Art and Architecture of India

Art and architecture are true manifestations of the culture of a period as they reflect the mind and
approach of that society. It is here that the ideas and techniques of a society find visual expression.
Indus valley civilization
Distinctive features of Indus valley civilization (Understanding the civilisation with the help of
Mohenodaro !
Most of the information regarding Indus valley civilization "#arappan civilization comes from
Mohenodaro. Many unique and distinctive features are associated with the site. $ome of are
given %elow&
(i! 'own planning and domestic architecture
(ii! (amous monumental %uildings
(iii! )aying of drains
'own *lanning& #arappan cities demonstrated a sophisticated sense of civil planning and
organization. +ity was generally divided into smaller citadel area in the western part and larger
residential area in the eastern part. 'he essential institutions of civic life were located in citadel
area. #uge man made %ric, platforms formed the foundation of the %uildings of citadel. It
generally had defense walls and %astions with ela%orate entrances. +ity planning roughly
followed grid pattern with streets cutting each at right angle.
Drainage system was carefully planned. #ouses generally had a courtyard as the focus with
rooms opening on to it. Most houses had individual wells- %athing places and drains. All
structure of importance was made of %urnt %ric,s. .ric, wor, shows experience and expertise.
$ome important structures discovered from #arappan sites are&
/reat .ath at Mohenodaro
/ranary at Mohenodaro
Assem%ly #all (+ollegiate .uilding! at Mohenodaro
/ranary at #arappa
0or,men1s quarters comprising fourteen small houses %uilt in two %loc,s separate %y a
long narrow lane- excavated at #arappa.
Apart from 'own planning other important characteristics of #arappan civilization includes
exclusive style of Arts and +rafts
(indings from #arappan sites shows"uniformity in o%ects li,e seals- %eads- toys- potteries-
terracotta- mas,s- idols and figures.
$ome of these o%ects and their significance are given %elow&
a! $eals
$eals are most distinctive artifact of I2+. 'hey were generally made of steatite (soft
stone! and had signs- sym%ols and animal motifs on it.
'hey were used as a means of authentication and had commercial content. $eals were the
greatest of artistic creation of #arappan people. 'hey are considered as the outstanding
contri%ution of the Indus civilization to ancient craftsmanship. 'hey were generally
square and rectangular in shape and made of steatite. 'hey display variety of signs and
sym%ols. 'his ranges from geometric patterns- replica of flora and fauna- human- semi3
human forms- composite animals etc. Most frequently depicted animal on #arappan seal
is Unicorn and most famous #arappan seal is 4*ashupati seal1 discovered from
Mohenodara. It depicts a horned deity sitting in a yogic posture surrounded %y an
elephant- a tiger- a rhinoceros- a %uffalo and two antelopes. 5ohn Marshall identified it as
*roto3siva.
(%! .eads and its ma,ing& A%undant num%er and variety of %eads have %een
excavated from different #arappan sites. .eads of gold- silver- copper- faience- steatite-
shell- semi3precious stones li,e carnelian- asper are ,nown. #owever- %eads made of
steatite are numerous. $teatite %eing soft and easier to wor, was moulded and even micro
%eads were made from it.
.eads were generally manufactured from locally availa%le raw materials.
'herefore- we find a%undance of shell o%ects excavated from coastal sites li,e
6ageshwar- .ala,ot and )othal etc.
'echniques used for %ead ma,ing involved polishing- drilling- cutting- etching
etc. raw material were chipped into rough shapes and then finally fla,ed into the final
form"shape.
'he material to %e used for ma,ing %eads was cut in different shapes and size
with the help of specific stone tools. 'he shapes were numerous li,e disc shaped-
spherical- cylindrical- %arrel shaped- segmented. /rinding polishing and drilling was
involved in the manufacture of %eads.
$pecialized drills have %een found at +hanhudaro- )othal and Dholavira
7tching on the surface of %eads shows the technical expertise of craftsmen and it
reflects their ,nowledge of fine art.
Moulded %eads and micro %eads of steatite shows the extraordinary level of
,nowledge possessed %y Indus 2alley people as far as %ead ma,ing is concerned.
'he centre of production is identified on the %asic of availa%ility of waste
material that results in the process of manufacture of finished product. 'he traces of large
waste pieces used for ma,ing smaller o%ect suggest that apart from specialized centers-
craft production was also underta,en in larger cities and %ig cities such as Mohenodaro
and #arappa.
c. #arappan *ottery
#arappan potteries are one of the finest specimens of #arappan art and some important
characteristics are given %elow&
8. #arappan pottery was highly utilitarian in character.
9. It is chiefly wheel made %right or dar, red in colour and is well %a,ed.
:. .oth plain and painted ware is found. 'he plain variety of pottery %eing more
common.
;. Different types of pottery such as glazed- polychrome- incised- perforated and
,no%%ed were ,nown to #arappan people.
<. *ainted designs or some pieces show a remar,a%le artistic touch. /enerally flora-
fauna- geometrical designs and scenes from forest life were illustrated on the potteries
Buildings/ Architecture (c. =>> .+7 - =>> +7!
0e get information a%out Mauryan architecture from various sources .Megasthenes
refered to +handragupta?s wooden palace in his writings. 7xcavations at *ataliputra have revealed
wooden walls and columns. 0e also have references a%out the construction of $tupas during the
Mauryan period from the accounts of (a3heing- #iuen3'sang and in .uddhist literature.
$anchi- $arnath- 'axila and .harhut were some of the religious centres in which $tupas
may have %een originally %uilt in the Mauryan period- and additions were made to them in the
later period.
+ertain general characteristics of art and architecture of ancient period is given %elow &
8! Art activities were mostly related to religions.
9! In early period representations of .uddha in the form of .odhi tree- $tupa, foot
prints- etc. were made and worshiped. #owever- as early as 8
st
century .+7 images
of .uddha %egan to %e sculpted. Ma,ing of images for worship %ecame common
among other religions as well.
:! 'he construction of $tupas- +haityas and 2iharas %ecame popular.
;! 'he art forms used the techinique of sym%olic representations. 'hey witnessed
decoration and extensive carving %y artists. It usually depicted scenes that were
o%served in nature and threw light on religious ideas and society of the period. In
fact- secular art forms were inherent part of religious architecture
<! .ecause of regular interactions with other cultures in this period we also find
elements of non3Indian art in the artistic creations of this period. 'his is particularly
true of the /andhara region which produced art typical to the region- in which many
different elements came to %e assimilated.
'ype of Architecture
'he architecture of this period can %e %roadly divided in two categories &
(8! @esidential structures
0e have very few surviving monuments since in the initial phase they were %uilt of
perisha%le materials li,e wood. #owever- on the %asis of %oth literary and archaeological sources
we get sufficient information a%out the structures for this period.
(9!@eligious monuments
A num%er of ancient monuments have survived and many have %een unearthed through
excavations. 'hey fall under @eligious monuments category and are given %elow&3
(i) Stupas
.uddhist art adopted the practice of preserving the remains of an important personality
%elow accumulated earth and %uilt structure over such a site. 'his structure was
worshiped and was ,nown as $tupa (a $ans,rit word meaning a heap!. $ince they
contained relics regarded as sacred- the entire stupa came to %e venerated as an em%lem
of %oth the .uddha and .uddhism. 'he worship of $tupas led to their ornamentation
and a specific type of architecture developed for their construction.
According to .uddhist sources- the remains of the .uddha?s %ody were divided
into eight parts and placed under the $tupas. 'hese during the time of Aso,a- were dug
out and redistri%uted which led to the construction of other $tupas.
Structure of Stupas and its important components
'he stupa originated as a simple semi3circular mound of earth- later called anda. It had
the shape of a %owl turned upside down i.e hemispherical dome. At the top- which was a
%it flat- used to %e its harmika, i.e. the a%ode of the /ods. It was here that the urns
containing the remains of the .uddha or a great personality connected with the religion
were placed in a gold or silver cas,et. A wooden rod (Yashti) was placed in its middle
and the %ottom of the rod was fixed on the top of the $tupa. An the top of this rod were
placed three small um%rella type discs sym%olising respect- veneration and magnanimity.
/radually- it evolved into a more complex structure- %alancing round and square shapes.
)et us %riefly discuss some of the prominent $tupas %uilt in ancient India
(a! Sanchi Stupa (Madhya *radesh!
$anchi is a%out 8; ,ilometers from 2idisa (Bhilsa) and is perhaps the most famous
$tupa site in India. It was BdiscoveredC in 8D8D. It has three $tupas all with gateways
around them. .ut the most famous is the /reat $tupa which was originally made of
%ric, in Aso,a?s time (c. 9<> .+7!. During the $unga period around8<> .+7 -it was
nearly dou%led in circumference. 'he %ric,s of Aso,an times were replaced %y stones-
and a Vedika was also constructed around it.
(our wonderful gateways forming the entrances to the procession path %etween
stupa and the surrounding railing- one in each direction- were added towards the end of 8
st
century .+7 to %eautify it.
(rom the $outhern gate we get an inscription from its architrave which tells us
that it was donated %y Eing $ata,arni and the incision wor, was done %y those craftsmen
who wor,ed in ivory.
'he northern gate and the panels depict stories from the Jatakas. 'he reliefs
of $anchi display (among other representations! the following quite prominently&
!) 'he four great events of the .uddha?s life- i.e. %irth- attainment of ,nowledge-
dharmachakra- pravartana and Mahaparinirvana.
") @epresentations of %irds and animals li,e lion- elephant- camel- ox- etc. are a%undant.
#) )otus and wishing3vines have %een prominently and %eautifully carved out as ornamentation-
and
$) Unique representation of forest animals in a manner which loo,s as if the whole animal world
turned out to worship the .uddha.
(%! Bharhut Stupa
'his $tupa was located 98 ,ilometers south of $atna in Madhya *radesh. 'he
main $tupa structure no longer exists.
'he important features of this $tupa structures- remains from which are now
preserved in the Indian Museum- +alcutta and other museums are &
8! /ateways or toranas which are imitations in stone of wooden gateways.
9! @ailings spreading out from the gateways. 'hey also are imitation- in stone-
of post and rail fence- %ut the stone railings of .harhut have- on top- a heavy
stone %order (coping!.
:! Uprights or posts of these railings have carvings of Yakshas, Yakshis and
other divinities who come to %e associated with .uddhism. $ome of these
divinities have inscriptions on them- giving their identifications.
;! 'here are- as in other $tupa railings- representations of .uddhist themes li,e
Jataka stories in com%ination with various natural elements.
(c! Amaravati Stupa
)ocated ;= ,ilometres from /untoor- the $tupa was %uilt with white mar%le.
'hough the $tupa itself has completely disappeared its sculptured panels have %een
preserved in Madras and .ritish Museums. 'he $tupa was primarily %uilt with the help
of the +ity3+hief and the donations from the pu%lic.
