalent circuit of
the transformer under this test. The no load current at rated voltage is less than 1 percent of
nominal current and hence the loss and drop that take place in primary impedance r
1
+jx
l1
due to the no load current I
0
is negligible. The active component I
c
of the no load current I
0
46


represents the core losses and reactive current I
m
is the current needed for the magnetization.
Thus the watt meter reading
W
0
= V
1
I
c
= P
core
(38)
I
c
=
W
0
V
1
(39)
I
m
=
I
2
0
I
2
c
or (40)
R
c
=
V
1
I
c
andX
m
=
V
1
I
m
(41)
I
o
V
1
Figure 20: Open Circuit Characteristics
The parameters measured already are in terms of the primary. Sometimes the pri-
mary voltage required may be in kilo-Volts and it may not be feasible to apply nominal
voltage to primary from the point of safety to personnel and equipment. If the secondary
voltage is low, one can perform the test with LV side energized keeping the HV side open
circuited. In this case the parameters that are obtained are in terms of LV . These have to
be referred to HV side if we need the equivalent circuit referred to HV side.
47


Sometimes the nominal value of high voltage itself may not be known, or in doubt,
especially in a rewound transformer. In such cases an open circuit characteristics is rst
obtained, which is a graph showing the applied voltage as a function of the no load current.
This is a non linear curve as shown in Fig. 20. This graph is obtained by noting the current
drawn by transformer at dierent applied voltage, keeping the secondary open circuited. The
usual operating point selected for operation lies at some standard voltage around the knee
point of the characteristic. After this value is chosen as the nominal value the parameters
are calculated as mentioned above.
7.4 Short Circuit Test
The purpose of this test is to determine the series branch parameters of the equiv-
alent circuit of Fig. 21(b). As the name suggests, in this test primary applied voltage, the
current and power input are measured keeping the secondary terminals short circuited. Let
these values be V
sc
, I
sc
and W
sc
respectively. The supply voltage required to circulate rated
current through the transformer is usually very small and is of the order of a few percent
of the nominal voltage. The excitation current which is only 1 percent or less even at rated
voltage becomes negligibly small during this test and hence is neglected. The shunt branch
is thus assumed to be absent. Also I
1
= I
2
as I
0
0. Therefore W
sc
is the sum of the
copper losses in primary and secondary put together. The reactive power consumed is that
absorbed by the leakage reactance of the two windings.
W
sc
= I
2
sc
(r
1
+r
2
) (42)
Z
sc
=
V
sc
I
sc
(43)
(x
l1
+x
l2
) =
Z
2
sc
(r
1
+r
2
)
2
(44)
48


A
V
V
sc
W
(a)Physical Arrangement
r1
I
sc
Vsc
jx
l1
jx
l2
r
2
(b)Equivalent Circuit
Figure 21: Short Circuit Test
49


If the approximate equivalent circuit is required then there is no need to separate r
1
and r
2
or x
l1
and x
l2
. However if the exact equivalent circuit is needed then either r
1
or
r
2
is determined from the resistance measurement and the other separated from the total.
As for the separation of x
l1
and x
l2
is concerned, they are assumed to be equal. This is a
fairly valid assumption for many types of transformer windings as the leakage ux paths are
through air and are similar.
7.5 Load Test
Load Test helps to determine the total loss that takes place, when the transformer
is loaded. Unlike the tests described previously, in the present case nominal voltage is applied
across the primary and rated current is drown from the secondary. Load test is used mainly
1. to determine the rated load of the machine and the temperature rise
2. to determine the voltage regulation and eciency of the transformer.
Rated load is determined by loading the transformer on a continuous basis and observ-
ing the steady state temperature rise. The losses that are generated inside the transformer
on load appear as heat. This heats the transformer and the temperature of the transformer
increases. The insulation of the transformer is the one to get aected by this rise in the
temperature. Both paper and oil which are used for insulation in the transformer start get-
ting degenerated and get decomposed. If the ash point of the oil is reached the transformer
goes up in ames. Hence to have a reasonable life expectancy the loading of the transformer
must be limited to that value which gives the maximum temperature rise tolerated by the
insulation. This aspect of temperature rise cannot be guessed from the electrical equivalent
circuit. Further, the losses like dielectric losses and stray load losses are not modeled in the
50


equivalent circuit and the actual loss under load condition will be in error to that extent.
Many external means of removal of heat from the transformer in the form of dierent cooling
methods give rise to dierent values for temperature rise of insulation. Hence these permit
dierent levels of loading for the same transformer. Hence the only sure way of ascertaining
the rating is by conducting a load test.
It is rather easy to load a transformer of small ratings. As the rating increases it
becomes dicult to nd a load that can absorb the requisite power and a source to feed the
necessary current. As the transformers come in varied transformation ratios, in many cases
it becomes extremely dicult to get suitable load impedance.
Further, the temperature rise of the transformer is due to the losses that take place
inside the transformer. The eciency of the transformer is above 99% even in modest sizes
which means 1 percent of power handled by the transformer actually goes to heat up the
machine. The remaining 99% of the power has to be dissipated in a load impedance external
to the machine. This is very wasteful in terms of energy also. ( If the load is of unity power
factor) Thus the actual loading of the transformer is seldom resorted to. Equivalent loss
methods of loading and Phantom loading are commonly used in the case of transformers.
The load is applied and held constant till the temperature rise of transformer reaches a
steady value. If the nal steady temperature rise is lower than the maximum permissible
value, then load can be increased else it is decreased. That load current which gives the
maximum permissible temperature rise is declared as the nominal or rated load current and
the volt amperes are computed using the same.
51


In the equivalent loss method a short circuit test is done on the transformer. The
short circuit current is so chosen that the resulting loss taking place inside the transformer
is equivalent to the sum of the iron losses, full load copper losses and assumed stray load
losses. By this method even though one can pump in equivalent loss inside the transformer,
the actual distribution of this loss vastly diers from that taking place in reality. Therefore
this test comes close to a load test but does not replace one.
A
V
Io
I2
I
2
V
A
I2
I
2
Vs
W 2
W 1
2Io
V1
Io
Figure 22: Back to Back Test - Phantom Loading
In Phantom loading method two identical transformers are needed. The windings
are connected back to back as shown in Fig. 22. Suitable voltage is injected into the loop
formed by the two secondaries such that full load current passes through them. An equiv-
52


alent current then passes through the primary also. The voltage source V1 supplies the
magnetizing current and core losses for the two transformers. The second source supplies
the load component of the current and losses due to the same. There is no power wasted
in a load ( as a matter of fact there is no real load at all) and hence the name Phantom
or virtual loading. The power absorbed by the second transformer which acts as a load is
pushed back in to the mains. The two sources put together meet the core and copper losses
of the two transformers. The transformers work with full ux drawing full load currents and
hence are closest to the actual loading condition with a physical load.
53


8 Per Unit Calculations
As stated earlier, transformers of various sizes, ratings, voltage ratios can be seen
being used in a power system. The parameters of the equivalent circuits of these machines
also vary over a large range. Also the comparison of these machines are made simple if all
the parameters are normalized. If simple scaling of the parameters is done then one has
to carry forward the scaling factors in the calculations. Expressing in percent basis is one
example of scaling. However if the scaling is done on a logical basis one can have a simple
representation of the parameters without the bother of the scaling factors. Also dierent
units of measurement are in use in the dierent countries (FPS, CGS, MKS, etc;). These
units also underwent several revisions over the years. If the transformer parameter can be
freed from the units then the system becomes very simple. The per unit system is developed
keeping these aspects in mind. The parameters of the transformer are referred to some base
values and thus get scaled. In the case of power system a common base value is adopted
in view of dierent ratings of the equipments used. In the case of individual equipments,
its own nominal parameters are used as base values. Some base parameters can be chosen
as independent base values while some others become derived base parameters. Once the
base values are identied the per unit values are calculated for any parameter by dividing
the same by its base value. The units must be the same for both the parameters and their
bases. Thus the per unit value is a unit-less dimensionless number. Let us choose nominal
voltage and nominal current on the primary side of a transformer as the base values V
base
and I
base
. Other base values like volt ampere S
base
, short circuit impedance Z
base
can be
54


calculated from those values.
P
base
, Q
base
, S
base
= V
base
I
base
(45)
R
base
, X
base
, Z
base
=
V
base
I
base
(46)
G
base
, B
base
, Y
base
=
I
base
V
base
(47)
Normally S
base
and V
base
are known from name plate details. Other base values can be
derived from them.
V
p.u
=
V (volt)
V
base
(volt)
,
I
p.u
=
I(Amps)
I
base
(amps)
=
I(amps)
S
base
V
base
(48)
Z
p.u
=
Z(ohm)
Z
base
(ohm)
= Z(ohm)
I
base
V
base
= Z(ohm).
S
base
V
2
base
(49)
Many times, when more transformers are involved in a circuit one is required to choose
a common base value for all of them. Parameters of all the machines are expressed on this
common base. This is a common problem encountered in the case of parallel operation of
two or more transformers. The conversion of the base values naturally lead to change in the
per unit values of their parameters. An impedance Z
p.u.old
on the old base of S
baseold
and
V
baseold
shall get modied on new base S
basenew
,V
basenew
as
Z
p.u.new
= (Z
p.u.old
.
V
2
base old
S
base old
)
S
base new
V
2
base new
(50)
The term inside the bracket is nothing but the ohmic value of the impedance and this gets
converted into the new per unit value by the new S
base
and V
base
.
If all the equivalent circuit parameters are referred to the secondary side and per unit
values of the new equivalent circuit parameters are computed with secondary voltage and
55


current as the base values, there is no change in the per unit values. This can be easily seen by,
Z
p.u.
= Z
ohm
.
S
base
V
2
base
but Z
ohm
=
1
a
2
.Z
ohm
(51)
Where a - is the turns ratio of primary to secondary
Z - impedance as seen by primary,
Z
- impedance as seen by secondary.

