NEUROTRANSMITTERS are the brain chemicals that communicate information throughout

our brain and body. They relay signals between nerve cells, called neurons. The brain
uses neurotransmitters to tell your heart to beat, your lungs to breathe, and your stomach
to digest. They can also affect mood, sleep, concentration, weight, and can cause adverse
symptoms when they are out of balance. Neurotransmitter levels can be depleted many
ways. As a matter of fact, it is estimated that 86% of Americans have suboptimal
neurotransmitter levels. Stress, poor diet, neurotoxins, genetic predisposition, drugs
(prescription and recreational), alcohol and caffeine usage can cause these levels to be out
of optimal range.
There are two kinds of neurotransmitters INHIBITORY and EXCITATORY. Excitatory
neurotransmitters are not necessarily exciting they are what stimulate the brain. Those
that calm the brain and help create balance are called inhibitory. Inhibitory
neurotransmitters balance mood and are easily depleted when the excitatory
neurotransmitters are overactive.
Inhibitory Neurotransmitters
SEROTONIN is an inhibitory neurotransmitter which means that it does not stimulate the
brain. Adequate amounts of serotonin are necessary for a stable mood and to balance any
excessive excitatory (stimulating) neurotransmitter firing in the brain. If you use stimulant
medications or caffeine in your daily regimen it can cause a depletion of serotonin over
time. Serotonin also regulates many other processes such as carbohydrate cravings, sleep
cycle, pain control and appropriate digestion. Low serotonin levels are also associated with
decreased immune system function.
GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that is often referred to as natures VALIUM-like
substance. When GABA is out of range (high or low excretion values), it is likely that an
excitatory neurotransmitter is firing too often in the brain. GABA will be sent out to attempt
to balance this stimulating over-firing.
DOPAMINE is a special neurotransmitter because it is considered to be both excitatory and
inhibitory. Dopamine helps with depression as well as focus, which you will read about in
the excitatory section.
Excitatory Neurotransmitters
DOPAMINE is our main focus neurotransmitter. When dopamine is either elevated or low
we can have focus issues such as not remembering where we put our keys, forgetting what
a paragraph said when we just finished reading it or simply daydreaming and not being able
to stay on task. Dopamine is also responsible for our drive or desire to get things done or
motivation. Stimulants such as medications for ADD/ADHD and caffeine cause dopamine to
be pushed into the synapse so that focus is improved. Unfortunately, stimulating dopamine
consistently can cause a depletion of dopamine over time.
NOREPINEPHRINE is an excitatory neurotransmitter that is responsible for stimulatory
processes in the body. Norepinephrine helps to make epinephrine as well. This
neurotransmitter can cause ANXIETY at elevated excretion levels as well as some MOOD
DAMPENING effects. Low levels of norepinephrine are associated with LOW ENERGY,
DECREASED FOCUS ability and sleep cycle problems.
EPINEPHRINE is an excitatory neurotransmitter that is reflective of stress. This
neurotransmitter will often be elevated when ADHD like symptoms are present. Long term
STRESS or INSOMNIA can cause epinephrine levels to be depleted (low). Epinephrine also
regulates HEART RATE and BLOOD PRESSURE.

Neurological Control
Neurotransmitters


Neurotransmitter Molecules
Neurotransmitters can be broadly split into two groups the classical, small molecule neurotransmitters and the relatively larger
neuropeptide neurotransmitters. Within the category of small molecule neurotransmitters, the biogenic amines (dopamine,
noradrenaline, serotonin and histamine) are often referred to as a discrete group because of their similarity in terms of their
chemical properties.
Small molecule neurotransmitters
Type Neurotransmitter Postsynaptic effect

Acetylcholine
Excitatory
Amino acids Gamma amino butyric acid GABA Inhibitory
Glycine Inhibitory
Glutamate
Excitatory
Aspartate Excitatory
Biogenic amines
Dopamine
Excitatory
Noradrenaline Excitatory
Serotonin Excitatory
Histamine Excitatory
Click on the links in the table above to read more about some of the important neurotransmitters.
Neuropeptide neurotransmitters
Corticotropin releasing hormone
More information on:
Neurotransmission at a
synapse
Corticotropin (ACTH)
Beta-endorphin
Substance P
Neurotensin
Somatostatin
Bradykinin
Vasopressin
Angiotensin II