'his magnificant $tupa was ;9 metre in diameter and its height was a%out 9F
metres. It contained a circular prayer path which was 8> metres high and was made of
stone. Vedika pillars had %eautiful carvings of garlanded gods- and Bodhi-tree- $tupa,
dharmachakra and the events from the life of )ord .uddha and stories from the Jatakas.
'he entrance gate (torana) of the $tupa depicts four lions on the Vedika.
)otuses have also %een carved over the pillars. A num%er of images have also %een found
from the Amravati $tupa. In the earlier stage .uddha was represented only through
sym%ols %ut from first century +7 some .uddha images %egan to %e found along with
their sym%ols.
(d! %a&ila Stupas
7xcavations at 'axila and near%y places have exposed a num%er of $tupas
8! $ir 5ohn Marshall excavated the +hira3'ope Stupa at 'axila.
9! In 8F>D excavations revealed the existence of a $tupa at $hah3i3,i dheri near
*eshawar. 'his Stupa was erected %y Eanish,a and is referred to in the
accounts of (a3hien. 'he sculptures and other o%ects of art are products of
/andhara style .
:! A $tupa %uilt in the $cytha3*arthian style was found at 5handial. 6ear%y was
found a small silver cas,et enclosing one of gold- with a relic %one inside.
(ii)'oc(-)ut Architecture
'he earliest examples of roc,3cut cave architecture are the .ara%ar caves (.ara%ar
#ills- /ayaG donated %y Asho,a to Aivi,as! and the 6agaruna caves (donated %y Dasaratha!
which set the tradition for the later periods.
.uddhists and the 5ainas %uilt Chaityas and Viharas as places of worship.
A chaitya is a shrine cell with a votive $tupa place in the centre. It was used as
worshipping hall.
Viharas were monastries primarily cut out of roc,s for the residence of mon,s.
Most of the maor Chaityas and Viharas of ancient period were %uilt in western
and eastern regions. (or example in western India- they are located at .haa- Earle-
6asi,- Aanta and Eanheri- etc. $imilarly- in eastern India we have them in Udayagiri
(Arissa!.
'he general features of the Chaityas are &
(!) 'hey have a long rectangular hall ending in a semi3circle at the rear end.
(") 'his long hall is internally divided into a nave- an apse and two side
aisles.
(#) 'he aisles are separated from the nave %y two rows of pillars.
($) 'he pillars come round the votive $tupa placed in the centre of the
apsidal part of the nave.
(*) 'he hall has a %arrel3vaulted ceiling.
(+) 'he doorway is usually placed facing the votive $tupa.
(,) 'he facade has a horse3shoe shaped window called the chaitya window.
Another aspect of cave architecture is the excavation of Viharas or monasteries %y %oth
.uddhists and 5ainas for the use of mon,s.In the earlier examples of the western Indian caves the plan
is irregular. In the latter ones a regular plan was adopted. 'he following are the general features of
the 2iharas&
(8! 'hey have a square or o%long hall in the centre.
(9! 'he hall is preceded in front %y a pillared veranda.
(:! A num%er of small square cells are provided.
(;! 'he cells and halls are usually provided with raised %enches for the use
of mon,s.
'he earliest of the Viharas of western India are those at such sites as .haa- .edsa-
Aanta- *ital,ora- 6asi, and Earle.
Among the 5aina Viharas, those at Udayagiri and Ehandagiri (Arissa! were excavated
during the time of Eharavela.
+aves continued to %e excavated during the /upta and the post /upta period. In the
Deccan- some of the finest roc,3cut caves were excavated. 'here are nine caves at Udaygiri
near 2idisa. 'hese are partly roc,3cut and partly stone3%uilt. 'he caves exhi%it a gradual
advance in the design showing com%ined features of the roc,3cut and structural design.
'he caves at Aanta retaining the essential features of old- presented an altogether
new line of architecture %y the great %eauty of their pillars of varied design and size and the
fine paintings with which the inner wall and ceiling are decorated.
Another group- is the series of caves at .agh- though simple in architecture- %ut are
famous for their paintings.
Another nota%le group of roc, cut monasteries and chaitya halls are those of 7llora.
'he .rahmanical- .uddhist and 5ain caves show the final phase of development. (or the
Eailash temple- a %loc, of hill side was cut off- and was carved into a magnificent
monolithic temple with a spacious hall and finely carved pillars.
At Mamallapuram- num%er of pillared halls and the seven monolithic temples popularly
called rathas were carved %y the *allava ,ings- Mahendravarman and 6arasimhavarman in
the seventh century +7. 'he rathas are the culmination of complete reproduction of massive
structural temples cut out of roc,.
Monasteries and stupas were also %uilt during /upta and later /upta periods. 'he
monastic institutions which were also the centres of education- attained vast proportions
consisting of large aggregations of various ,inds of %uilding grouped together. 'he famous
centres were at .odhgaya- $arnath- Eusinagar- $ravasti- Eanchi and 6alanda.
'he 6alanda University grew into a most prestigious esta%lishment from a%out the fifth
century +7. #iuen3'sang descri%es in detail the great temples- monasteries- and li%rary3
%uildings of 6alanda mahavihara.
'he period also saw the ushering in of a new epoch connected with the growth and
development of structural temples of distinctive forms and styles. $mall flat3roofed
platforms are characteristics of the early /upta period. $mall- %ut elegant temple 6o. H2II
at $anchi- Ean,ali temple at 'igawa- 2ishnu and 2araha 'emples at 7ran and at 6achna
Euthara in Madhya *radesh are good
(iii)%emples
0e have insufficient data on temple structures of pre3 gupta period from
excavations. 'he earliest ,nown temples are one refered to at 5handial ('axila!- the
$an,arshana temple at 6agari (@aasthan! and the temple at .esnagar (Madhya *radesh!
'he /upta age mar,ed the %eginning of temple construction. It ushered in of a
new epoch connected with the growth and development of structural temples of
distinctive forms and styles and laid the foundation of the typical styles of Indian
temple architecture. 'he manual s on t he construction of stone temples were
written during this period giving minute details of construction which were faithfully
followed %y the craftsmen.
$mall flat3roofed platforms are characteristics of the early /upta period.
$mall- %ut elegant temple 6o. H2II at $anchi- Ean,ali temple at 'igawa- 2ishnu and
2araha temples at 7ran and at 6achna Euthara in Madhya *radesh are good examples
of early temple architecture. /radually- these temples developed a shikhara on the
roof which came to %e adopted all over the country. 'wo %est examples of this type
are the %ric, temple .hitargaon in Eanpur and the Dasavatara temple at Deogarh-
%oth in the Uttar *radesh.
'he shape of shikhara i . e. - the superstructure a%ove the sanctum3
sanctorum containing the images of deities mar,ed the development of two
distinctive style viz.- northern Indian style (Nagar style! and south Indian style
(Dravidian style!. At Aihole- .adami and *attada,al we find temples of %oth styles.
-a.or Styles of %emple Building in India
'he terms /agara, 0ravida indicate a tendency to highlight typological features of temples and
their geographical distri%ution. 'hese terms descri%e respectively temples that primarily employ square-
octagonal and apsidal ground plans which also regulate the vertical profile of the structure.
/agara and 0ravida temples are generally identified with the northern and southern temple
styles respectively. All of northern India- from the foothills of the #imalayas to the central plateau of the
Deccan is furnished with temples in the northern style. 'he Dravida or southern style- comparatively
spea,ing- followed a more consistent development trac, and was confined to the most southenly- portions
of the su%3continent- specially %etween the Erishna river and Eanya,umari. 'he earliest examples of
Dravidian style temple is the roc,3cut temple ,nown as Dharmaraa ratha at Mamallapuram and
structural temples at Eanchi- ,nown as Eailasanatha and 2ai,untha *erumal- all %uilt %y the *allava
Eings.
Shapes and 1lans of %emples
7ach temple style has its own distinctive technical language- though some terms are common %ut
applied to different parts of the %uilding in each style. 'he sanctuary that is the main part is called the
vimana where the gar2hagriha or the inner sanctum containing the main presiding deity is located. 'he
part surmounting the vimana is ,nown as the shi(hara. 'he other elements of ground plan are&
mandapa or pavilion for the assem%ly of devoteesG antarala, which is a vesti%ule connecting the vimana
and mandapa and the prada(shiapath, i.e. circumarn%ulatory passage surrounding these. 'he natmandir
or dance hall and 2hogamandapa were evolved su%sequently in the Arissan temples such as the famous
$un temple at Eonar,a- to add to the dignity and magnificence of the deities who were honoured in them.
'he exterior of the 6agara type is characterized %y horizontal tiers- as in the .agamohan or porch
in front of the sanctum of the )igara temple at .hu%aneswar- and the viman, is usually circular in plan.
(undamentally- there is no structural similarity .
'he Dravida or southern style has a polygonal- often octagonal shi(hara and a pyramidal
vimana, which is rectangular in plan. A temple of the Dravida type is also nota%le for the towering
gopurams or gatetowers of the additional mandapas. (rom the days of /anesh ratha of the *allava
times (seventh ceniury! at Maha%alipuram (near Madras! to the gigantic .rihadishvara temple (c.FD<3
8>89 A.D.! of the +holas at 'hanavur - the Dravida style too, many strides.
Important Indian %emples
%34 /5'%34'/.S%674
/orthern, )entral and 8estern India (9ifth-seventh centuries)
'he Dashavatara temple at Deogarh (5hansi District!G the %ric, temple at .hitaragon (Eanpur
District)
%he 0eccan and )entral India (Si&th-eighth centuries)
+ave temples at 7llora (near Auranga%ad in Maharashtra), 7lephanta (near .om%ay! and .adarni
(north Earnata,aG 7arly +halu,yan temples in north Earnata,a at .adami- Aihole ()ad,han
temples!
8estern and )entral India (4ighth 3 thirteenth centuries)
#arihara and other temples at Asian (6orth of 5odhpur- @aasthan!G +handella temples at
Ehauraho (specially- )a,shman- Eandariya Mahadev and 2ishvanatha!G $un temple at Modhera
(/uarat! and Mar%le temples of the 5ains at Mt. A%u (@aasthan!.
4astern India (4ighth 3 thirteenth centuries)
Mu,teshvar- )ingara and @aarani temples (all at .hu%aneshwar!G $un temple at Eonar,a
(5rissa) and the agannatha temple at 1uri (Arissa!.
%he 3imalayan 2elt (4ighth century on:ards)
$un temple at MartandG temple at Masrur (Eangara- #imachal *radesh! and %rahmanical temples
in 6epal (Eathmandu- *atan and .hadgaon!.
%34 S5;%34'/ S%674
%he 0eccan and %amil /adu (Si&-tenth centuries)
+ave temples- the 'athas and the ?$hore? temples of *allavas at Maha%alipuram (near Madras!G
Eailasanatha temple at Eanchipuram (also near Madras!G +halu,yan strctures at Aihole and
.adami Gthe Eailas temple at 7llora carved out under the patronage of the @ashtra,u5as-
<arnata(a, %amil /adu and <erala (%enth century on :ards)
.rihadishvar temples of the +holas at /anga ,ondacholapuramG #oyshal temples at
.elur- #ale%id and $omnathpur (all in Earnata,a!G the $hrirangam (near 'richinopoly-
'amil 6adu! and Mina,shi temples (Madurai- 'amil 6adu!