S
base
= S
base
- as the transformer rating is unaltered.
V
base
= V
base
.
1
a
From the above relationships it can be seen that Z
p.u.
= Z
p.u.
.
This becomes obvious if we realize that the mmf of the core for establishing a given
ux is the same whether it is supplied through primary or the secondary. Also the active
power and reactive power absorbed inside the transformer are not dependant on the winding
connected to supply. This is further illustrated by taking the equivalent circuit of a trans-
former derived earlier and expressing the same in per unit form.
Thus the per unit values help in dispensing away the scaling constants. The veracity
of the parameters can be readily checked. Comparison of the parameters of the machines
with those of similar ones throw in useful information about the machines. Comparing the
eciencies of two transformers at any load one can say that the transformer with a higher
p.u.resistance has higher copper losses without actually computing the same.
Application of per unit values for the calculation of voltage regulation, eciency and
load sharing of parallel connected transformers will be discussed later at appropriate places.
56


9 Voltage Regulation
Modern power systems operate at some standard voltages. The equipments work-
ing on these systems are therefore given input voltages at these standard values, within
certain agreed tolerance limits. In many applications this voltage itself may not be good
enough for obtaining the best operating condition for the loads. A transformer is interposed
in between the load and the supply terminals in such cases. There are additional drops
inside the transformer due to the load currents. While input voltage is the responsibility of
the supply provider, the voltage at the load is the one which the user has to worry about.
If undue voltage drop is permitted to occur inside the transformer the load voltage becomes
too low and aects its performance. It is therefore necessary to quantify the drop that takes
place inside a transformer when certain load current, at any power factor, is drawn from its
output leads. This drop is termed as the voltage regulation and is expressed as a ratio of
the terminal voltage (the absolute value per se is not too important).
The voltage regulation can be dened in two ways - Regulation Down and Regulation
up. These two denitions dier only in the reference voltage as can be seen below.
Regulation down: This is dened as the change in terminal voltage when a load current
at any power factor is applied, expressed as a fraction of the no-load terminal voltage.
Expressed in symbolic form we have,
Regulation =
|V
nl
| |V
l
|
|V
nl
|
(52)
V
nl
and V
l
are no-load and load terminal voltages. This is the denition normally used
in the case of the transformers, the no-load voltage being the one given by the power
57


supply provider on which the user has no say. Hence no-load voltage is taken as the
reference.
Regulation up: Here again the regulation is expressed as the ratio of the change in the
terminal voltage when a load at a given power factor is thrown o, and the on load
voltage. This denition if expressed in symbolic form results in
Regulation =
|V
nl
| |V
l
|
|V
l
|
(53)
V
nl
is the no-load terminal voltage.
V
l
is load voltage. Normally full load regulation is of interest as the part load regulation
is going to be lower.
This denition is more commonly used in the case of alternators and power systems
as the user-end voltage is guaranteed by the power supply provider. He has to generate
proper no-load voltage at the generating station to provide the user the voltage he has asked
for. In the expressions for the regulation, only the numerical dierences of the voltages are
taken and not vector dierences.
In the case of transformers both denitions result in more or less the same value for
the regulation as the transformer impedance is very low and the power factor of operation is
quite high. The power factor of the load is dened with respect to the terminal voltage on
load. Hence a convenient starting point is the load voltage. Also the full load output voltage
is taken from the name plate. Hence regulation up has some advantage when it comes to its
application. Fig. 23 shows the phasor diagram of operation of the transformer under loaded
condition. The no-load current I
0
is neglected in view of the large magnitude of I
2
. Then
58


R
e jX
e
V
1
I
2
V
2
(a) Equivalent Circuit
O
V1
C
I2
V2
B
D
I2
Re
I2
Xe
E
A
(b)Phasor Diagram
Figure 23: Regulation of Transformer
59


I
1
= I
2
.
V
1
= I
2
(R
e
+ jX
e
) + V

2
(54)
OD = V
1
=
[OA + AB + BC]
2
+ [CD]
2
=
[V

2
+ I
2
R
e
cos + I
2
X
e
sin ]
2
+ [I
2
X
e
cos I
2
R
e
sin ]
2
(55)
- power factor angle,
- internal impedance angle=tan
1 Xe
Re
Also,
V
1
= V

2
+ I
2
.(R
e
+ jX
e
) (56)
= V

2
+ I
2
(cos j sin )(R
e
+ jX
e
)
RegulationR =
|V
1
| |V

2
|
|V

2
|
=
(1 + v
1
)
2
+ v
2
2
1 (57)
(1 + v
1
)
2
+ v
2
2
(1 + v
1
)
2
+ v
2
2
.
2(1 + v
1
)
2(1 + v
1
)
+ [
v
2
2
2(1 + v
1
)
]
2
= (1 + v
1
+
v
2
2
2(1 + v
1
)
)
2
(58)
Taking the square root (59)
(1 + v
1
)
2
+ v
2
2
= 1 + v
1
+
v
2
2
2(1 + v
1
)
(60)
where v
1
= e
r
cos + e
x
sin and v
2
= e
x
cos e
r
sin
e
r
=
I
2
Re
V

2
=per unit resistance drop
e
x
=
I
2
Xe
V

2
=per unit reactance drop
as v
1
and v
2
are small.
R 1 + v
1
+
v
2
2
2(1 + e
1
)
1 v
1
+
v
2
2
2
(61)
regulation R = e
r
cos e
x
sin +
(e
x
sin e
r
cos )
2
2
(62)
60


v
2
2
2(1 + v
1
)

v
2
2
2
.
(1 v
1
)
(1 v
2
1
)

v
2
2
2
.(1 v
1
)
v
2
2
2
(63)
Powers higher than 2 for v
1
and v
2
are negligible as v
1
and v
2
are already small. As
v
2
is small its second power may be neglected as a further approximation and the expression
for the regulation of the transform boils down to
regulation R = e
r
cos e
x
sin
The negative sign is applicable when the power factor is leading. It can be seen from
the above expression, the full load regulation becomes zero when the power factor is leading
and e
r
cos = e
x
sin or tan = e
r
/e
x
or the power factor angle = tan
1
(e
r
/e
x
) = tan
1
(R
e
/X
e
) leading.
Similarly, the value of the regulation is maximum at a power factor angle =
tan
1
(e
x
/e
r
) = tan
1
(X
e
/R
e
) lagging.
An alternative expression for the regulation of a transformer can be derived by the
method shown in Fig. 24. Here the phasor are resolved along the current axis and normal
to it.
We have,
OD
2
= (OA + AB)
2
+ (BC + CD)
2
(64)
= (V

2
cos + I
2
R
e
)
2
+ (V

2
sin + I
2
X
e
)
2
(65)
RegulationR =
ODV

2
V

2
=
OD
V

2
1 (66)
(V

2
cos + I
2
R
e
)
V

2
2
+
(V

2
sin + I
2
X
e
)
V

2
2
1 (67)
=
(cos + R
p.u
)
2
+ (sin + X
2
p.u)
1 (68)
61


A
B
O
D
C
I2
I2
Re
I2
Xe
V1
V2
Figure 24: An Alternate Method for the Calculation of Regulation
Thus this expression may not be as convenient as the earlier one due to the square root
involved.
Fig. 25 shows the variation of full load regulation of a typical transformer as the
power factor is varied from zero power factor leading, through unity power factor, to zero
power factor lagging.
It is seen from Fig. 25 that the full load regulation at unity power factor is nothing but
the percentage resistance of the transformer. It is therefore very small and negligible. Only
with low power factor loads the drop in the series impedance of the transformer contributes
substantially to the regulation. In small transformers the designer tends to keep the X
e
very
low (less than 5%) so that the regulation performance of the transformer is satisfactory.
62