Serotonin
Although the CNS contains less than 2% of the total serotonin in the body, serotonin plays a very important role in a range of brain
functions. It is synthesised from the amino acid tryptophan.
Within the brain, serotonin is localised mainly in nerve pathways emerging from the raphe nuclei, a group of nuclei at the centre of
the reticular formation in the
Midbrain, pons and medulla. These serotonergic pathways spread extensively throughout the brainstem, the cerebral cortex and the
spinal cord. In addition to mood control, serotonin has been linked with a wide variety of functions, including the regulation of sleep,
pain perception, body temperature, blood pressure and hormonal activity.
Outside the brain, serotonin exerts a number of important effects, particularly involving the gastrointestinal and cardiovascular
systems.
Noradrenaline
Noradrenaline is classed as a monoamine neurotransmitter and noradrenergic neurons are found in the locus coeruleus, the pons
and the reticular formation in the brain. These neurons provide projections to the cortex, hippocampus, thalamus and midbrain. The
release of noradrenaline tends to increase the level of excitatory activity within the brain, and noradrenergic pathways are thought
to be particularly involved in the control of functions such as attention and arousal.
Outside the brain, noradrenaline plays an important role in the sympathetic nervous system the system that co-ordinates the
fight or flight response. Systemically, therefore, changes in noradrenergic activity may induce changes in a range of functions
including heart rate, blood pressure and gastrointestinal activity. This explains the broad side-effect profile associated with drugs
that affect monoamine neurotransmitters, such as the tricyclic antidepressants.
Find out more about noradrenaline and serotonin
Dopamine
Dopamine is also classed as a monoamine neurotransmitter and is concentrated in very specific groups of neurons collectively called
the basal ganglia. Dopaminergic neurons are widely distributed throughout the brain in three important dopamine systems
(pathways): the nigrostriatal, mesocorticolimbic, and the tuberohypophyseal pathways. A decreased brain dopamine concentration
is a contributing factor in Parkinsons disease, while an increase in dopamine concentration has a role in the development of
schizophrenia.
Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine acts or is transmitted within cholinergic pathways that are concentrated mainly in specific regions of the brainstem
and are thought to be involved in cognitive functions, especially memory. Severe damage to these pathways is the probable cause
of Alzheimers disease.
Outside the brain, acetylcholine is the main neurotransmitter in the parasympathetic nervous system the system that controls
functions such as heart rate, digestion, secretion of saliva and bladder function. Drugs that affect cholinergic activity produce
changes in these body functions. Some antidepressants act by blocking cholinergic receptors and this anticholinergic activity is an
important cause of side effects such as dry mouth.
Neurotransmitter Receptors
Neurotransmitters exert their effect by binding to specific receptors on the neuronal postsynaptic membrane. A neurotransmitter
can either excite its neighbouring neuron so increasing its activity, or inhibit its neighbouring neuron, suppressing its activity. In
general, the activity of a neuron depends on the balance between the number of excitatory and inhibitory processes affecting it, and
these can occur simultaneously. Most neurotransmitter receptors can be divided into two types ligand-gated receptors and G-
protein linked receptors.
Stimulation of a ligand-gated receptor enables a channel in the receptor to open and permits the influx of chloride and potassium
ions into the cell. The positive or negative charges that enter the cell either excite or inhibit the neuron. Ligands for these receptors
include excitatory neurotransmitters, such as glutamate and, to a lesser extent, aspartate. Binding of these ligands to the receptor
produces an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP). Alternatively, binding of inhibitory neurotransmitter ligands, such as GABA
and glycine, produces an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP). These ligand-gated receptors are also known as ionotropic or fast
receptors.
G-protein linked receptors are indirectly linked to ion channels, via a second messenger system involving G-proteins and adenylate
cyclase. These receptors are neither precisely excitatory nor inhibitory and modulate the actions of the classic excitatory and
inhibitory neurotransmitters such as glutamate and glycine. These receptors tend to have an inhibitory effect if they are linked to
the Gi protein in the cell membrane, and a more excitatory effect if linked to the Gs protein. G-protein linked receptors are known
as metabotropic or slow receptors and examples include GABA-B, glutamate, dopamine (D1 and D2), 5-HT1A, 5-HT1B, 5-HT1D, 5-
HT2A,
5-HT2C receptors.
Serotoning receptors
Type Distribution Postulated Roles
5-HT1 Brain, intestinal nerves Neuronal inhibition, behavioural effects,
cerebral vasoconstriction
5-HT2 Brain, heart, lungs, smooth muscle control,
GI system, blood vessels, platelets
Neuronal excitation, vasoconstriction,
behavioural effects, depression, anxiety
5-HT3 Limbic system, peripheral neural system Nausea, anxiety
5-HT4 CNS, smooth muscle Neuronal excitation, GI
5-HT5,
6, 7
Brain Not known
Noradrenaline receptors
Type Distribution Postulated Roles
Alpha1 Brain, heart, smooth muscle Vasoconstriction, smooth muscle control
Alpha2 Brain, pancreas, smooth muscle Vasoconstriction, presynaptic effect in GI (relaxant)
Beta1 Heart, brain Heart rate (increase)
Beta2 Lungs, brain, skeletal muscle Bronchial relaxation, vasodilatation
Beta3 Postsynaptic effector cells Stimulation of effector cells
Dopamine receptors
Type Distribution Postulated Roles
D1, 5-like Brain, smooth muscle Stimulatory, role in
schizophrenia?
D2, 3, 4-
like
Brain, cardiovascular system, presynaptic nerve
terminals
Inhibitory, role in schizphrenia?
Acetylcholine receptors
Type Distribution Postulated Roles
M1 Nerves CNS excitation, gastric acid secretion
M2 Heart, nerves, smooth muscle Cardiac inhibition, neural inhibition
M3 Glands, smooth muscle, endothelium Smooth, muscle contraction, vasodilation
M4 ?CNS? Not known
M5 ?CNS? Not known
NM Skeletal muscles neuromuscular junction Neuromuscular transmission
NN Postganglionic cell body dendrites Ganglionic transmission
Co-transmission
Several different neurotransmitters can be released from a single nerve terminal, including neuropeptides and small molecule
neurotransmitters. As well as acting as neurotransmitters in their own right, neuropeptides can act as co-transmitters. As
co-transmitters, they can activate specific pre- or postsynaptic receptors to alter the responsiveness of the neuronal membrane to
the action of classical neurotransmitters, such as noradrenaline and serotonin.
Serotonin, noradrenaline and dopamine are involved in the control of many of our mental states, sometimes acting on their own and
at other times acting together (illustrated in the diagram below). These and other neurotransmitters are likely to play a pivotal role
in the pathological basis of mental illness and diseases of the brain. Much of the evidence for this stems from the fact that most of
the effective antidepressant drugs are thought to work by changing either serotonin and/or noradrenaline metabolism, or receptor
sensitivity to these neurotransmitters.