Sculpture 0uring Ancient 1eriod/ 0ifferent School of Art
$culptural art cannot %e separated from architecture %ecause sculptures form part
of a total complex li,e a $tupa or a Chaitya or a temple.
0e have remains of high quality sculpture from Mauryan period. Af the several
stone sculpture the Ia,shi and Ia,sha (at Didargan- *atna! %earing the distinctive
polish of the Mauryan $chool are example of extraordinary craftsmanship and are
most attractive.
Sunga Art
'he period of $ungas to which art activity at .harhut and $anchi is
attri%uta%le represents an epoch in Indian art. 'he artists mastered now the difficult
technique and
3
acquired a highly developed aesthetic sense.
$tupas of .arhut and $anchi were improved. Ald wooden railings (of
Mauryan time! of $anchi stupa was removed and su%stituted %y stone railings and
gateways (toranas!. Important events from .uddha1s life- 5ata,a and floral designs
have %een s,illfully carved on these gateways. A stone caving of Ia,shi holding
$hala%ani,a %ranches of trees is stri,ingly %eautiful.
Amravati School
A school of sculpture developed in the lower /odavari valley under $atavahanas
(9nd3 :rd century +7!. 'he extant remains consist of many fine- ornate pieces of the great
stupa of Amravati. 'he %ass3relief medallions and paneled fences made of white limestone
depict events from the .uddha1s life and the Jatakas (the famous one- depicting the story of
the taming of elephant %y the .uddha!.
'he figures represented in different poses and curves convey intense vitality
and sense of rapid movement..esides the later $outh Indian sculptures- the influence of this
school were also felt in +eylon and $.7. Asia.
=andhara School of Art
/andhara is located in the north3western part of the Indian su%3continent. 'he /ree,s- Mauryas-
$a,as- *ahlavas and Eusanas occupied it. As a result- this place produced a mixed culture. #ere Indian
craftsmen in contact with the /ree,s and @omans and +entral Asians wor,ed in unison under the
inspiration of the new devotional .uddhism (Mahayanism!. Its art- which was mainly .uddhist- was
profoundly influenced %y #ellenistic art. 'hey produced in stucco (plasters! and stone (a ,ind of %lac,
stone! a large num%er of images of .uddha and .odhisattvas and also votive plaques (relief
sculpture!. 'he latter depicted scenes from the .uddha?s life and the 5ata,as.
'he /reeco3@oman style modeled the images laying stress on accuracy of anatomic details and
physical %eauty (delineation of muscles- addition of moustaches- thic, transparent drapery with large
and %old fold lines!. (amous for grace and realism this school influenced Matura $chool and also
+hinese and 5apanese plastic art.
'he main centres from where the art pieces of /andhara $chool have %een found are 5alala%ad-
.amaran- .egram and 'axila.
-athura School of Art
'he origin of Mathura art form is traced %ac, to the second century .+7. this school produced a
variety of sculptures and other pieces of art for the followers of .uddhist- 5aina and Brahmanical faiths It
was primarily an indigenous 5aina school of free standing sculpture centered at Mathura. (rom the
%eginning of the +hristian era it came under the patronage of the Eushanas. A significant dimension of
Mathura art is that it also produced images of ,ings and other nota%les. It produced in white spotted red
sandstone %eautiful figures of the .uddha and the .odhisattvas and the 'irthan,aras. At the same time
what they were creating- from local red stone- were uniquely of Mathura. Ather stri,ing remains consist
of votive plaques showing cross3legged na,ed figure of a 'irthan,ara in meditation- graceful and provocative
Ia,shi and Eushana @oyal statues 'he votive pillars from ?Ean,ali'ila demonstrate how feminine %eauty
has %een utilised %y the sculptor. 'he themes handled %y the Mathura artists are in fact many- and- as in
$anchi and .harhut- the artist chose elements from nature to enrich his creation.
.
'he earliest images of Bodhisattvas and .uddha were perhaps made at Mathura.
'he sym%olism and iconographic forms of Mathura was later adopted in the /upta $chool- which produced
some of the greatest Indian religious sculpture.

-auryan Art
Ancient Indian Art made remar,a%le progress during Mauryan period. $tone masonry was
introduced on a wide scaleG caves were hewed out from roc,s. *illars- stupas- caves together with the
figural images are important products of the Mauryan art.
(i)1illars
'hey were uniformly styled- monolithic (grey +hunar sandstone!- highly polished (silicious
varnish! and gracefully proportioned (spherical column tapering slightly towards top! often
covered with realistically modelled sculpture (animal figures- lion- %ulls etc.!- free standing set
up throughout the length and %readth of the country- the most impressive ones %eing at $arnath-
)auriya @ampurva and )auriya 6andangarh.
(ii)Stupas
'hey were tumulus3li,e structure containing relics of the .uddha and .odhisattavas and other
%uddhist saints. .uddhist tradition testify D;->>> of them %uild %y Asho,a- some of which was
later enlarged and enclosed.
'he masterpiece- $anchi stupa- was %ric, %uilt- thic,ly plastered- crowned %y an um%rella of stone-
and fenced. )ater- stone railings and lively J %eautifully carved gateways were added to it. All
these depicted events from the life of .uddha (sym%olic depiction! and 5ata,as- landscape of trees
and floral designs- group of animals and %irds and %eautiful figures of Ia,shas and Ia,shinis.
(iii))aves
'he earliest examples of roc,3cut cave architecture are the .ara%ar caves (.ara%ar #ills- /aya-
donated %y Asho,a to Aivi,as! and the 6agaruna caves (donated %y Dasaratha! which set the
tradition for the later periods.
(iv)9igure Images
0e have on record two headless metal torsoes (*atna!- the earliest ,nown sculpture of the
'irathan,aras. Af the several stone sculpture the Ia,shi and Ia,sha (at Didargan- *atna! %ears
the distinctive polish of the Mauryan school.
Aso(an 4dicts
(a! 8; Maor @oc, 7dicts found at eight places namely- Ealsi- Mansehra- $ha%%azgarti-
/irnar- $opara- Ierragudi- Dhauli and 5augada.
(%! Minor @oc, 7dicts & have %een found at fourteen places.
(c! 'wo Ealinga 7dicts have %een found at Dhauli and 5augada.
(d!$even *illar 7dicts& $even pillar edicts found at Allaha%ad- Delhi3'opara- Delhi3
Meerut- )auriya3Areraa- )auriya36andangarh and @ampurva.
(e! 'hree cave inscriptions at the .ara%ar caves near /aya in .ihar.
1allava Arts
'he history of Dravida architecture and sculpture %egins with the *allavas (=>>3D>> A.D!. .oth roc,3cut
and structural (put up independently and not hewn out of any roc,! monuments are the significant specimens
of the *allava art. *allavas created three roc,3cut types of monuments viz.- the mandapas (i.e. the roc, cut
caves!- the rathams (i.e. the monolithic temples- five in num%ers! and the tirtham (i.e.- the magnificent open air
carving in relief!.
'he mandapas (a,in to the .uddhist cave 3 shrines! at Maha%alipuram have finely carved pillars and
panels. 'he panel ?Descent of the /angaG is a unique piece of roc,3cut sculpture.
'he most famous of the stone temples are the seven rathas (i.e.- $hrine carved out of a single roc,-
and loo,s li,e a ?structural temple?! named after the *andavas at- Maha%alipuram (6arshimavarman- Kth
century A.D! each of different size and shape. 'he earliest stone structural temples were %uilt up at
Maha%alipuram (the $hore temple! and Eanchi (the Eailashnath temple and 2ai,unthaperumal temple!.
'he Eailashnath temple is noted for its lovely vimana and the numerous 6atraa panels. Moreover- it
incorporates all the characteristics of the later matured Dravida style- viz.- pyramidal tower- pillared
hall and vesti%ule alL enclosed %y a wall surmounted %y cupolas (ideas of ela%orate gopuram already
ta,ing shape!. 'he 2ai,unthaperurnal temple is noted for its vimana J the series of panels depicting the
dynastic history&
'he pallava sculpture differs chiefly from that of the /upta?s in the great slenderness and free
movements of the forms- more oval face and higher chee,%ones and in the representation of animals
this excels all others.
)halu(yan Art
'he temple architecture in Deccan got a %oost in the Kth century under the chalu,yas of .adami.
'he numerous temples that were erected at Aihole (K> temples now in ruins! and adacent .adami and
*attada,al show a uxtaposition of the 6agara and Dravida ($hi,hara! style. *attada,al has ten temples
(K3Dth century! the most cele%rated of which %eing the *apanatha temple and the 2irupa,sha temple 3
the former with a low and stunted tower in the 6agara style and the latter with a very high and storied
tower constructed in purely Dravida style. 'his admixture of ideas later evolved into a hy%rid ?2asara
$tyle
'he temple walls are adorned with %eautiful pieces of sculpture representing scene from the
@amayana.
'ashtra(uta Art
. 'he early tradition of roc,3cut architecture which had started under $atvahanas reached its zenith
at 7llora under @astra,utas (who supplanted the +halu,yas in Deccan!. Af all the roc, cut architecture
during any period- the great Eailash temple at 7llora (dedicated to $iva- %uilt in Dth century %y Erishna
I! is a supreme and unique achievement. It is the largest and the most splendid roc, monument
(descri%ed as the world?s greatest roc, poem! reproducing the intricacies of a structural temple in fullest
details. It also stands as the most outstanding example of the Dravida conception and composition&
.esides 7llora- the frescoes in Aanta caves- and a roc, cut cave shrine at 7lephanta with its
gigantic (<.; m! image of Mahesh- ?'rimurti? (a $haivite trinity3three faces showing three different
aspects of $hiva as creator- preserver and destroyer! are also among the most magnificent art creation
of India %elonging to this period.
1ala Art (/alanda Art)
*rimarily a .uddhist 4school of plastic art- it developed under the *alas and $enas of .engal and
.ihar %etween Dth 3 89th centuries with its main centre at 6alanda (.ihar!. 'he icons- %oth .uddhist
and #indu- made in the local %lac, %asalt " granite are much decoratively carved with the fine finish
imparting the characteristic metallic luster- are found at 6alanda- @aagriha. .odhgaya and
Mayur%han. 'he .uddha is shown as a ,ing in his maestic glory and not as a yogi. +rown studded
with 5ewels- precise and clear carving- soft and fleshy treatment of the %ody are some of the special
features.
Ichnographically three stages of this school are recognised. Mahayana phase of .uddha and
.odhisattva images- $ahaayans images- and finally the Ealahari of the Eapali,a system.