1
2
3
4
5
leading
lagging
power factor
%Regulation
1.0
0.5
0
0 0.5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Figure 25: Variation of Full Load Regulation with Power Factor
63


A low value of the short circuit impedance /reactance results in a large short circuit
current in case of a short circuit. This in turn results in large mechanical forces on the
winding. So, in large transformers the short circuit impedance is made high to give better
short circuit protection to the transformer which results in poorer regulation performance.
In the case of transformers provided with taps on windings, so that the turns ratio can be
changed, the voltage regulation is not a serious issue. In other cases care has to be exercised
in the selection of the short circuit impedance as it aects the voltage regulation.
64


10 Eciency
Transformers which are connected to the power supplies and loads and are in op-
eration are required to handle load current and power as per the requirements of the load.
An unloaded transformer draws only the magnetization current on the primary side, the
secondary current being zero. As the load is increased the primary and secondary currents
increase as per the load requirements. The volt amperes and wattage handled by the trans-
former also increases. Due to the presence of no load losses and I
2
R losses in the windings
certain amount of electrical energy gets dissipated as heat inside the transformer. This gives
rise to the concept of eciency.
Eciency of a power equipment is dened at any load as the ratio of the power output to
the power input. Putting in the form of an expression,
Efficiency =
output power
input power
=
Input power losses inside the machine
Input power
(69)
= 1
losses inside the machine
input power
= 1 defficiency
=
output power
output + losses inside the machine
More conveniently the eciency is expressed in percentage. % =
output power
input power
100
While the eciency tells us the fraction of the input power delivered to the load, the
deciency focuses our attention on losses taking place inside transformer. As a matter of
fact the losses heat up machine. The temperature rise decides the rating of the equipment.
The temperature rise of the machine is a function of heat generated the structural congu-
ration, method of cooling and type of loading (or duty cycle of load). The peak temperature
attained directly aects the life of the insulations of the machine for any class of insulation.
These aspects are briey mentioned under section 7.5 on load test.
65


25
50
75
100
0.5 1
x
E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
%
0
Figure 26: Eciency
A typical curve for the variation of eciency as a function of output is given in Fig. 26
The losses that take place inside the machine expressed as a fraction of the input is some
times termed as deciency. Except in the case of an ideal machine, a certain fraction of
the input power gets lost inside the machine while handling the power. Thus the value for
the eciency is always less than one. In the case of a.c. machines the rating is expressed
in terms of apparent power. It is nothing but the product of the applied voltage and the
current drawn. The actual power delivered is a function of the power factor at which this
current is drawn. As the reactive power shuttles between the source and the load and has a
zero average value over a cycle of the supply wave it does not have any direct eect on the
eciency. The reactive power however increases the current handled by the machine and
the losses resulting from it. Therefore the losses that take place inside a transformer at any
66


given load play a vital role in determining the eciency. The losses taking place inside a
transformer can be enumerated as below:
1. Primary copper loss
2. Secondary copper loss
3. Iron loss
4. Dielectric loss
5. Stray load loss
These are explained in sequence below.
Primary and secondary copper losses take place in the respective winding resistances
due to the ow of the current in them.
P
c
= I
2
1
r
1
+ I
2
2
r
2
= I
2
2
R
e
(70)
The primary and secondary resistances dier from their d.c. values due to skin eect and the
temperature rise of the windings. While the average temperature rise can be approximately
used, the skin eect is harder to get analytically. The short circuit test gives the value of R
e
taking into account the skin eect.
The iron losses contain two components - Hysteresis loss and Eddy current loss. The
Hysteresis loss is a function of the material used for the core.
P
h
= K
h
B
1.6
f
67


For constant voltage and constant frequency operation this can be taken to be con-
stant. The eddy current loss in the core arises because of the induced emf in the steel
lamination sheets and the eddies of current formed due to it. This again produces a power
loss P
e
in the lamination.
P
e
= K
e
B
2
f
2
t
2
where t is the thickness of the steel lamination used. As the lamination thickness is much
smaller than the depth of penetration of the eld, the eddy current loss can be reduced by
reducing the thickness of the lamination. Present day laminations are of 0.25 mm thickness
and are capable of operation at 2 Tesla. These reduce the eddy current losses in the core.
This loss also remains constant due to constant voltage and frequency of operation. The
sum of hysteresis and eddy current losses can be obtained by the open circuit test.
The dielectric losses take place in the insulation of the transformer due to the large
electric stress. In the case of low voltage transformers this can be neglected. For constant
voltage operation this can be assumed to be a constant.
The stray load losses arise out of the leakage uxes of the transformer. These leakage
uxes link the metallic structural parts, tank etc. and produce eddy current losses in them.
Thus they take place all round the transformer instead of a denite place , hence the name
stray. Also the leakage ux is directly proportional to the load current unlike the mutual
ux which is proportional to the applied voltage. Hence this loss is called stray load loss.
This can also be estimated experimentally. It can be modeled by another resistance in the
series branch in the equivalent circuit. The stray load losses are very low in air-cored trans-
formers due to the absence of the metallic tank.
68


Thus, the dierent losses fall in to two categories Constant losses (mainly voltage
dependant) and Variable losses (current dependant). The expression for the eciency of the
transformer operating at a fractional load x of its rating, at a load power factor of
2
, can
be written as
=
xS cos
2
xS cos
2
+ P
const
+ x
2
P
var
(71)
Here S in the volt ampere rating of the transformer (V

2
I
2
at full load), P
const
being constant
losses and P
var
the variable losses at full load.
For a given power factor an expression for in terms of the variable x is thus obtained.
By dierentiating with respect to x and equating the same to zero, the condition for
maximum eciency is obtained. In the present case that condition comes out to be
P
const
= x
2
P
var
or x =
P
const
P
var
(72)
That is, when constant losses equal the variable losses at any fractional load x the
eciency reaches a maximum value. The maximum value of that eciency at any given
power factor is given by,
max
=
xS cos
2
xS cos
2
+ 2P
const
=
xS cos
2
xS cos
2
+ 2x
2
P
var
(73)
From the expression for the maximum eciency it can be easily deduced that this
maximum value increases with increase in power factor and is zero at zero power factor of
the load. It may be considered a good practice to select the operating load point to be at the
maximum eciency point. Thus if a transformer is on full load, for most part of the time
then the
max
can be made to occur at full load by proper selection of constant and variable
69


losses. However, in the modern transformers the iron losses are so low that it is practically
impossible to reduce the full load copper losses to that value. Such a design wastes lot of
copper. This point is illustrated with the help of an example below.
Two 100 kVA transformers A nd B are taken. Both transformers have total full load
losses to be 2 kW. The break up of this loss is chosen to be dierent for the two transformers.
Transformer A: iron loss 1 kW, and copper loss is 1 kW. The maximum eciency of 98.04%
occurs at full load at unity power factor. Transformer B: Iron loss =0.3 kW and full load
copper loss =1.7 kW. This also has a full load of 98.04%. Its maximum occurs at
a fractional load of
0.3
1.7
= 0.42. The maximum eciency at unity power factor being
42
42+0.6
100 = 98.59%. At the corresponding point the transformer A has an eciency of
42
42+1.0+0.1764
100 = 97.28%. Transformer A uses iron of more loss per kg at a given ux
density, but transformer B uses lesser quantity of copper and works at higher current density.
10.1 All day eciency
Large capacity transformers used in power systems are classied broadly into Power trans-
formers and Distribution transformers. The former variety is seen in generating stations and
large substations. Distribution transformers are seen at the distribution substations. The
basic dierence between the two types arise from the fact that the power transformers are
switched in or out of the circuit depending upon the load to be handled by them. Thus at
50% load on the station only 50% of the transformers need to be connected in the circuit.
On the other hand a distribution transformer is never switched o. It has to remain in the
circuit irrespective of the load connected. In such cases the constant loss of the transformer
continues to be dissipated. Hence the concept of energy based eciency is dened for such
70