Understanding the numerous neurotransmitters, their receptors, locations and interactions with one another has been central to the
design of medicines for mental illness. This acquired knowledge has led to the development of successful products for many brain
disorders including epilepsy, schizophrenia, Parkinsons disease, depression, anxiety disorders and migraine.
Monoamine Reuptake and Breakdown
After release from the presynaptic membrane, serotonin and noradrenaline are cleared from the synapse by the process known as
reuptake. This terminates the neurotransmitter effect. In addition, used monoamines are broken down by enzymes such as
monoamine oxidase in the synapse.

Parts of the Brain and Their Functions
The human brain is a specialized organ that is ultimately responsible for all thought and movement that
the body produces. Many different parts of the brain and their functions are shown in the article. Each
part has a unique function that allows humans observe and interact with their environment effectively.
The human brain is ultimately responsible for all thought and movement that the body produces.
This allows humans to successfully interact with their environment, by communicating with
others and interacting with inanimate objects near their position. If the brain is not functioning
properly, the ability to move, generate accurate sensory information or speak and understand
language can be damaged as well.
The brain is made up of nerve cells which interact with the rest of the body through the spinal
cord and nervous system. These cells relate information back to specific centers of the brain
where it can be processed and an appropriate reaction can be generated. Several chemicals
are also located in the brain, which help the body maintain homeostasis, or a sense of overall
comfort and calm as its basic needs are met. Keeping these chemicals balanced and the nerve
cells firing properly are essential to healthy brain function.
Parts of the Brain and Their Functions
Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain, and contains tools which are responsible for
most of the brain's function. It is divided into four sections: the temporal lobe, the occipital lobe,
parietal lobe and frontal lobe. The cerebrum is divided into a right and left hemisphere which are
connected by axons that relay messages from one to the other. This matter is made of nerve
cells which carry signals between the organ and the nerve cells which run through the body.
Frontal Lobe: The frontal lobe is one of four lobes in the cerebral hemisphere. This lobe
controls a several elements including creative thought, problem solving, intellect, judgment,
behavior, attention, abstract thinking, physical reactions, muscle movements, coordinated
movements, smell and personality.
Parietal Lobe:Located in the cerebral hemisphere, this lobe focuses on comprehension. Visual
functions, language, reading, internal stimuli, tactile sensation and sensory comprehension will
be monitored here.
Sensory Cortex- The sensory cortex, located in the front portion of the parietal lobe,
receives information relayed from the spinal cord regarding the position of various body parts
and how they are moving. This middle area of the brain can also be used to relay information
from the sense of touch, including pain or pressure which is affecting different portions of the
body.
Motor Cortex- This helps the brain monitor and control movement throughout the body. It is
located in the top, middle portion of the brain.
Temporal Lobe: The temporal lobe controls visual and auditory memories. It includes areas
that help manage some speech and hearing capabilities, behavioral elements, and language. It
is located in the cerebral hemisphere.
Wernicke's Area- This portion of the temporal lobe is formed around the auditory cortex.
While scientists have a limited understanding of the function of this area, it is known that it
helps the body formulate or understand speech.
Occipital Lobe: The optical lobe is located in the cerebral hemisphere in the back of the head.
It helps to control vision.
Broca's Area- This area of the brain controls the facial neurons as well as the understanding
of speech and language. It is located in the triangular and opercular section of the inferior
frontal gyrus.
Cerebellum
This is commonly referred to as "the little brain," and is considered to be older than the
cerebrum on the evolutionary scale. The cerebellum controls essential body functions such as
balance, posture and coordination, allowing humans to move properly and maintain their
structure.
Limbic System
The limbic system contains glands which help relay emotions. Many hormonal responses that