)handella Art
'he +handelles of central India (.undel,hand region! %uilt main temples at Ehauraho (out of
total D<- only 9> survive! during A.D D<> 3 889<. 'hey are dedicated to $hiva- 2ishnu and 5ain
'irthan,aras. 'he underlying plan of these temples of ?nagara style? consist of the ardhamandaps (an
entrance porch!- the mandaps (the assem%ly halt!- the antarala (the vesti%ule! and the gar%ha griha (the
sanctum!. 'he temple rest on an open platform (which itself is on an unusually high %ut decorated
%asement storey!- a feature peculiar to Ehauraho- with su%sidiary shrine at the four corners of the
platform in the %igger temples. 'he central zone- the wall portion- contains most of the sculpture in 9 or
: tier in a variety of planes. 'opping the central zone is a series of graded pea,s called $hi,hars-
straining to achieve the scaring effect of a mountain range. 'he tallest of these always over the sanctum
is invaria%ly curvilinear (6agara style! and ends in a sym%olic Ealash over an amala, (a ri%%ed ring of
stone!.
As in other Indian medieval- 'emple at Ehauraho too architecture and sculpture achieve a perfect
fusion. 'he figures that adorn the temples walls are masterpieces? of medieval sculpture. 7xhi%iting an
exu%erant and sensuous delight in the human form and the many moods of women- they com%ine the
classical and medieval traditions in a rare perfection. 'he erotic sculpture depicting all the varied
emotions from romantic love to the ecstasy of sexual passion are however never titillating.
$ome important. 'emples are&3.
M <andriya -ahadev temple& It is the largest- %est preserved and architecturally the most
evolved and contains the largest num%er of sculptures though few erotic.
M 7a(shamana %emple It has the largest num%er of erotics- %oth romantic and orgiastic.
M >ishvanath temple contains some of the most lyrical images of women.
)hola Art
'he Dravida style of the modest *al lava $hrine climaxed under imperial +holas (of A.D D<>3
89>>! with the horizontal ela%oration and magnification of the temple complex adding to the
architectural grandeur.
'he vimana reached to towering heights and impressive size and pillared halls- enclosures with
su%sidiary shrines and gopuram were added to the temple complex. Af the two great Dravidian
creations- the .rihadeshwara temple at 'anore and the /angai,ondacholapuram temple- the former
(%uilt %y Raja have a =< meters high vimana- the grace and grandeur of which is par excellence. 'he
pillared halls- one of it having various dance postures from the 6atyashastra sculptured on it- are fine
specimen of +hola art. 'he walls of the inner shrine contains numerous fine fresco paintings on
religious themes.
Art of sculpture also evolved to reach a high water mar,. Iconic in conception and execution it portrays
$iva?s various form (as the destroyer of evil! and 2ishnu avtars. +hola .ronze sculpture casted %y the
lost wax process (the cire *erdue technique! and ,nown for its aesthetic impact is %est representative in
the image of 6ataraa. Its grandeur of composition- its sym%olism- its artistic excellence and its charm
is the connoisseur?s attraction world wide. +hola $tone sculpture done in high relief has delicate outline
and depicts divinity in terms of a super human type.
1andaya Art
During *andavas the Dravida style further evolved towards its climax. 'he *andaya temples at Eanchi
J Madurai have high outer walls with enterance gateways topped %y gopurams. Attention was now
concentrated on the gopuram rather than the vimana " shi,har a%ove the main shrine. 'he artistic glory
of the gopuram %ecame so popular that it %ecame a special characteristic of south Indian temples- (the
gopurams of Eanchi and Madurai temples can %e seen from long distance %ecause of their elevation
and dimension!.
A')3I%4)%;'A7 )5/%'IB;%I5/ 59 >I?A6/A=A'
In the architectural field the city of 2iayanagar occupied a preeminent position. Its description
from the pens of such o%servers as the Italian 6icolo +onti- the *ortuguese *eas and the *ersian
am%assador A%dur @azzaq is really flattering to the high s,ill of the architect of 2iayanagar. An the %asis
of the ruins found at #ampi- we must try to understand the important characteristics of the viaynagar
architecture which according to scholars had %oth religious as well as secular structures. 'he structures of
the period reflect material prosperity. 'hey are very ela%orate. In fact structures li,e temples were
provided with a larger num%er of structures3gar%hagraha- shrines- pillared walls- pavilions and other
aduncts enclosures and %ecame more spacious than in the previous periods-
$ome of the important characteristics are given %elow&3
'he use of pillars for architectural as well as decorative purpose is on an unprecedented scale.
'he pillars and piers are very prominent in the architectural scheme of the temples. 0e find
varied and ingenious designs of the pillars. 'he sculpture on pillars illustrated various myths and
legends. Arnamented %rac,ets from the part of pillar capitals. #orse was the most common
animal on the pillars
Another distinguishing feature is the use of huge reverse curve eaves at the cornice. 'his feature
has %een %orrowed into the style from the Deccan and gives the pavillions a dignified appearance
In terms of temple architecture- %y this period certain new features were in evidence. Mandapa
or open pavilion with a raised platform- meant for seating deities are common. 'wo accessory
structures 3 the Amman shrine and the Ealyanmandapa %egan to %e considered indispensa%le
elements apart from the gar%hagraha and the gopurama.
/ar%hagriha is central part of the temple where the presiding deity is installed. 'he Amman
shrine is a su%sidiary temple- enshrining the consort of the chief deity of the gar%hagraha. 'he
Ealyan3mandapa- with ela%orately carved pillars was %asically an open pillared pavilion with an
elevated platform in the centre. It is an important characteristic of temples of the period since it
was used for the exhi%ition of the images of deity and his consort on ceremonial occasions. 'he
Ealyan3mandapas were also meant to cele%rate divine weddings.
/opurams or royal gateways of the period were huge structures and often dwarfed the towers
on the central shrines- and signaled the presence of the temple from a great distance. /opurams-
with their lavish figure ornamentation and forming huge entrances to temple enclosures- grew
taller and more numerous.
'he walls of the temple- at times- had painted scenes from the @amayana and the Maha%harata many
of the secular %uildings of the period have Indo3Muslim featuresG the elephant sta%les with a dome over
each individual stall- and the )otus Mahal with its cusped arches prove the point
>i.aynagar art
'he remains of 2iaynagar show the past magnificence in architecture J sculpture. 'he #indu
resurgence is reflected in the large num%er of temples- %uilt in 0ravida style with some typical
improvisation. 'he %est examples are the 3azara 'ama %emple and the >ithalas:ami temple.
'he prominent features are addition of Ealyanmandapa (a large ornate pillared hall! and pavallion-
towering gateways- varied and artistic treatment of pillars and intricate carvings.
'he #azara @ama 'emple is modest %ut one of the most perfectly finished extant specimen of #indu
temple architecture. 'he 2ithalaswami temple (planned on a grandiose scale %ut never completed!
shows the extreme limits in florid magnificence of the 2iaynagar style. 'he 2elour temple has the
Ealyana Mandapa in its richest and most %eautiful form. Ather examples are found at Eum%a,onam-
Eanchipuram- $rirangam- @ameshwaram and )epa,shi. At )epa,shi one nota%le structure is the #all of
Dance and the pillar decoration of the 2ira%hadra temple there shows the typical sculpture?s device of
creating motif in which part of one o%ect figure was incorporated into the design of another 'he literary
evidences regarding the city of 2iaynagar and its palace are also very impressive (as large as @ome- seven
concentric fortifications! 'he 6aya,as who rose on the fall of the 2iaynagar empire furthered- the artistic
traditions of 2iaynagar. 'he most famous architectural landmar, of the age is the Meena,shi 'emple at
Madurai (in fact it refers to the /reat temple complex with two $hrines dedicated to $iva and his consort in
the form of goddess Meena,hsi!. 2irtually every space in this structure is filled with surface carvings of
niches- pilasters and other forms. A maor contri%ution of the 6aya,a artists was the %uilding of ?pra,arams?
(roofed am%ulatory passageways! of su%sidiary shrines. 'he spire ;>m in height curved and having a
rounded top is very impressive&
3oysala Art
A new style of architecture was developed under #oysalas (who succeeded the later chalu,yas! in the
Mysore plateau ($outhern Eacnat,a! %y 89
th
38:
th
A.D. 'ypical #oysalas features are polygonal (star
shaped! rather than square plan- high plinth which offers the windings of temples a huge length of vacant
space to %e ela%orately carved with sculptures- J low pyramidal $i,hars.
'he %est ,nown example of the #oysala style is the #oysalesvara temple of #ale%id. 'he ?<?3?=? feet
high terrace covered with stone sla%s is intricately ornamented in a succession of friezes (seven hundred feet
each? or more in length!.
'he delicate and minute carvings of #oysala temples is their most attractive feature. Done on close
textured chloritic schist- they achieve the effect of sandalwood and ivory carving and reproduce the infinite
variety of ornamental decoration.
%he %emples of 5rissa
A series of temple in chaste 6agara style were %uilt at .hua%neshwar- Eonar, and *uri from Dth 3 8:th
century. 'he specific features include curvilinear 6agra ($hi,hara! on the main $anctuary and a series of
pyramidal storey- no pillars- profusely ornated outer wall (the lavish exterior decoration is in contrast to
+handella temple except the Mu,teshwar $hrine of .hu%aneshwar! and roofs partly supported %y iron
girders (technical innovation!. 'he )ing raa temple at .hu%aneshwar located in an extensive area is
,nown for its magnificence.

I/05-IS7A-I) A')3I%4)%;'4
'he advent of the 'ur,ish rule in India is significant in more than one respect.0hile it gave rise to a new
socio3political system it also mar,ed the %eginning of a new expression in art. 'he style of architecture
that evolved during this time is called Indo3Islamic.
Unli,e architecture- the art of painting as practised in the Delhi $ultanate is not properly documented. 0e
,now that calligraphy and %oo,3illumination in the Islamic world had achieved supreme heights %y the
close of the 89th century. 'here also existed a developed tradition of figural murals in the /haznavi
,ingdom. *ossi%ly the same tradition was camed to Delhi %y the early 'ur,ish $ultans where it flourished
in the 8:th and 8;th centuries.
/e: Structural 9orms
Arch and Dome 'he pre3'ur,ish forms li,e lintel and %eam were replaced %y true arches and
vaults and the spired roofs (shi,had! %y domes. Arches are made in a variety of shapes- %ut in
India the pointed form of the Islamic world was directly inherited. And sometime in second
quarter of the 8;th century- another variant of the pointed form- the four3centred arch- was
introduced %y the 'ughluqs in their %uildings.?lt remained in vogue till the end of $ultanate
period
.uilding Material & 7arly 'ur,ish %uildings in India used richly carved capitals- columns- shafts
and lintels from pre3'ur,ish %uildings. In India- towards the %eginning of the 8;th century when
the supply of such matetial had exhausted- %uildings were raised %y using originally quanied or
manufactured material.