50
100
6 12 18 24
L
o
a
d

%

o
f

f
u
l
l

l
o
a
d
Time,hrs
s
P
50
100
12
24
P
o
w
e
r

L
o
s
s

%
(a)Load factor (b) Loss factor
Figure 27: Calculation of Load Factor and Loss Factor
71


transformers. It is called all day eciency. The all day eciency is thus the ratio of the
energy output of the transformer over a day to the corresponding energy input. One day
is taken as a duration of time over which the load pattern repeats itself. This assumption,
however, is far from being true. The power output varies from zero to full load depending
on the requirement of the user and the load losses vary as the square of the fractional loads.
The no-load losses or constant losses occur throughout the 24 hours. Thus, the comparison
of loads on dierent days becomes dicult. Even the load factor, which is given by the
ratio of the average load to rated load, does not give satisfactory results. The calculation
of the all day eciency is illustrated below with an example. The graph of load on the
transformer, expressed as a fraction of the full load is plotted against time in Fig. 27. In an
actual situation the load on the transformer continuously changes. This has been presented
by a stepped curve for convenience. The average load can be calculated by
Average load over a day =
n
i=1
P
i
24
=
S
n
n
i=1
x
i
t
i
cos
i
24
(74)
where P
i
is the load during an interval i. n intervals are assumed. x
i
is the fractional load.
S
i
= x
i
S
n
where S
n
is nominal load. The average loss during the day is given by
Average loss = P
i
+
P
c
n
i=1
x
2
i
t
i
24
(75)
This is a non-linear function. For the same load factor dierent average loss can be
there depending upon the values of x
i
and t
i
. Hence a better option would be to keep the
constant losses very low to keep the all day eciency high. Variable losses are related to
load and are associated with revenue earned. The constant losses on the other hand has to
be incurred to make the service available. The concept of all day eciency may therefore be
more useful for comparing two transformers subjected to the same load cycle.
72


The concept of minimizing the lost energy comes into eect right from the time of
procurement of the transformer. The constant losses and variable losses are capitalized and
added to the material cost of the transformer in order to select the most competitive one,
which gives minimum cost taking initial cost and running cost put together. Obviously the
iron losses are capitalized more in the process to give an eect to the maximization of energy
eciency. If the load cycle is known at this stage, it can also be incorporated in computation
of the best transformer.
73


11 Auto Transformer
V1
T1
T2
I1
V2
ZL
I1
I2
I2
A
B
C
Figure 28: Autotransformer - Physical Arrangement
The primary and secondary windings of a two winding transformer have
induced emf in them due to a common mutual ux and hence are in phase. The currents
drawn by these two windings are out of phase by 180
. This prompted the use of a part

of the primary as secondary. This is equivalent to fusing the secondary turns into primary
turns. The fused section need to have a cross sectional area of the conductor to carry (I
2
I
1
)
ampere! This ingenious thought led to the invention of an auto transformer. Fig. 28 shows
the physical arrangement of an auto transformer. Total number of turns between A and C
are T
1
. At point B a connection is taken. Section AB has T
2
turns. As the volts per turn,
which is proportional to the ux in the machine, is the same for the whole winding,
V
1
: V
2
= T
1
: T
2
(76)
For simplifying analysis, the magnetizing current of the transformer is neglected.
74


When the secondary winding delivers a load current of I
2
ampere the demagnetizing ampere
turns is I
2
T
2
. This will be countered by a current I
1
owing from the source through the
T
1
turns such that,
I
1
T
1
= I
2
T
2
(77)
A current of I
1
ampere ows through the winding between B and C . The current
in the winding between A and B is (I
2
I
1
) ampere. The cross section of the wire to be
selected for AB is proportional to this current assuming a constant current density for the
whole winding. Thus some amount of material saving can be achieved compared to a two
winding transformer. The magnetic circuit is assumed to be identical and hence there is
no saving in the same. To quantify the saving the total quantity of copper used in an auto
transformer is expressed as a fraction of that used in a two winding transformer as,
copper in auto transformer
copper in two winding transformer
=
(T
1
T
2
)I
1
+ T
2
(I
2
I
1
)
T
1
I
1
+ T
2
I
2
(78)
= 1
2T
2
I
1
T
1
I
1
+ T
2
I
2
But T
1
I
1
= T
2
I
2
(79)
The Ratio = 1
2T
2
I
1
2T
1
I
1
= 1
T
2
T
1
(80)
This means that an auto transformer requires the use of lesser quantity of copper
given by the ratio of turns. This ratio therefore denotes the savings in copper. As the
space for the second winding need not be there, the window space can be less for an auto
transformer, giving some saving in the lamination weight also. The larger the ratio of the
voltages, smaller is the savings. As T
2
approaches T
1
the savings become signicant. Thus
auto transformers become ideal choice for close ratio transformations. The savings in mate-
rial is obtained, however, at a price. The electrical isolation between primary and secondary
75


V1
I1+I2
V1+V2
V2
I2
I1
ZL
I1+I2 I1
I2
I2
Figure 29: Two Winding Transformer used as auto transformer

has to be sacriced.
If we are not looking at the savings in the material, even then going in for the auto
transformer type of connection can be used with advantage, to obtain higher output. This
can be illustrated as follows. Fig. 29 shows a regular two winding transformer of a voltage
ratio V
1
: V
2
, the volt ampere rating being V
1
I
1
= V
2
I
2
= S. If now the primary is connected
across a supply of V
1
volt and the secondary is connected in series addition manner with the
primary winding, the output voltage becomes (V
1
+ V
2
) volt. The new output of this auto
transformer will now be
I
2
(V
1
+ V
2
) = I
2
V
2
(1 +
V
1
V
2
) = S(1 +
V
1
V
2
) (81)
= V
1
(I
1
+ I
2
) = S(1 +
I
2
I
1
) (82)
76


Thus an increased rating can be obtained compared to a two winding transformer
with the same material content. The windings can be connected in series opposition fashion
also. Then the new output rating will be
I
2
(V
1
V
2
) = I
2
V
2
(
V
1
V
2
1) = S(
V
1
V
2
1) (83)
The dierential connection is not used as it is not advantageous as the cumulative
connection.
11.1 Equivalent circuit
V1
(I2 -I1)
V2
I2
I1
I1
I1 I2
r
1
,x
l1
r
2
,x
l2
Figure 30: Kirchos Law Application to auto transformer
As mentioned earlier the magnetizing current can be neglected, for simplicity. Writing
77


the Kirchos equation to the primary and secondary of Fig. 30 we have
V
1
= E
1
+ I
1
(r
1
+ jx
l1
) (I
2
I
1
)(r
2
+ jx
l2
) (84)
Note that the resistance r
1
and leakage reactance x
l1
refer to that part of the winding where
only the primary current ows. Similarly on the load side we have,
E
2
= V
2
+ (I
2
I
1
)(r
2
+ jx
l2
) (85)
The voltage ratio V
1
: V
2
= E
1
: E
2
= T
1
: T
2
= a where T
1
is the total turns of the
primary.
Then E
1
= aE
2
and I
2
= aI
1
multiplying equation(84) by a and substituting in (83) we have
V
1
= aV
2
+ a(I
2
I
1
)(r
2
+ jx
l2
) + I
1
(r
1
+ jx
l1
) (I
2
I
1
)(r
2
+ jx
l2
)
= aV
2
+ I
1
(r
1
+ jx
l1
+ r
2
+ jx
l2
ar
2
ajx
l
2) + I
2
(ar
2
+ jax
l2
r
2
jx
l2
)
= aV
2
+ I
1
(r
1
+ jx
l1
+ r
2
+ jx
l2
+ a
2
r
2
+ ja
2
x
l2
ar
2
ajx
l2
ar
2
jax
l2
)
= aV
2
+ I
1
(r
1
+ r
2
(1 + a
2
2a) + jx
l1
+ x
l2
(1 + a
2
2a))
= aV
2
+ I
1
(r
1
+ (a 1)
2
r
2
+ jx
l1
+ (a 1)
2
x
l2
) (86)
Equation (85) yields the equivalent circuit of Fig. 31 where R
e
= r
1
+ (a 1)
2
r
2
and
X
e
= x
l1
+ (a 1)
2
x
l2
.
The magnetization branch can now be hung across the mains for completeness. The
above equivalent circuit can now be compared with the approximate equivalent circuit of
a two winding case R
e
= r
1
+ a
2
r
2
and X
e
= x
l1
+ a
2
x
l2
. Thus in the case of an auto
transformer total value of the short circuit impedance is lower and so also the percentage
resistance and reactance. Thus the full load regulation is lower. Having a smaller value
of short circuit impedance is sometimes considered to be a disadvantage. That is because
78


R
e
jX
e
R
c
jX
m V
1
I
c
I
m
I
o
V
2=
aV
1
Re=r1+(a-1)
2
r2
Xl=xl1+(a-1)
2
xl2
Figure 31: Equivalent Circuit of auto transformers
the short circuit currents become very large in those cases. The eciency is higher in auto
transformers compared to their two winding counter part at the same load. The phasor
diagram of operation for the auto transformer drawing a load current at a lagging power
factor angle of
2
is shown in Fig. 32. The magnetizing current is omitted here again for
simplicity.
From the foregoing study it is seen that there are several advantages in going in for the
autotransformer type of arrangement. The voltage/current transformation and impedance
conversion aspects of a two winding transformer are retained but with lesser material (and
hence lesser weight) used. The losses are reduced increasing the eciency. Reactance is
reduced resulting in better regulation characteristics. All these benets are enhanced as
the voltage ratio approaches unity. The price that is required to be paid is loss of electri-
cal isolation and a larger short circuit current (and larger short circuit forces on the winding).
79