the body generates are initiated in this area. The limbic system includes the amygdala,
hippocampus, hypothalamus and thalamus.
Amygdala:The amygdala helps the body responds to emotions, memories and fear. It is a
large portion of the telencephalon, located within the temporal lobe which can be seen from the
surface of the brain. This visible bulge is known as the uncus.
Hippocampus: This portion of the brain is used for learning memory, specifically converting
temporary memories into permanent memories which can be stored within the brain. The
hippocampus also helps people analyze and remember spatial relationships, allowing for
accurate movements. This portion of the brain is located in the cerebral hemisphere.
Hypothalamus:The hypothalamus region of the brain controls mood, thirst, hunger and
temperature. It also contains glands which control the hormonal processes throughout the body.
Thalamus:The Thalamus is located in the center of the brain. It helps to control the attention
span, sensing pain and monitors input that moves in and out of the brain to keep track of the
sensations the body is feeling.
Brain Stem
All basic life functions originate in the brain stem, including heartbeat, blood pressure and
breathing. In humans, this area contains the medulla, midbrain and pons. This is commonly
referred to as the simplest part of the brain, as most creatures on the evolutionary scale have
some form of brain creation that resembles the brain stem. The brain stem consists of midbrain,
pons and medulla.
Midbrain:The midbrain, also known as the mesencephalon is made up of the tegmentum and
tectum. These parts of the brain help regulate body movement, vision and hearing. The anterior
portion of the midbrain contains the cerebral peduncle which contains the axons that transfer
messages from the cerebral cortex down the brain stem, which allows voluntary motor function
to take place.
Pons: This portion of the metencephalon is located in the hindbrain, and links to the cerebellum
to help with posture and movement. It interprets information that is used in sensory analysis or
motor control. The pons also creates the level of consciousness necessary for sleep.
Medulla: The medulla or medulla oblongata is an essential portion of the brain stem which
maintains vital body functions such as the heart rate and breathing.
Cerebral Cortex
The outermost layer of the cerebral hemisphere which is composed of gray
matter. Cortices are asymmetrical. Both hemispheres are able to analyze
sensory data, perform memory functions, learn new information, form
thoughts and make decisions.

Left Hemisphere
Sequential Analysis: systematic, logical interpretation of information.
Interpretation and production of symbolic information:language,
mathematics, abstraction and reasoning. Memory stored in a language
format.

right hemisphere
Holistic Functioning: processing multi-sensory input simultaneously to
provide "holistic" picture of one's environment. Visual spatial skills. Holistic
functions such as dancing and gymnastics are coordinated by the right
hemisphere. Memory is stored in auditory, visual and spatial modalities.

Corpus Collosum
communication between the two hemispheres

Frontal Lobe
Cognition and memory. Prefrontal area: The ability to concentrate and
attend, elaboration of thought. The "Gatekeeper"; (judgment, inhibition).
Personality and emotional traits. Motor Cortex (Brodman's): voluntary
motor activity. Premotor Cortex: storage of motor patterns and voluntary
activities. Language: motor speech

Parietal Lobe
processing of sensory input. Body orientation (proprioception)

Occipital Lobe
Primary visual reception and association

Temporal Lobe
Auditory reception and interpretation, expressed behavior, receptive speech,
information retrieval

Limbic System
olfactory path ways, biologic rhythms, hypothalamus

Basal Ganglia
Subcortical gray matter nuclei. Processing link between thalamus and motor
cortex. Initiation and direction of voluntary movement. Balance (inhibitory),
Postural reflexes. Automatic movement

Amygdala
neural centers in the limbic system linked to emotion

hippocampus
a structure in the limbic system linked to memory

thalamus
relays messages between lower brain centers and cerebral cortex

hypothalamus
controls maintenance functions such as eating; helps govern endocrine
system; linked to emotion and reward

pituitary gland
master endocrine gland

Reticular formation
helps control arousal

medulla
controls heartbeat and breathing

spinal cord
pathway for neural fibers traveling to and from the brain; controls simple
relfexes

cerebellum
coordinates voluntary movement and balance

pons
relays information between the cerebrum and the cerebellum, controls
arousal and regulates respiration