In the masonry wor,- stone has %een used a%undantly. 'he foundations are3mostly of rough and
small ru%%le or- wherever it is availa%le- of river %oulders- while the superstructure is of dressed
stone or roughly shaped coarsed stonewor,. #owever- in either case- the %uildings were plastered
all over. 'he material commonly used for plastering %uildings was gypsum. Apparently lime3
plaster was reserved for places that needed to %e secured against the lea,age of water- such as
roofs- canals- drains- etc. In the later period- i.e. around 8<th century- gypsum mortar was
preferred for plaster wor, on the walls and the ceiling
In $ultanate %uildings no one type of decoration :as reserved for a particular type of %uilding.
+alligraphy is an important element of the decorative art in the %uildings of this period. 'he
@urania sayings are inscri%ed on %uildings in an angular- so%er and monumental script- Enown
as ,ufi. /eometric shapes in a%rstract form are used in many %uildings in a %ewildering variety
of com%inations. Af the foliations- the dominant form of decoration employed in $ultanate
%uildings- is the ara%esque. It is characterised %y a continuous stem which splits regularly-
producing a series of leafy secondary stems which can in turn split again or reintegrate into the
main stem. 'he repetition of this pattern produces a %eautifully %alanced design with a three
dimensional effect .
-ughal Architecture
'he esta%lishment of Mughal rule in India in !*"+ revitalised Indo3Islamic architecture. 'he new rulers
effected an amalgam of the prevalent architectural forms and techniques with those %rought from +entral
Asia and *ersia. 'he result of their efforts was the emergence of one of the most splendid %uildings in
India.
'he foundation of a new style of architecture in India had already %een laid in the thirteenth century with
the introduction of the arcuate technique where spaces were covered with domes and entrance were made
with the help of arches. 'he Mughals carried this tradition and created a synthesis of the pre3'ur,ish
technique- viz.- tra%eate with the arcuate. 'he final result- however- of all this %lending was the
emergence of a distinct style of their own.
.a%ur did not have enough to devote to %ig architectural proects. #e- nevenlieless- laid out several
gardens in India on the pattern of his culture3area. #umayun- .a%ur?s successor- was plagued %y
continuously eroding political authority. 0ithin a decade of his assuming power- he :as dethroned and
sent into exile in *ersia. 'he%uildings dating from this period- therefore- do not show any distinctiveness.
#umyun survived for only one year after his return to India in !***. #owever- the impact of a long
contact with the *ersian culture can %e seen in the designing and execution of his mausoleum under the
supervision of his wife #amida .anu .egum.
'he flowering of the Mughal architecture in reality too, place uhder A,%ar. #e encouraged a hy%rid style-
containing foreign ah well as indigenous element. A(2ar particularly appreciated the resources of the
indigenous artisans and got them translated in the %uildings of (atehpur $i,ri.
A,%ar?s son 5ahangir was not a nota%le %uilder- %ut 5ahangir?s son $hah 5ahan was one of the greatest
%uilder in medeival India. $ome of India?s finest monumental heritage dates from $hah 5ahan?s reign.
Mar%le replaced red sandstone as the principal %uilding material- and the decorative art of inlaying
achieved distinction with the introduction of semiprecious stones as inlay material- called pietra dura
(prachin (ari). Shah 5ahan also introduced the %ul%ous domes and convoluted arches in his %uildings.
Aurangze%?s temperament did not respond to the style prevailing from his father?s reign.#is %uildings-
therefore- show a change& they are austere in %oth material and style.
-ughal 1ainting
India had a long tradition of pictorial art. @eligious manuscripts of early period were richly illustrated.
'he Mughal school of painting %egan with #umayun added to the rich tradition and introduced altogether
a new style. #umayun %ecame familiar with *ersian art during his exile at the $afavid court. Many
*ersian painters oined #umayun on his return ourney to #industan. 'hemost renowned among them
were Mir $ayyid Ali and A%dus $amad.
A,%ar patronized this art form.7arly proects of A,%ar?s reign include the !am"a nama# the story
of Mir #amza- an uncle of *rophet Muhammad- who tried to convert the world into Islam. 'he
manuscript comprised of fourteen volumes- each having one hundred illustrations. At least fifty painters
are %elieved to have wor,ed on the proect.
Among the maor painters at A,%ar?s court was Daswanth who illustrated the Ra"mnama (the
*ersian translation of the Maha$harata. After the Ra"mnama# A,%ar?s interest shifted to historical wor,s.
'he most important of A,%ar?s historical proects was the %k$arnama. 0ith the 7mperor?s growing
historical su%ects- .asawan %ecame one of the prominent artists.Mughal painting scaled new heights
under 5ahangir. #e commissioned individual pictures and portrait which he placed in elegant al%ums. 'h
only important historical manuscript illustrated during this period was th Jahangir Nama. Under 5ahangii
painters developed their individal styles and areas of expertise. Mansur excelled as a painter of animals an
flowers.- A%ul #asan and .ishan Das in imperial portraits- and /ovardhan in paintings of holy men and
musicians.
$hah 5ahan- unli,e 5ahangir- was more. interested in architecture. In his eighth regnal year-
however- he commissioned an official history of this reign- the &adshahnama. 'he illustrations to the text
depict court ceremonies and important events. )i,e 5ahangir- $hah 5ahan also formed al%ums- the %est of
them now ,nown as the Minto Al%um.
As a consequence of Aurangze%?s lac, of interest in the art of painting- there was a dispersal of
artists to the courts of local rulers which led to the growth of the @aput and *ahari schools of painting.
.
)olonial Architecture
'he .ritish and other 7uropeans who came to India as traders during sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
modified the ur%an scene of India. As an external trading force the initially settled in coastal areas "
locations. 'hey first developed some trading ports such as $urat- Daman- /oa- *ondicherry- etc. and
contri%uted in the field of art and architecture.
.y the middle of the 8Dth century the 7nglish were a%le to esta%lish unquestiona%le supremacy over all
the foreign competitors in the trade of Indian merchandise. In fact they %ecame a political power and
ruled India as its colony for a significant period.'he settlements esta%lished %y .ritish provided positive
contri%ution to the ur%an development of the country. 'he .ritish later consolidated their hold from
three principal nodes N Mum%ai (.om%ay!- +hennai (Madras!- and Eol,ata (+alcutta! N and %uilt
them in the .ritish fashion.
Architecture Style
'hree %road architectural styles were used&3
!. 6eo3classical or the new classical3 Its characteristics included construction of geometrical
structures fronted with lofty pillars- arches etc.derived from /raeco3@oman architecture. It was
derived from a style that was originally typical of %uildings in ancient @ome- and was
su%sequently revived- re3adapted and made popular during the 7uropean @enaissance. 'he 'own
#all - 7lphinstone +ircle etc. were %uilt in this style .
". 6eo3/othic style3It characteristics included high3pitched roofs- pointed arches and detailed
decoration. 'he /othic style had its roots in %uildings- especially churches- %uilt in northern
7urope during the medieval period. 'he neo3/othic or new /othic style was revived in the mid3
nineteenth century in 7ngland. 'his was the time when the government in .om%ay was %uilding
its infrastructure and this style was adapted for .om%ay. 'he $ecretariat- University of .om%ay
and #igh+ourt were all %uilt in this style. the most spectacular example of the neo3/othic style
is the 2ictoria 'erminus.
#. Indo3$aracenic style3 It was a hy%rid architectural style developed towards the %eginning of the
twentieth century. It com%ined the Indian with the 7uropean. It characteristics included
domes-chhatris- ja'is- arches.'he /ateway of India- %uilt in the traditional /uarati style is the
most famous example of this style. 'a Mahal #otel was made using similar style.
Indian 1aintings
4arly evidence
M *re historic 3 cave wall paintings at .him%et,a (.hopal!.
M *roto historic 3 *aintings on valley- showing maturity and range from vigorous realism through
rhythmic stylization to stri,ing expressive a%straction.
M #istoric 3 'he earliest extant painting (on walls- called Mural painting! at 5agimara cave (@amgarh
#ills- $irgua- #.*.! dates %ac, to 8>> ..+. the earliest painting which has come down to us well
preserved are the water colour painting done on plastered wall (called frescos! at Aanta37llora- .agh-
$ittannaval etc. (8>>A.D.3D>>A.D.!.
M )iterary @eferences 3 'he literature of pre +hristian era (.rahmanical and .uddhist! tal, of such
types lepya chitra (on textiles!- le,hya chitra (s,etches!- dhuli chitra etc.
2atsyayana?s Eamasutra ('hird century A.D.! lists paintings as one of the sixty four Ealas (fine arts!
and explains the six cannons of painting. 'hey are&
(i! @upa%heda- ,nowledge of appearance- (ii! *ramanam- right perception- measure and structureG (iii!
.hava- cognition of action of feelings on formsG (iv! )avanya yoganam- infusion of grace and rhythmG
(v! $adrisyam3similitude.(vi!2arai,a %hanga- deftness in use of %rush and colors.
During /upta period literary reference prove that apart from professional artists- men and women
of upper classes could a%ly handle %rush.
Schools and Styles
%he Indian -ural %radition
India has a rich and deep rooted mural tradition which finds its %est expression in Aanta frescoes.
%echniAue 'hese murals are Ofresco saccoO and not fresco %uono (i.e. true fresco! as the actual
painting is done on a dry surface and not on wet plastered wall.
8><
)olorations Used sensitive colour- viz.- @ed Achre (dhaturaga! 2ivid red (,um,umal
$indura!- Iellow Achre (#aritala!- Indigo %lue- )apis lazuli %lue (imported one!- )amp %lac,
(Eaala! +hal, white (Ehadimati!- terra verte (geru mati!- /reen (orpiment!
Style $inuous lines aiming not at calligraphic fineness %ut at %old and rounded plasticity
giving the figure the :3dimensional effect.
%heme @elives- %ut also display a dramatic panorama of the contemporary life endowed
with the richness of expression of refined emotions and sensi%ilities of a highly cultured
society. 'he normal hardships of the Indian 2illage fol, are not portrayed.
)entres $tarting with Aanta3.llora- the mural tradition extended in time and space to .agh
(Malva!- .adami (+halu,ya- =th century!- *anamalai (*allava- seventh century!-
$ittannavasal (*andaya- nineth century!- 'anore (+hola- twelfth century!- 2iayanagar
(P)epa,shi *ainting?- sixteenth century! and Eerala (up to mid nineteenth century!.
A.anta 1aintings
8>>3D>> +entury. A.D.- $ungas- 2a,ata,as and /uptas (mostly!.
'he murals (fresco $acco! are thematically religious depicting scenes from .uddha?s life
and the 5ata,as. 'he decorative design includes *attern and scrolls and flora and fauna
used sinuous lines and sensitive colours. Devoid of perspective- depth illusion is
managed %y planning the %ac,ground figures somewhat a%ove the foreground ones.
'he Aanta style %ecame a fountainhead of Asian painting and murals ($igiriya- $rifan,a-
.amiyan- Afghanistan- +hina (along the sil, route!- Eorea and 5apan!.
Bagh 1ainting
'he Aanta axiom extended to Malwa and the Murals at .agh are at par with it in variety of
design- vigorous execution and decorative quality.