I1
E1
I1r1
I1x1
(I2-I1)x2
V1
(I2-I1)r2
(I2-I1)x2
(I2-I1)r2
V2
I2
E2
I2
1
2
Figure 32: Phasor Diagram of Operation of an autotransformer
80


Auto transformers are used in applications where electrical isolation is not a critical
requirement. When the ratio V
2
: V
1
is 0.3 or more they are used with advantage. The
normal applications are motor starters, boosters or static balancers.
V
in
M oving contact
Variable
a.c output
Figure 33: Variable Secondary Voltage Arrangement
Another wide spread application of auto transformer type of arrangement is in ob-
taining a variable a.c. voltage from a xed a.c. voltage supply. Here only one winding is used
as in the auto transformer. The secondary voltage is tapped by a brush whose position and
hence the output voltage is variable. The primary conductor is bared to facilitate electrical
contact Fig. 33. Such arrangement cannot exploit the savings in the copper as the output
voltage is required right from zero volts upwards.
The conductor is selected based on the maximum secondary current that could be
drawn as the output voltage varies in practically continuous manner. These are used in
81


voltage stabilizers, variable d.c. arrangements (with a diode bridge) in laboratories, motor
starters, dimmers etc.
82


12 Harmonics
In addition to the operation of transformers on the sinusoidal supplies, the harmonic
behavior becomes important as the size and rating of the transformer increases. The eects
of the harmonic currents are
1. Additional copper losses due to harmonic currents
2. Increased core losses
3. Increased electro magnetic interference with communication circuits.
On the other hand the harmonic voltages of the transformer cause
1. Increased dielectric stress on insulation
2. Electro static interference with communication circuits.
3. Resonance between winding reactance and feeder capacitance.
In the present times a greater awareness is generated by the problems of harmonic
voltages and currents produced by non-linear loads like the power electronic converters.
These combine with non-linear nature of transformer core and produce severe distortions in
voltages and currents and increase the power loss. Thus the study of harmonics is of great
practical signicance in the operation of transformers. The discussion here is conned to the
harmonics generated by transformers only.
83


e
t
t
t
i
i
i
i
Figure 34: Harmonics Generated by Transformers

12.1 Single phase transformers
Modern transformers operate at increasing levels of saturation in order to reduce
the weight and cost of the core used in the same. Because of this and due to the hysteresis,
the transformer core behaves as a highly non-linear element and generates harmonic voltages
and currents. This is explained below. Fig. 34 shows the manner in which the shape of the
magnetizing current can be obtained and plotted. At any instant of the ux density wave
the ampere turns required to establish the same is read out and plotted, traversing the
hysteresis loop once per cycle. The sinusoidal ux density curve represents the sinusoidal
applied voltage to some other scale. The plot of the magnetizing current which is peaky is
analyzed using Fourier analysis. The harmonic current components are obtained from this
analysis. These harmonic currents produce harmonic elds in the core and harmonic voltages
in the windings. Relatively small value of harmonic elds generate considerable magnitude
of harmonic voltages. For example a 10% magnitude of 3rd harmonic ux produces 30%
84


magnitude of 3rd harmonic voltage. These eects get even more pronounced for higher
order harmonics. As these harmonic voltages get short circuited through the low impedance
of the supply they produce harmonic currents. These currents produce eects according to
Lenzs law and tend to neutralize the harmonic ux and bring the ux wave to a sinusoid.
Normally third harmonic is the largest in its magnitude and hence the discussion is based on
it. The same can be told of other harmonics also. In the case of a single phase transformer
the harmonics are conned mostly to the primary side as the source impedance is much
smaller compared to the load impedance. The understanding of the phenomenon becomes
more clear if the transformer is supplied with a sinusoidal current source. In this case current
has to be sinusoidal and the harmonic currents cannot be supplied by the source and hence
the induced emf will be peaky containing harmonic voltages. When the load is connected on
the secondary side the harmonic currents ow through the load and voltage tends to become
sinusoidal. The harmonic voltages induce electric stress on dielectrics and increased electro
static interference. The harmonic currents produce losses and electro magnetic interference
as already noted above.
12.2 Three phase banks of single phase transformers
In the case of single phase transformers connected to form three phase bank, each
transformer is magnetically decoupled from the other. The ow of harmonic currents are
decided by the type of the electrical connection used on the primary and secondary sides.
Also, there are three fundamental voltages in the present case each displaced from the other
by 120 electrical degrees. Because of the symmetry of the a.c. wave about the time axis
only odd harmonics need to be considered. The harmonics which are triplen (multiples of
three) behave in a similar manner as they are co-phasal or in phase in the three phases. The
85


non-triplen harmonics behave in a similar manner to the fundamental and have 120
phase
displacement between them. The harmonic behavior of poly-phase banks can be discussed
now.
Dd connection In three phase banks with mesh connection on both primary side and sec-
ondary side a closed path is available for the triplen harmonics to circulate currents.
Thus the supply current is nearly sinusoidal (but for the non-triplen harmonic cur-
rents). The triplen harmonic currents inside the closed mesh winding correct the ux
density wave to be nearly sinusoidal. The secondary voltages will be nearly sinusoidal.
Third harmonics currents ow both in the primary and the secondary and hence the
magnitudes of these currents, so also the drops due to them will be lower.
Dy and Yd connection (without neutral connection) Behavior of the bank with mesh
connection on one side is similar to the one discussed under Dd connection. The har-
monic currents and drops and the departure of the ux density from sinusoidal are
larger in the present case compared to Dd banks.
Yy connection without neutral wires With both primary and secondary connected in
star no closed path exists. As the triplen harmonics are always in phase, by virtue
of the Y connection they get canceled in the line voltages. Non-triplen harmonics
like fundamental, become
3 times phase value and appear in the line voltages. Line

currents remain sinusoidal except for non-triplen harmonic currents. Flux wave in each
transformer will be at topped and the phase voltages remain peaked. The potential
of the neutral is no longer steady. The star point oscillates due to the third harmonic
voltages. This is termed as oscillating neutral.
Yy connection with neutral wires When a neutral wire is provided the triplen har-
86


monic current can ow and the condition is similar to the single phase case (with a
star connected 4 wire source or with the system earth). The neutral wire carries three
times the triplen harmonic current of one transformer as these currents are co-phasal.
Unloaded secondary neutral will not be operative. Other polyphase connections not
discussed above explicitly will fall under one type or the other of the cases discussed.
In a Yy connection, to obtain third harmonic suppression one may provide a third
winding which is connected in mesh, which can be an unloaded winding. It is called a
tertiary. This winding improves the single phase to earth fault detection also. Further,
this winding can be used to feed some permanent station loads also. Such transform-
ers are designated as Yyd transformers. If the neutral wires are provided and also
mesh connected winding is present, then triplen harmonics are shared between them
depending upon their impedances.
12.3 Three phase transformers units
As against a bank of three single phase transformers connected to three phase
mains, a three phase transformer generally has the three magnetic circuits that are inter-
acting. The exception to this rule is a 3-phase shell type transformer. In the shell type of
construction, even though the three cores are together, they are non-interacting. Three limb
core type 3-phase transformer is the one in which the phases are magnetically also linked.
Flux of each limb uses the other two limbs for its return path. This is true for fundamental
and non-triplen harmonics. The triplen harmonics being co-phasal cannot use other limbs
for the return path (this holds good for zero sequence, unbalanced fundamental mmf also).
The ux path is completed through the air. So substantially large value of the mmf produces
a low value of third harmonic ux as the path of the ux is through the air and has a very
87


high reluctance. Thus the ux in the core remains nearly sinusoidal, so also the induced emf.
This happens irrespective of the type of connection used. The triplen order ux, sometimes
links the tank and produces loss in the same.
Other harmonics can be suppressed by connecting tuned lters at the terminals.
Harmonic current compensation using special magnetic circuit design is considered to be
outside the scope here.
88


13 Poly Phase connections and Poly phase Transform-
ers
The individual transformers are connected in a variety of ways in a power system.
Due to the advantages of polyphase power during generation, transmission and utilization
polyphase power handling is very important. As an engineering application is driven by
techno-economic considerations, no single connection or setup is satisfactory for all appli-
cations. Thus transformers are deployed in many forms and connections. Star and mesh
connections are very commonly used. Apart from these, vee or open delta connections, zig
zag connections , T connections, auto transformer connections, multi winding transformers
etc. are a few of the many possibilities. A few of the common connections and the tech-
nical and economic considerations that govern their usage are discussed here. Literature
abounds in the description of many other. Apart from the characteristics and advantages
of these, one must also know their limitations and problems, to facilitate proper selection of
a conguration for an application. Many polyphase connections can be formed using single
phase transformers. In some cases it may be preferable to design, develop and deploy a
polyphase transformer itself. In a balanced two phase system we encounter two voltages
that are equal in magnitude diering in phase by 90
. Similarly, in a three phase system

there are three equal voltages diering in phase 120 electrical degrees. Further there is an
order in which they reach a particular voltage magnitude. This is called the phase sequence.
In some applications like a.c. to d.c. conversion, six phases or more may be encountered.
Transformers used in all these applications must be connected properly for proper function-
ing. The basic relationship between the primary and secondary voltages (brought about by
a common mutual ux and the number of turns), the polarity of the induced emf (decided
by polarity test and used with dot convention) and some understanding of the magnetic
89


circuit are all necessary for the same. To facilitate the manufacturer and users, interna-
tional standards are also available. Each winding has two ends designated as 1 and 2. The
HV winding is indicated by capital letters and the LV winding by small letters. If more
terminals are brought out from a winding by way of taps there are numbered in the increas-
ing numbers in accordance to their distance from 1 (eg A
1
, A
2
, A
3
...). If the induced emf
at an instant is from A
1
to A
2
on the HV winding it will rise from a
1
to a
2
on the LV winding.
Out of the dierent polyphase connections three phase connections are mostly en-
countered due to the wide spread use of three phase systems for generation, transmission
and utilization. Three balanced 3-phase voltages can be connected in star or mesh fashion
to yield a balanced 3-phase 3-wire system. The transformers that work on the 3-phase sup-
ply have star, mesh or zig-zag connected windings on either primary secondary or both. In
addition to giving dierent voltage ratios, they introduce phase shifts between input and
output sides. These connections are broadly classied into 4 popular vector groups.
1. Group I: zero phase displacement between the primary and the secondary.
2. Group II: 180
phase displacement.
3. Group III: 30
lag phase displacement of the secondary with respect to the primary.

4. Group IV: 30
lead phase displacement of the secondary with respect to the primary.

A few examples of the physical connections and phasor diagrams are shown in Fig. 35
and Fig. 36 corresponding to each group. The capital letters indicates primary and the
small letters the secondary. D/d stand for mesh, Y/y - for star, Z/z for zig-zag. The angu-
lar displacement of secondary with respect to the primary are shown as clock position, 0
90


Group1 0
0
Phase shift
W indings & Term inals E.M .F Vector diagram s
A2
a2
B2
b2
C2
c2
N n
a1
b1
c1
A1
B1
C1
A2 a2
B2 b2
C2 c2
A1
B1
C1
a1
b1
c1
a4
b4
c4
A2
B2
C2
A1
B1
C1
n
a1
b1
c1
A2
C2
B2
a2
A2
C2
B2
a2
A2
C2
B2
(a)
Group2 180
0
Phase shift
A2
C2
B2
A2
a1
B2
b1
C2
c1
n
A1
B1
C1
a1
b1
c1
N
a1
b1
c1
a1
b1
c1
a2
b2
c2
A2
B2
C2
A1
B1
C1
a3
b3
c3
n
a1
b1
c1
A2
B2
C2
A1
B1
C1
A2
C2 B2
A2
C2
B2
(b)
Figure 35: Vector Groups for 3-phase Transformer Connections
91


Group3 30
0
Phase shift
A2
a2
B2
b2
C2
c2
n
A1
B1
C1
a1
b1
c1
A2 a2
B2 b2
C2
c2
N
A1
B1
C1
a1
b1
c1
A2 a4
B2 b4
C2 c4
N
A1
B1
C1
n
a1
b1
c1
A2
C2
B2
a
2
A2
C2
B2
A2
C2
B2
a
2
(a)
Group4 + 30
0
Phase shift
A2
B2
A1
B1
C1
a2
b2
c2
n
a1
b1
c1
A2
B2
C2
N
A1
B1
C1
a1
b1
c1
a1
b1
c1
a2
b2
c2
A2
B2
C2
N
A1
B1
C1
n
a1
b1
c1
a3
b3
c3
a4
b4
c4
A2
C2
B2
a
2
C2
B2
C
2
B
2
A2
B2
C2
(b)
Figure 36: Vector Groups for 3-phase Transformer Connections
92


referring to 12 oclock position. These vector groups are especially important when two or
more transformers are to be connected in parallel.
Star connection is normally cheaper as there are fewer turns and lesser cost of insula-
tion. The advantage becomes more with increase in voltage above 11kv. In a star connected
winding with earthed-neutral the maximum voltage to the earth is (
1
3
)of the line voltage.
Also star connection permits mixed loading due to the presence of the neutral. Mesh con-
nections are advantageous in low voltage transformers as insulation costs are insignicant
and the conductor size becomes (
1
3
) of that of star connection and permits ease of winding.
The common polyphase connections are briey discussed now.
Star/star (Yy0, Yy6)connection This is the most economical one for small high voltage
transformers. Insulation cost is highly reduced. Neutral wire can permit mixed load-
ing. Triplen harmonics are absent in the lines. These triplen harmonic currents cannot
ow, unless there is a neutral wire. This connection produces oscillating neutral. Three
phase shell type units have large triplen harmonic phase voltage. However three phase
core type transformers work satisfactorily. A tertiary mesh connected winding may be
required to stabilize the oscillating neutral due to third harmonics in three phase banks.
Mesh/mesh (Dd0, Dd6) This is an economical conguration for large low voltage trans-
formers. Large amount of unbalanced load can be met with ease. Mesh permits a cir-
culating path for triplen harmonics thus attenuates the same. It is possible to operate
with one transformer removed in open delta or Vee connection meeting 58 percent of
the balanced load. Three phase units cannot have this facility. Mixed single phase
loading is not possible due to the absence of neutral.
93


Star/mesh(Dy or Yd ) This arrangement is very common for power supply transform-
ers. The delta winding permits triplen harmonic currents to circulate in the closed
path and attenuates them.
Zig zag/ star (ZY1 or Zy11) Zigzag connection is obtained by inter connection of phases.
4-wire system is possible on both sides. Unbalanced loading is also possible. Oscillat-
ing neutral problem is absent in this connection. This connection requires 15% more
turns for the same voltage on the zigzag side and hence costs more.
Generally speaking a bank of three single phase transformers cost about 15% more
than their 3-phase counter part. Also, they occupy more space. But the spare capac-
ity cost will be less and single phase units are easier to transport.
Mesh connected three phase transformers resemble 3- single phase units but kept in
a common tank. In view of this single tank, the space occupied is less. Other than
that there is no big dierence. The 3-phase core type transformer on the other hand
has a simple core arrangement. The three limbs are equal in cross section. Primary
and secondary of each phase are housed on the same limb. The ux setup in any limb
will return through the other two limbs as the mmf of those limbs are in the proper
directions so as to aid the same. Even though magnetically this is not a symmetrical
arrangement, as the reluctance to the ux setup by side limbs is dierent from that of
the central limb, it does not adversely aect the performance. This is due to the fact
that the magnetizing current itself forms a small fraction of the total phase current
drawn on load. The added advantage of 3-phase core is that it can tolerate substantially
94


large value of 3rd harmonic mmf without aecting the performance. The 3rd harmonic
mmf of the three phases will be in phase and hence rise in all the limbs together.
The 3rd harmonic ux must therefore nd its path through the air. Due to the high
reluctance of the air path even a substantially large value of third harmonic mmf
produces negligible value of third harmonic ux. Similarly unbalanced operation of the
transformer with large zero sequence fundamental mmf content also does not aect its
performance. Even with Yy type of poly phase connection without neutral connection
the oscillating neutral does not occur with these cores. Finally, three phase cores
themselves cost less than three single phase units due to compactness.
95


14 Parallel operation of one phase and two phase trans-
formers
By parallel operation we mean two or more transformers are connected to the same
supply bus bars on the primary side and to a common bus bar/load on the secondary side.
Such requirement is frequently encountered in practice. The reasons that necessitate parallel
operation are as follows.
1. Non-availability of a single large transformer to meet the total load requirement.
2. The power demand might have increased over a time necessitating augmentation of the
capacity. More transformers connected in parallel will then be pressed into service.
3. To ensure improved reliability. Even if one of the transformers gets into a fault or is
taken out for maintenance/repair the load can continued to be serviced.
4. To reduce the spare capacity. If many smaller size transformers are used one machine
can be used as spare. If only one large machine is feeding the load, a spare of similar
rating has to be available. The problem of spares becomes more acute with fewer
machines in service at a location.
5. When transportation problems limit installation of large transformers at site, it may
be easier to transport smaller ones to site and work them in parallel.
Fig. 37 shows the physical arrangement of two single phase transformers working in
parallel on the primary side. Transformer A and Transformer B are connected to input
voltage bus bars. After ascertaining the polarities they are connected to output/load bus
96