Sittannavasal 1aintings
'he mural tradition of seventh century in *andaya?s period- characterized %y :aina theme
and sym%ology.
1ala School (-iniature 1ainting)
F
th
389
th
century& 7astern India- .ihar and .engal.
0 0or,s consists of .oo, illustrations on palm leaf and paper manuscripts. Inspired %y
2arayanism and devoid of fol, quality the miniatures are a,in to the Deccan murals (in
reduced dimensions!. $inuous and swift lines with su%dued tones depicts conventional
landscape and flora in different shades highlighted %y white.
?aina - -iniature 1ainting (Ap2hramsa School)
89th38<th century& 0estern India- /uarat.
+hiefly consists of miniatures of fol, quality on 5aina manuscripts showing predominance
of human figure- with stereotyped and angular face- shgrp nose- protruding eyes all drawn
in %lac, against the %ac,ground of strong or su%tle colours. In later stages the 2aishnavite
theme (the /ita /ovind! and secular love made the style more emotional than intellectual.
)hola 1ainting
M 89
th
century& 'anore (+hola?s +apital!- 'irunalaipurarn.
M It was inspired %y Aanta classicism %ut less significant to it and of a different regional idiom. 'he
fine fresco %ased on religious themes have two dimensional presentations.
>i.aynagar 1ainting
+hiefly consists of excellent murals with a%andoned perspective and the naturally hidden further
eye protruding from the people of the vigorous- rich ly dressed figures. 'he 2iayanagar mural
tradition continued in )epa,shi painting of 8=th century. 'he (epakshi paintings of 2iaynagra
period extended the deccan mural tradition in 8=th century. 'hey are characterized %y earth tones-
a%sence of primary calours- outlining done in %lac, (of the forms of figures and details of their
costumes! and flat application of colours- and three quater profiles of faces (due to appending of
detached farther eye!. 'he elements of landscape (tree- roc, etc.! are arranged almost li,e textile
design- filling the space and setting the scenes while attempting to capture the li,eness of the
physical world. As in earlier traditions realism was not the main concern.
$ultanate *eriod&
A fusion was attempted at %etween the *ersian and Indian 'raditional style (in 6imat 3 6amah - early
sixteenth century- Malwa- and )aur3 canda!- which consummated in Mughal $chool and @aasthani style.
'a.asthani 1ainting ('a.put 1aintings)
M $ixteenth& 7ighteenth +entury AD
M Influences& 5aina and Mughal schoolsG contemporary literature and music.
M 6ature& Miniatures- decorative and natural with human figures- playing insignificant role.
M 'hemes& )ove (@adha3Erishna cult!- scenes )rom epics myths and legends.
M $pecial features& @agmalas (*aintings personifying the ragas! and .aramasa (seasons portraiture!
M $u% styles 3 Mewar- Am%er- .undi- /uarat- 5odhpur- Malwa- 5aipur- Eishangarh differs in the matters of
delineation of faces and modes of dressing.
'hey are miniatures resulting from the amalgamation of 5aina school with Mughal style and influenced
%y contemporary literature and music. 'hey are decorative (in composition and colour scheme! and
intimately natural. 'he central theme of love is represented %y @adha3Erishna legend. $cenes from the epics
and mythologies and depiction of traditional tunes- @agmala and season portraiture- .aramasa etc. are other
features.
@agmala paintings&
*art of @aput paintings attempting at a *ni+*e synthesis- they are sym%olic representation of musical
mode (@agas and @aginis!. 'his is done %y personifying and associating the modes with particular scenes
from #indu Mythology- particularly the romantic devotional literature related to Erishna legends. 'he
@agamala (/arland of the Musical modes! depicts ragas and raginis in their emotive settings- usually in a
series of thirty six scenes. 7ach melodic root form is sym%olically assigned a specific colour- which remains
constant in all compositions. 'he function and qualities of melodic roots determined the mood of their
representation.
-e:ar 1aintings
M 8=9<38=<> AD (flourishing period!
M It is the earliest ,nown @aasthani group. .esides the Dar%ar and hunting scenes and portraits of rulers and
princes- the 2aishnavite themes (Erishna?s legend! and @agmala were especially common.
Bundi School
A regional variant of the @aasthani $tyle shows the Mughal influence in su%ect matter (court scenes-
harems! and technical details while retaining its originality and excellence in expression of feminine grace.
Eotah *aintings&
$chool of @aasthan plains- it excelled in portrayal of hunting scenes J elephant fights. $cenes of
worship and dar%ar and processional scenes also formed the su%ect matter of this style. It is said to
anticipate the primitive vision and virility of 7uropean fauvism.
5odhpur (seat of Mewar $chool! painting&
It portrays genuine @aput element with the help of Mughal techniques. 7questrian portraits (of royal
house and the no%ility!- %oldness in expression with %road- fish eyes in human faces and highly styled true
types form the important features. Eishangarh paintings&
An offshoot of 5odhpur school (9nd half of the 8Dth century!- it is ,nown for its ?mannerist? style
(6ihalchand- court painter of @aa $amant $ingh! with sadder curves and almond adding lyrical value to the
figures. It managed the perfect poctorization of the poetry of the @adha Erishna story.
5aipur *ainting&
A su% style of @aasthan $chool- it %ore a new outloo, in response to the changed socio3political
milieu giving rise to new approach to religion for easing of the conscience. 0hich retaining the
conventional expression- the paintings %ecame extravagantly decorative and Erishna?s @aslila %ecame an
earthly erotic amusement.
1ahari 1aintings
MIt is a generic name given too many centers of ar, in small @aput principalities (.asholi- 5ammu- /uler-
Eangra- arhwal- Eulu- 6aurpur! of the #imalayan 2alley which continued the tradition of @aput style the
,ey inspiration is portrayed in miniatures through Erishna3@adha legends. 7xtremely fine colour tones- so)t
and attractive colour scheme emotional appeal and depiction of natural scenic %eauty are the main
characteristics of this style. .asholi painting is unique for its intensity of expression- Eulu for its
closeness to the fol, styles and Eangra for its romanticism and large output.
M Basholi 1ainting An early eighteenth century pahari style of .asholi (5ammu #ills! it is rioted for
vigorous expression- discriminating use of hot and contrasting colours and emphasis on architectural
details in early specimens. )ater the paintings %ecame milder in expression- colour scheme and
animation- %ut gained in new 'heme li,e Erishna )ila J @agmala
B =uler Style A pahari style of later phase- it is noted for lyrical and cool depiction of women who
%ear the lover?s a%sence with much more composure than the unhappy and passionate heroines of the
earlier .ashole $chool. A satisfactory synthesis was realised %etween Mughal and .asholi schools.
M <angra 1ainting (later half of the 8st century 7xhi%its the technical finesse Mughal miniature and is
noted for su%dued tones and depiction of the female in exquisitely fine and melodious line illustrating
the delicate grace of Indian womanhood it is considered e %est amongst the n tan
miniature Its offshoot were 'ehri /arwal school and the $i,h school- the later flourished in nineteenth
century under @aneet $ingh.
0eccani Schools
Although contemporary to Mughal $chool they derived their conventional forms from the
2iaynagar and the .iapur court painting. Important centres were at Ahmednagar .iapur (under
patronage of I%rahim Adil $hah! and /olconda (portraits showing the royal taste in fruits- scented
flowers and pets.!
%an.ore (%han.auer) Style
It was developed under the royal patronage of 'anore Maratha rulers shows strict adherence to the
cannon of iconography as paintings were made for ritual and worship (of 2ishnu- $hiva and Erishna
and not for display!. Used pure colour in flat manner with %ac,ground in red and green.
1atna Style of 1ainting
#umayun was instrumental in laying the foundation of the Mughal style of painting out of which
arose num%er o Ealam %rush style- the *atna Ealam %eing one them. .est ,nown artists are
$hiva )al and $hiva Dayal. 'hough $hiva lal specialised in miniatures he also painted Indian festivals.
#is %est %eing picture of a Mohammadan wedding. 'he painters of the *atna Ealam ,new how to
extract colour from plants- %ar,s- flowers- metal etc. 'hey painted on glass mica and ivory sheets.
*rincipal centers %eing *atna- Danapur and Arrah.
-adhu2ani
A simple fol, art of Mithila region- tantri, in origin- depicts fol,lore in the mud wall yellow
representing the earth- white warred fire- %lac, air and %lue s,y. 'he pictorial forms are the human
representatives of Iantra- the root of 'antra.
)ompany Style
It developed at the %ehest of the officials of 7ast India +ompany who introduced the Indian artists
to the water colour technique for depicting Indian life and scenes of their li,ing. $uch synthesis of
western technique and the Indian form however resulted in wor,s of low standard.
-odern Art in India
.ritishers esta%lished (after 8D<K! their art schools in .om%ay- +alcutta and Madras to impart
instructions in 0estern art. Indians started handling new materials li,e oil colour on canvas- water
colour on paper- and they %ecame familiar with art practices li,e drawing and paintings from the
models in the ?$tudio?- (In traditional Indian exact coping of the o%ects or living forms were never
prescri%ed instead pictorial equivalent of the essence of %eing was valued!.
0ith the increasing awareness of the evil nature of .ritish rule India slowly emerged as a nation
%y the end of the nineteenth century. 6ationalism inspired Indian scholars- poets and artists to discover
the country?s rich cultural heritage. 'he wor, done %y 0illiam 5ones and Max Mueller in %ringing to
light India?s literary and philosophical heritage- the archaeological discoveries of Mohenodaro and
#arappa and the discoveries of murals at Aanta 7llora further fed Indian?s national pride and inspired
their search3for national identity. 'hus too, %irth a new ,ind of PIndian Art? distinct from the art taught
at these art schools.
-odern / 5riental Art
'he new art movement early this century received its primary stimulus from emerging national3
ism and from its desire to create a truely national art as against the foreign art as taught at the arts
schools in .om%ay- +alcutta and Madras. @aa @avi 2erma (of 'ravancore $tate! a product of Madras
art school studied oil paintings and specialized in portraiture. #e welded @oyal Academy naturalism
with Indian myths and legends and created lively images of Indian past. #e also started producing the
colour prints of those printings (oleographs! and %y the end of the 8Fth century practically every Indian
home was in possession of such print depicting #indu deities. 'his at 3once gave him popular
recognition through out the country. +ritics accuse him of the 7uropeanization of Indian Art (o) having
failed to convey adequate expression o) Indian feelings or of the poetic faculty that an Indain allegony
ought to %e capa%le of evo,ing.! 'his controversy of @avi 2erma?s paintings was responsi%le of an
awa,ening that led to the emergence of a new and significant artistic movement in .engal.