E1 E2
V
1
V
2
I
A
E1 E2
load
A
B
supply bus Load bus
I
B
Figure 37: Parallel Operation of Two Single Phase Transformers - Physical
97


bars. Certain conditions have to be met before two or more transformers are connected in
parallel and share a common load satisfactorily. They are,
1. The voltage ratio must be the same.
2. The per unit impedance of each machine on its own base must be the same.
3. The polarity must be the same, so that there is no circulating current between the
transformers.
4. The phase sequence must be the same and no phase dierence must exist between the
voltages of the two transformers.
These conditions are examined rst with reference to single phase transformers and then the
three phase cases are discussed.
Same voltage ratio Generally the turns ratio and voltage ratio are taken to be the same.
If the ratio is large there can be considerable error in the voltages even if the turns ratios
are the same. When the primaries are connected to same bus bars, if the secondaries
do not show the same voltage, paralleling them would result in a circulating current
between the secondaries. Reected circulating current will be there on the primary
side also. Thus even without connecting a load considerable current can be drawn
by the transformers and they produce copper losses. In two identical transformers
with percentage impedance of 5 percent, a no-load voltage dierence of one percent
will result in a circulating current of 10 percent of full load current. This circulating
current gets added to the load current when the load is connected resulting in unequal
sharing of the load. In such cases the combined full load of the two transformers can
never be met without one transformer getting overloaded.
98


Per unit impedance Transformers of dierent ratings may be required to operate in par-
allel. If they have to share the total load in proportion to their ratings the larger
machine has to draw more current. The voltage drop across each machine has to be
the same by virtue of their connection at the input and the output ends. Thus the
larger machines have smaller impedance and smaller machines must have larger ohmic
impedance. Thus the impedances must be in the inverse ratios of the ratings. As the
voltage drops must be the same the per unit impedance of each transformer on its
own base, must be equal. In addition if active and reactive power are required to be
shared in proportion to the ratings the impedance angles also must be the same. Thus
we have the requirement that per unit resistance and per unit reactance of both the
transformers must be the same for proper load sharing.
Polarity of connection The polarity of connection in the case of single phase transform-
ers can be either same or opposite. Inside the loop formed by the two secondaries
the resulting voltage must be zero. If wrong polarity is chosen the two voltages get
added and short circuit results. In the case of polyphase banks it is possible to have
permanent phase error between the phases with substantial circulating current. Such
transformer banks must not be connected in parallel. The turns ratios in such groups
can be adjusted to give very close voltage ratios but phase errors cannot be compen-
sated. Phase error of 0.6 degree gives rise to one percent dierence in voltage. Hence
poly phase transformers belonging to the same vector group alone must be taken for
paralleling.
Transformers having 30
angle can be paralleled to that having +30
angle by re-
versing the phase sequence of both primary and secondary terminals of one of the
transformers. This way one can overcome the problem of the phase angle error.
99


Phase sequence The phase sequence of operation becomes relevant only in the case of
poly phase systems. The poly phase banks belonging to same vector group can be
connected in parallel. A transformer with +30
phase angle however can be paralleled

with the one with 30
phase angle, the phase sequence is reversed for one of them

both at primary and secondary terminals. If the phase sequences are not the same
then the two transformers cannot be connected in parallel even if they belong to same
vector group. The phase sequence can be found out by the use of a phase sequence
indicator.
Performance of two or more single phase transformers working in parallel can be com-
puted using their equivalent circuit. In the case of poly phase banks also the approach
is identical and the single phase equivalent circuit of the same can be used. Basically
two cases arise in these problems. Case A: when the voltage ratio of the two trans-
formers is the same and Case B: when the voltage ratios are not the same. These are
discussed now in sequence.
14.1 Case A: Equal voltage ratios
Always two transformers of equal voltage ratios are selected for working in parallel.
This way one can avoid a circulating current between the transformers. Load can be switched
on subsequently to these bus bars. Neglecting the parallel branch of the equivalent circuit the
above connection can be shown as in Fig. 38(a),(b). The equivalent circuit is drawn in terms
of the secondary parameters. This may be further simplied as shown under Fig. 38(c). The
voltage drop across the two transformers must be the same by virtue of common connection
at input as well as output ends. By inspection the voltage equation for the drop can be
100


V2
V1
ZA
ZB
IA
IB
RA
RB
jXA
jXB
V2
I V1
IA
IB
RA
RB
jXA
jXB
(a) (b)
V
L
IA
IB
ZL
I
ZA
ZB
V
Load
VL
(c)
Figure 38: Equivalent Circuit for Transformers working in Parallel -Simplied circuit and
Further simplication for identical voltage ratio
101


written as
I
A
Z
A
= I
B
Z
B
= IZ = v (say) (87)
HereI = I
A
+ I
B
(88)
And Z is the equivalent impedance of the two transformers given by,
Z =
Z
A
Z
B
Z
A
+ Z
B
(89)
Thus I
A
=
v
Z
A
=
IZ
Z
A
= I.
Z
B
Z
A
+ Z
B
(90)
and I
B
=
v
Z
B
=
IZ
Z
B
= I.
Z
A
Z
A
+ Z
B
If the terminal voltage is V = IZ
L
then the active and reactive power supplied by each of
the two transformers is given by
P
A
= Real(V I
A
) and Q
A
= Imag(V I
A
) and (91)
P
B
= Real(V I
B
) and Q
B
= Imag(V I
B
) (92)
From the above it is seen that the transformer with higher impedance supplies lesser
load current and vice versa. If transformers of dissimilar ratings are paralleled the trans-
former with larger rating shall have smaller impedance as it has to produce the same drop
as the other transformer, at a larger current. Thus the ohmic values of the impedances must
be in the inverse ratio of the ratings of the transformers. I
A
Z
A
= I
B
Z
B
, therefore
I
A
I
B
=
Z
B
Z
A
.
Expressing the voltage drops in p.u basis, we aim at the same per unit drops at any load for
the transformers. The per unit impedances must therefore be the same on their respective
bases.
Fig. 39 shows the phasor diagram of operation for these conditions. The drops are
magnied and shown to improve clarity. It is seen that the total voltage drop inside the
102


A
E
B A
IB
IA
IL
V2
V
IARA
IR
IBRB
IBXB
IX
IAXA
Figure 39: Phasor Diagram of Operation for two Transformers working in Parallel
transformers is v but the currents I
A
and I
B
are forced to have a dierent phase angle due
to the dierence in the internal power factor angles
A
and
B
. This forces the active and
reactive components of the currents drawn by each transformer to be dierent ( even in
the case when current in each transformer is the same). If we want them to share the load
current in proportion to their ratings, their percentage ( or p.u) impedances must be the
same. In order to avoid any divergence and to share active and reactive powers also properly,
A
=
B
. Thus the condition for satisfactory parallel operation is that the p.u resistances
and p.u reactance must be the same on their respective bases for the two transformers. To
determine the sharing of currents and power either p.u parameters or ohmic values can be
used.
103


14.2 Case B :Unequal voltage ratios
V
L
IA
IB
ZL
EA
EB
I
RA
jXA
RB jXB
Figure 40: Equivalent Circuit for unequal Voltage Ratio
One may not be able to get two transformers of identical voltage ratio in
spite of ones best eorts. Due to manufacturing dierences, even in transformers built as
per the same design, the voltage ratios may not be the same. In such cases the circuit
representation for parallel operation will be dierent as shown in Fig. 40. In this case the
two input voltages cannot be merged to one, as they are dierent. The load brings about a
common connection at the output side. E
A
and E
B
are the no-load secondary emf. Z
L
is
the load impedance at the secondary terminals. By inspection the voltage equation can be
written as below:
E
A
= I
A
Z
A
+ (I
A
+ I
B
)Z
L
= V + I
A
Z
A
E
B
= I
B
Z
B
+ (I
A
+ I
B
)Z
L
= V + I
B
Z
B
(93)
Solving the two equations the expression for I
A
and I
B
can be obtained as
104


I
A
=
E
A
Z
B
+ (E
A
E
B
)Z
L
Z
A
Z
B
+ Z
L
(Z
A
+ Z
B
)
and (94)
I
B
=
E
B
Z
A
+ (E
B
E
A
)Z
L
Z
A
Z
B
+ Z
L
(Z
A
+ Z
B
)
Z
A
and Z
B
are phasors and hence there can be angular dierence also in addition to
the dierence in magnitude. When load is not connected there will be a circulating current
between the transformers. The currents in that case can be obtained by putting Z
L
=
( after dividing the numerator and the denominator by Z
L
). Then,
I
A
= I
B
=
(E
A
E
B
)
(Z
A
+ Z
B
)
(95)
If the load impedance becomes zero as in the case of a short circuit, we have,
I
A
=
E
A
Z
A
and I
B
=
E
B
Z
B
(96)
Instead of the value of Z
L
if the value of V is known , the currents can be easily determined
( from Eqns. 93 ) as
I
A
=
E
A
V
Z
A
and I
B
=
E
B
V
Z
B
(97)
If more than two transformers are connected across a load then the calculation of
load currents following the method suggested above involves considerable amount of compu-
tational labor. A simpler and more elegant method for the case depicted in Fig. 41 is given
below. It is known by the name parallel generator theorem.
I
L
= I
A
+ I
B
+ I
C
+ ......
But I
A
=
E
A
V
Z
A
, I
B
=
E
B
V
Z
B
, I
C
=
E
C
V
Z
C
V = I
L
.Z
L
(98)
105