/eo-Art -ovement (Bengal School of 1ainting)
It was pioneered %y E.B.Havell (*rincipal- art school +alcutta! who drew attention o) %$anindranath
'agore to the rich heritage of classical Indian Art and the Mughal miniatures. Amanda Kentish
Coomaraswamy (of $rilan,a! who wor,ed for several years in India and wrote several authoritative
%oo,s on history and development of lndain Art also played an important role in the rise of the .engal
$chool. /uided %y the Indian canons of painting and traditions they painted miniatures in water colour
(mostly with a limited palettle! on theme mostly drawn from Indian Mythology- the epics and classic
literature. A.6. 'agore was influenced %y the 5apanese technique of water colour wash painting which
created delicate love and mystifying areas&
'he .engal school had a great flowering of talent at @. 'agore?s Eala .havan $hantini,etan which was
dominated %y three eminent artists
Mandan )al .ose- .inode .ihari Mu,heree and @anilcin,ar .ai (sculptore with immense drive rooted
to the native Indian soil for sculptural forms!. Nandlal Bose# a disciple of A.6. 'agore was painter of
distinction and a nationalist #e derived inspirations form fol, art also. #e did large posters for pandals
durings congress sessions.
'he artistic creed of the .engal $chool which endeavored to revive the lost values and revitalise the
indigenous system had %ad effects too- for it too, art %ac, to the su%ect matter of ancient period. And
this was gradually challenged with new development for a genuinely 3individual search for content and
form leading to a successful synthesis o) Indian and 7uropean3techniques. 5amini @oy who emerged
out of the .engal school- fol, tradition (of .engal J Arissa! and the Ealighat paintings of ninetieth
century painted image with minimum of lines and %right colours on a plain %ase- which gave his
paintings place in the history of modern art.
Amrita Sher Gil, a maor artist of the pre3independence era- had thoroughly understood the modern
spirit and mode of expression. #er oil painting (a few portraits %ut many more of *una%i peasants-
mostly women! are diverse in theme and rich in
3
colour with the figure having a quaint emaciated
physiognomy li,e that of /anguins women (*ost impressionist!. .ut they are thoroughly Indian.
Ravindranath ,agore# through his innumera%le wor,s (in water colour- crayons- and mixed media!
emerged as an important painter. #is paintings are strongly individualistic with his own moods instilled
into them. It was utterly his own art out with the .e3gal school having no influence.
*rogressive artists /roups (( 6.$onre E.#.Ara- $.A.@era- $.E..a,re- #3A. /edeG M.(.#ussain!&
It was formed in .om%ay- in 8F;D- due to the vision and initiative of (rancis 6ewton $ouza. $ouza a
man of leftist leaving was a re%el painter who defied old norms and conventions. #is paintings were
done in expressionist colours and styles and were suffused with contemporary human situation.
Some Important -onuments
1urana @uila (5ld 9ort)- Delhi was %uilt $her $hah $uri (8<:D3 8<;<! after he wrested the throne of
Delhi from the Mughal emperor #umayun. 'he structure houses a mosque- which has a dou%le storied
octagonal tower.
@utu2 -inar, Delhi in red and %uff sandstone is the highest tower in India. It was %uilt in the 8:
th

century with a height of K9.<m- its construction was started %y Qutu%3ud3Din Ai%a, of $lave Dynasty.
88FF for the use of mu?azzin (crier! to give calls for prayer and raised the first storey- to which were added
three more storeys %y his successor and son3in3law- $hams3ud3Din Itutmish (A.D. 89883:=!. All the
storeys are surrounded %y a proected %alcony encircling the minar and supported %y stone %rac,ets-
which are decorated with honey3com% design- more conspicuously in the first storey. It has %een named
so after great $ufi saint- Qutu%3 ud3din .a,htiyar Ea,i.
'he complex has a num%er of other important monuments such as the gateway %uilt in 8:8>- the Alai
Darwaza- Quwwat3ul3Islam MosqueG the tom%s of Altamish- Ala3ud3din Ehali and Imam RaminG the Alai
Minar- a Km high Iron *illar- etc. 'he latter also ,nown as Iron *illar of Mahrauli is one of example of
metallurgical achievement of ancient India since it is still rust free.
U67$+A has declared the highest stone tower in India as a world heritage.
Quwwat3ul3Islam Mosque- to the north3east of Qutu% Minar was %uilt %y Qutu%3ud3Din Ai%a, in A.D.
88FD. It is the earliest extant 3 mosque %uilt %y the Delhi $ultans. It consists of a rectangular courtyard
enclosed %y cloisters- erected with the carved columns and architectural mem%ers of 9K #indu and 5aina
temples- which were demolished %y Qutu%3ud3Din Ai%a, as recorded in his inscription on the main
eastern entrance. )ater- a lofty arched screen was erected and the mosque was enlarged- %y $hams3ud3
Din Itutmish (A.D. 898>3:<! and Ala3ud3Din Ehali.
'he Iron *illar in the courtyard %ears an inscription in $ans,rit in .rahmi script of fourth century A.D.-
according to which the pillar was set up as a 2ishnudhvaa (standard of god 2ishnu! on the hill ,nown as
2ishnupada in memory of a mighty ,ing named +handra. A deep soc,et on the top of the ornate capital
indicates that pro%a%ly an image of /aruda was fixed into it.
'he tom% of Itutmish (A.D. 89883:=! was %uilt in A.D. 89:<. It is a plain square cham%er of red
sandstone- profusely carved with inscriptions- geometrical and ara%esque patterns in $aracenic tradition
on the entrances and the whole of interior. $ome of the motifs viz.- the wheel- tassel- etc.- are reminiscent
of #indu designs.
Alai3 Darwaza- the southern gateway of the Quwwat3ul3Islam mosque at Qutu% Minar complexwas
constructed %y Ala3ud3Din Ehali in A.#. K8> (A.D. 8:88! as recorded in the inscriptions engraved on it.
'his is the first %uilding employing Islamic principles of construction and ornamentation.
Alai Minar- which stands to the north of Qutu%3Minar- was commenced %y Ala3ud3Din Ehali- with the
intention of ma,ing it twice the size of earlier Minar. #e could complete only the first storey- which now
has an extant height of 9< m. 'he other remains in the Qutu% complex comprise madrasa- graves- tom%s-
mosque and architectural mem%ers.
>ictoria -emorial, Eol,ata was %uilt %etween 8F>= and 8F98 to commemorate Queen 2ictoria?s 9<3year
reign in India. In fact- in 8DK= the .ritish parliament made 2ictoria the 7mpress of India. #er reign ended
with her death in 8F>8.
'his huge white3mar%le museum- made from Ma,rana mar%les from @aasthan- is filled with a vast
collection of remnants from the period of .ritish 7mpire rule in India.
'he *rince of 0ales- Eing /eorge 2- laid the foundation stone on 5anuary ;- 8F>= and it was formally
opened to the pu%lic in 8F98.
'he 2ictoria Memorial was designed %y $ir 0illiam 7merson- *resident of the .ritish Institute of
Architects.
'ashtrapati Bhavan, the official residence of the *resident of India- is located in 6ew Delhi. It was
designed %y 7dwin )andseer )utyens as the erstwhile residence of the .ritish 2iceroy. 'he %uilding
completed in 8F9F- was scheduled to %e constructed in four years %ut it too, 8K years to complete it.
'he decision to %uild a residence in 6ew Delhi for the .ritish 2iceroy was ta,en after it was decided that
the capital of India would %e shifted from +alcutta (Eol,ata! to Delhi. It was 9=
th
5anuary 8F<> that the
%uilding was renamed as @ashtrapati .havan 3 the *resident?s #ouse.
'he %uilding is %uilt in two shades of sandstone and reflects a %lend of Mughal and classical 7uropean
style of architecture.
Inside the *residential 7state there is the elegant Mughal /ardens- which covers an area of 8: acres and is
a %lend of the formal Mughal style with the design of a .ritish /arden.
'he Mughal /ardens are open to the pu%lic in (e%ruary3March every year.
'ed 9ort, 0elhi, is ,nown %y that name %ecause of the red stone with which it is %uilt. 'he Mughal
emperor- $hah 5ahan- after ruling from Agra for eleven years- decided to shift to Delhi and laid the
foundation stone of the @ed (ort in 8=8D. It was inaugurated in 8=;K. 0ith a circumference of almost one
and a half miles- the fort is an irregular octagon and has two entrances- the )ahore and Delhi /ates. 'he
Diwan3e3Aam is the @ed (ort?s hall of pu%lic audience. 'he Mughal emperors would hold court here and
meet dignitaries and foreign emissaries. 'he piece de resistance of the fort- the Diwan3e3Ehas was the hall
of private audience. 'he most highly ornamented of all $hah 5ahan?s %uildings- it is a pavilion of white
mar%le supported %y intricately carved pillars. $o enamoured was the emperor %y the %eauty of this
pavilion that he engraved on it the following words& OIf there is paradise on the face of this earth- it is this-
it is this.O
@ichly decorated with flowers of inlaid mosaic wor, of cornelian and other stones- the Diwan3e3Ehas
once housed the famous *eacoc, 'hrone- which when it was plundered %y 6adir $hah in 8K:F- was
valued at six million sterling.
India?s history is also closely lin,ed with this fort. It was from here that the .ritish deposed the last
Mughal ruler- .hadur $hah Rafar- mar,ing the end of the three century long Mughal rule. It was also from
its ramparts that the first *rime Minister of India- *andit 5awharlal 6ehru- announced to the nation that
India was free form colonial rule.
'oc( Shelters of Bhim2et(a, a recognized world heritage site %y U67$+A- are in the foothills of the
2indhyan Mountains of Madhya *radesh. .him%et,a is also ,nown as .hima?s )ounge (.hima was the
second of the five *andava princes in the #indu epic Maha%harata!.
'here are five clusters of natural roc, shelters- displaying paintings that appear to date from the
Mesolithic *eriod to the historical period.
Most of the paintings here are in red and white with occasional dashes of yellow and green- with themes
culled from events in everyday life. 'he scenes depicted are mainly of dancing- playing music- hunting-
horse and elephant riding- decorating %odies- and collecting honey. #ousehold scenes too constitute an
occasional theme. Animals li,e tigers- lions- wild %oar- elephants- dogs and crocodiles have also %een
portrayed in the paintings. 'he walls of these shelters are also adorned with religious sym%ols that were
popular with these pre3historic artists.
SC )athedral is one of the most cele%rated religious %uildings of /oa- constructed %y the @oman
+atholics under the *ortuguese rule during the 8=
th
century. It is the largest church in Asia. 'he +athedral
is dedicated to $t. +atherine of Alexandria on whose feast day in 8<8> Alfonso Al%uquerque defeated the
Muslim army and too, possession of the city of /oa. #ence it is also ,nown as $t. +atherine?s? +athedral.
'he construction of this imposing edifice %egan in 8<=9 during the reign of Eing Dom $e%astiSo (8<<K3
KD! and su%stantially completed %y 8=8F. It was consecrated in 8=;>.
'he %uilding is *ortuguese3/othic in style with a 'uscan exterior and +orinthian interior.
+athedral?s tower houses a famous %ell- the largest in /oa and one of the %est in the world- often referred
to as ?/olden .ell? on account of its rich tone.