V
IA
IB
IC
ZL
EA
EB
EC
I
RA
RB
jXA
jXB
RC
jXC
Figure 41: Parallel Generator Theorem
Combining these equations
V
Z
L
=
E
A
V
Z
A
+
E
B
V
Z
B
+
E
C
V
Z
C
+ ... (99)
Grouping the terms together
V (
1
Z
L
+
1
Z
A
+
1
Z
B
+
1
Z
C
+ ...) =
E
A
Z
A
+
E
B
Z
B
+
E
C
Z
C
+ ...
= I
SCA
+ I
SCB
+ I
SCC
+ .... (100)
(
1
Z
L
+
1
Z
A
+
1
Z
B
+
1
Z
C
+ ...) =
1
Z
(101)
V = Z(I
SCA
+ I
SCB
+ I
SCC
+ ....) (102)
From this V can be obtained. Substituting V in Eqn. 98, I
A
, I
B
etc can be obtained.
Knowing the individual current phasor, the load shared by each transformer can be com-
puted.
106


15 Transformer voltage control and Tap changing
Regulating the voltage of a transformer is a requirement that often arises in a power
application or power system.
In an application it may be needed
1. To supply a desired voltage to the load.
2. To counter the voltage drops due to loads.
3. To counter the input supply voltage changes on load.
On a power system the transformers are additionally required to perform the task of
regulation of active and reactive power ows.
Reverser
Booster transformer
Regulation
transformer
Booster transformer
Reverser
Main
transformer
tertiary
B
B
1
2
1
2
Figure 42: Tap changing and Buck Boost arrangement
The voltage control is performed by changing the turns ratio. This is done by provi-
sion of taps in the winding. The volts per turn available in large transformers is quite high
and hence a change of even one turn on the LV side represents a large percentage change
in the voltage. Also the LV currents are normally too large to take out the tapping from
the windings. LV winding being the inner winding in a core type transformer adds to the
107


diculty of taking out of the taps. Hence irrespective of the end use for which tapping is put
to, taps are provided on the HV winding. Provision of taps to control voltage is called tap
changing. In the case of power systems, voltage levels are some times changed by injecting a
suitable voltage in series with the line. This may be called buck-boost arrangement. In ad-
dition to the magnitude, phase of the injected voltage may be varied in power systems. The
tap changing arrangement and buck boost arrangement with phase shift are shown in Fig. 42.
Tap changing can be eected when a) the transformers is on no- load and b) the load
is still remains connected to the transformer. These are called o load tap changing and
on load tap changing. The O load tap changing relatively costs less. The tap positions
are changed when the transformer is taken out of the circuit and reconnected. The on-load
tap changer on the other hand tries to change the taps without the interruption of the load
current. In view of this requirement it normally costs more. A few schemes of on-load tap
changing are now discussed.
108


HV
LV
Reactor
s
1
2
3
4
5
Figure 43: Reactor Method of Tap Changer ( with table of switching)
109


Tap switches closed
1 1,s
2 1,2
3 2,s
4 2,3
5 3,s
6 3,4
7 4,s
8 4,5
9 5,s
Reactor method The diagram of connections is shown in Fig. 43. This method employs
an auxiliary reactor to assist tap changing. The switches for the taps and that across
the reactor(S) are connected as shown. The reactor has a center tapped winding on
a magnetic core. The two ends of the reactor are connected to the two bus bars to
which tapping switches of odd/even numbered taps are connected. When only one tap
is connected to the reactor the shorting switch S is closed minimizing the drop in the
reactor. The reactor can also be worked with both ends connected to two successive
taps. In that case the switch S must be kept open. The reactor limits the circulating
current between the taps in such a situation. Thus a four step tapped winding can be
used for getting seven step voltage on the secondary(see the table of switching). The
advantage of this type of tap changer are
1. Load need not be switched o.
2. More steps than taps are obtained.
3. Switches need not interrupt load current as a alternate path is always provided.
110


The major objection to this scheme seems to be that the reactor is in the circuit always
generating extra loss.
Parallel winding, transformer method In order to maintain the continuity of supply
the primary winding is split into two parallel circuits each circuit having the taps as
shown in Fig. 44. Two circuit breakers A and B are used in the two circuits. Initially
tap 1
a
and 1
b
are closed and the transformer is energized with full primary voltage.
To change the tap the circuit breaker A is opened momentarily and tap is moved from
1a to 2a. Then circuit breaker A is closed. When the circuit A is opened whole of the
primary current of the transformer ows through the circuit B. A small dierence in
the number of turns between the two circuit exists. This produces a circulating current
between them. Next, circuit breaker B is opened momentarily, the tap is changed from
1b to 2b and the breaker is closed. In this position the two circuits are similar and there
is no circulating current. The circulating current is controlled by careful selection of
the leakage reactance. Generally, parallel circuits are needed in primary and secondary
to carry the large current in a big transformer. Provision of taps switches and circuit
breakers are to be additionally provided to achieve tap changing in these machines.
Series booster method In this case a separate transformer is used to buck/boost the
voltage of the main transformer. The main transformer need not be having a tapped
arrangement. This arrangement can be added to an existing system also. Fig. 42shows
the booster arrangement for a single phase supply. The reverser switch reverses the
polarity of the injected voltage and hence a boost is converted into a buck and vice
versa. The power rating of this transformer need be a small fraction of the main
transformer as it is required to handle only the power associated with the injected
voltage. One precaution to be taken with this arrangement is that the winding must
111


A B
HV
LV
a1 a2
a3 a4
b1 b2 b3 b4
Figure 44: Parallel Primary Winding Tap Changing
112


not be open circuited. If it gets open circuited the core (B in g) gets highly saturated.
In spite of the small ratings and low voltages and exibility, this method of voltage
control costs more mainly due to the additional oor space it needs. The methods of
voltage regulation discussed so far basically use the principle of tap changing and hence
the voltage change takes place in steps. Applications like a.c. and d.c. motor speed
control, illumination control by dimmers, electro-chemistry and voltage stabilizers need
continuous control of voltage. This can be obtained with the help of moving coil voltage
regulators.
Vin
5%
95%
a1
b1
S
a2
b2
Vout
Figure 45: Moving Coil Voltage Regulator
moving coil voltage regulators Fig. 45 shows the physical arrangement of one such trans-
former. a, b are the two primary windings wound on a long core, wound in the opposite
113


sense. Thus the ux produced by each winding takes a path through the air to link
the winding. These uxes link their secondaries a
2
and b
2
. A short circuited moving
coil s is wound on the same limb and is capable of being held at any desired position.
This moving coil alters the inductances of the two primaries. The sharing of the total
applied voltage thus becomes dierent and also the induced emf in the secondaries a
2
and b
2
. The total secondary voltage in the present case varies from 10 percent to 20
percent of the input in a continuous manner. The turns ratios of a
1
: a
2
and b
1
: b
2
are 4.86 and 10.6 respectively.
5
4.86
+
95
10.6
= 10% when s is in the top position. In
the bottom position it becomes
95
4.86
+
5
10.6
= 20%. By selecting proper ratios for the
secondaries a
2
and b
2
one can get the desired voltage variation.
V1
sliding contact
Variable secondary
a.c voltage
V2
a) without electrical isolation
V1
b) with electrical isolation
Figure 46: Sliding Contact Regulator
Sliding contact regulators These have two winding or auto transformer like construction.
The winding from which the output is taken is bared and a sliding contact taps the
voltage. The minimum step size of voltage change obtainable is the voltage across a
single turn. The conductor is chosen on the basis of the maximum load current on the
114


output side. In smaller ratings this is highly cost eective. Two winding arrangements
are also possible. The two winding arrangement provides electrical isolation also.These
are shown in Fig. 46.
115

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Electrical Machines I Prof. Krishna Vasudevan, Prof. G. Sridhara Rao, Prof. P.

- impedance as seen by secondary.

. This prompted the use of a part

Figure 29: Two Winding Transformer used as auto transformer

Figure 34: Harmonics Generated by Transformers

3 times phase value and appear in the line voltages. Line

. Similarly, in a three phase system

lag phase displacement of the secondary with respect to the primary.

lead phase displacement of the secondary with respect to the primary.

angle can be paralleled to that having +30

phase angle however can be paralleled

phase angle, the phase sequence is reversed for one of them

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