Si(andra 9ort- located only 8: ,m. from the Agra (ort is the last resting place of the Mughal emperor
A,%ar- the great.
#e was the heir to a long tradition of oriental refinement- a great patron of the arts- literature- philosophy
and science. A visit to A,%ar?s monument opens %efore one- the completeness of A,%ar?s personality as
completely as the 'a Mahal does of Mumtaz Mahal?s. A,%ar?s vast- %eautifully carved- red3ochre
sandstone tom% is set amidst a lush garden.
A,%ar himself planned his own tom% and selected a suita%le site for it. A,%ar?s son 5ahangir completed
the construction of this pyramidal tom% in 8=8:.
Sun %emple, <onar( is located in the eastern $tate of Arissa near the sacred city of *uri and is dedicated
to the sun /od or $urya. It is a monumental representation of the sun /od $urya?s chariotG its 9; wheels
are decorated with sym%olic designs and it is led %y a team of horses. It is a masterpiece of Arissa?s
medieval architecture. 'he temple declared a world heritage %y U67$+A was %uilt in A.D. 89<>- during
the reign of the 7astern /anga Eing 6arasimhadeva3I (A.D. 89:D3=;!. 'here are two rows of 89 wheels
on each side of the Eonar, sun temple. $ome say the wheels represent the 9; hours in a day and others
say the 89 months. 'he seven horses are said to sym%olize the seven days of the wee,. $ailors once called
this $un 'emple of Eonara,- the .lac, *agoda %ecause it was supposed to draw ships into the shore and
cause shipwrec,s.
Agra 9ort- %he 8=th3century Mughal fort constructed %y A,%ar the great at the capital city of Agra is
,nown as the @ed (ort of Agra. 'here are a num%er of exquisite %uildings inside the fort li,e Moti
Masid 3 a white mar%le mosque a,in to a perfect pearlG Diwan373Am- Diwan373Ehaas- Musamman .ur
3 where Mughal 7mperor $hah 5ahan died in 8=== A.D.- 5ahangir?s *alace- Ehaas Mahal and $heesh
Mahal. Agra (ort- an excellent example of Mughal architecture- is one of the few U67$+A 0orld
#eritage $ites in India.
A.anta D 4llora )aves were %uilt %etween the 9
nd
century ..+.- and the =
th
century A.D. 'he paintings
and sculptures in the caves of Aanta and 7llora- inspired %y contemporary religions unleashed a surge of
artistic excellence unmatched in human history.
'he roc,3out caves of Aanta are located in Auranga%ad district in Maharashtra. A set of 9F caves- Aanta
is among the finest examples of some of the earliest .uddhist architecture- cave paintings and sculptures.
'hese caves comprise +haitya halls or shrines- dedicated to )ord .uddha and 2iharas or monasteries-
used %y .uddhist mon,s for meditation and the study of .uddhist teachings. 'he paintings that adorn the
walls and ceilings of the caves depict incidents from the life of )ord .uddha and various .uddhist
divinities. Among the most interesting paintings are the 5ata,a tales- illustrating diverse stories relating to
the previous incarnations of the .uddha as .odhisattava- a saintly %eing who is destined to %ecome the
.uddha. 'hese ela%orate sculptures and paintings stand in impressive grandeur in spite of withstanding
the ravages of time. Amid the %eautiful images and paintings are sculptures of .uddha- calm and serene in
contemplation.
'he cave temples and monasteries at 7llora are also located in Auranga%ad district. $culptors- inspired %y
.uddhism- 5ainism and #induism- created ela%orate roc, carvings. 7xtending in a linear arrangement- the
:; caves contain .uddhist +haityas or halls of worship- 2iharas or monasteries and #indu and 5ain
temples. $panning a period of a%out =>> years %etween the <
th
and 88
th
century A.D.- the earliest
excavation here is of the Dhumar )ena (+ave 9F!. 'he most imposing excavation is- without dou%t- that
of the magnificent Eailasa 'emple (+ave 8=! which is the largest monolithic structure in the world.
Enown as 2erul in ancient times- it has continuously attracted pilgrims through the centuries to the
present day.
Declared as 0orld #eritage $ites %y U67$+A since 8FD:- the paintings and sculptures of Aanta and
7llora- considered masterpieces of .uddhist religious art- have had a great influence in the development
of art in India. 'he creative use of colour and freedom of expression used in depicting human and animal
forms ma,es the cave paintings at Aanta one of the high watermar,s of artistic creativity.
Amer 9ort, the ancient capital of the Eachhawah rulers is located near 5aipur. It stands amidst wooded
hills and its ramparts are reflected in the still waters of the Maota )a,e %elow. It is one of the finest
examples of @aput architecture. 'he original palace was %uilt %y @aa Man $ingh and additions were
made later %y $awai 5ai $ingh.
0ithin the palace are the Diwan3e3Aam or the O#all of *u%lic AudienceO- the Diwan3e3Ehas or the O#all
of *rivate AudienceO and the $u,h 6iws where a cool %reeze %lows across channels of water for the
purpose of air3conditioning.
'here is also the 5ai Mandir or the O'emple of 2ictoryO- with its famous $heesh Mahal- the scintillating
O#all of MirrorsO
Bara Imam2ara, 7uc(no:, a historical edifice with such a marvellous architecture that even modern
architects seem to %e perplexed %y its design. 'he Imam%ara was %uilt %y 6awa% Asaf3ud3Daula in 8KD;
in a famine relief programme. 'he structure is also called Asafai Imam%ara. 'he structure shows the
mixture of @aput and Mughal architectures with /othic influences. .ara Imam%ara is an interesting
%uilding. It is neither a mosque- nor a mausoleum- %ut a huge %uilding having interesting elements within
it. 'he construction of the halls and the use of vaults show a strong Islamic influence.
'he .ara Imam%ara is- in fact- a great hall %uilt at the end of a spectacular courtyard approached through
two magnificent triple3arched gateways. 'he central hall of the Imam%ara is almost <> meters in length
and 8=3meter wide. 'he ceiling of this columnless hall is more than 8<3meter high. 'he hall is one of the
largest of its ,ind in the world without any external support of wood- iron- or stone %eams. 'he roof has
%een put together with interloc,ing %ric,s without using a %eam or a girder. #ence- it is viewed as a
unique achievement of architecture. 'he %uilding- which consists of three huge halls- has an amazing
maze of corridors hidden in %etween its walls that are a%out 9> feet thic,. 'his dense- dar, maze called
the ?%hul %hulaiya? is to %e explored only if you are strong3hearted. It is a networ, of more than 8>>>
la%yrinthine passages- some of which have dead3ends- some end at precipitous drops while others lead to
entrance or exit points.
Another intriguing structure at the Imam%ara is the five3storied %aoli (step well!- which %elongs to the
pre36awa%i era. +alled the $hahi3#ammam (royal %ath!- this %aoli is connected with the river /omti.
Anly the first two stories are a%ove water- the rest %eing perennially under water.
Basilica of Bom ?esus (=oa) isthe most popular church and the most revered %y +hristians worldwide is
the .asilica of .om 5esus. 'he .asilica- dedicated to Infant 5esus- has %een declared a 0orld #eritage
Monument now. ?.om 5esus? means ?Infant 5esus? or ?/ood 5esus?. @enowned throughout the +atholic
world- the 8=
th
century cathedral is India?s first Minor .asilica- and is considered as one of the %est
examples of %aroque architecture in India. 'he layout follows simple @enaissance norms while the
detailing and decoration is una%ashed .aroque. It?s an opulent structure which incorporates white mar%le
and has %eautifully gilded altars decorated with frescoes and inlay wor,.
'he .asilica houses the sacred relics of $t. (rancis Havier- patron saint of /oa who died in 8<<9. 'he
mortal remains of the saint were gifted to the church %y +osimo de Medici III- /rand Du,e of 'uscany.
'oday- the em%almed %ody lies in an airtight glass coffin positioned in a silver cas,et crafted %y a 8K
th

century (lorentine sculptor- /iovanni .atista (oggini. In accordance with his wishes- his remains were
transferred to /oa the following year after his death. It is said that- while transferring- the saint?s %ody
was found to %e as fresh as the day it was %uried. 'his miraculous phenomenon continues to attract the
devout from all lands- and an ?7xposition? or pu%lic viewing of his %ody happens- once every decade- to
allow pilgrims to view it. 'he saint is %elieved to have miraculous powers of healing- and pilgrims come
from all over the world to offer prayers. 'he silver cas,et is lowered for pu%lic viewing only during the
pu%lic exposition. )ast exposition was in 9>>;.
Intricately carved %asalt em%ellishments ma,e it one of the richest facades in /oa. 'he layout follows
simple @enaissance norms while the detailing and decoration is una%ashed .aroque. 'he mausoleum of
$t. Havier is a marvel of Italian art (the mar%le %ase! and #indu craftsmanship (the silver cas,et!. 'he
ela%orately gilded altars are %eautiful examples of sculptures and carvings in wood- stone- gold and
granite. +olumns are covered with mar%le and inlaid with precious stones. 'he church also houses
paintings depicting the life of $t. (rancis Havier. 2isitors are overcome %y the deep spirituality and
tranquility of the place. 7very year thousands of people visit the cathedral especially in Decem%er.
Brhadisvara %emple, %han.avur, is a splendid example of +hola architecture was %uilt %y 7mperor
@aaraa (FD<38>89 A.D.!. 'he long series of epigraphs incised in elegant letters on the plinth all round
the gigantic edifice reveals the personality of the 7mperor.
'he .rhadisvara temple is a monument dedicated to $iva- and he named lord as @aaraesvaram3udayar
after himself. 'he temple is constructed of granite- mostly of large %loc,s. 'he temple is within a spacious
inner pra,ara of 9;>.F> m long (east3west! and 899m %road (north3south!- with a gopura at the east and
three other ordinary torana entrances one at each lateral sides and the third at rear. 'he pra,ara is
surrounded %y a dou%le3storeyed mali,a with parivaralayas.
'he si,hara- a cupolic dome- is octagonal and rests on a single %loc, of granite- a square of K.D m
weighing D> tons. 'he maestic upapitha and adhishthana are common to all the axially placed entities
li,e the ardhamaha and mu,ha3mandapas and lin,ed to the main sanctum %ut approached through a north3
south transept across the ardha3mandapa which is mar,ed %y lofty sopanas. 'he moulded plinth is
extensively engraved with inscriptions %y its royal %uilder who refers to his many endowments- pious acts
and organisational events connected to the temple. 'he %rihad3linga within the sanctum is D.K m high.
)ife3size iconographic representations on the wall niches and inner passage include Durga- )a,shmi-
$arasvati and .hi,shatana- 2ira%hadra Ealanta,a- 6atesa- Ardhanarisvara and Alingana forms of $iva.
'he mural paintings on the walls of the lower am%ulatory inside are finest examples of +hola and later
periods.
(ine arts were encouraged in the service of the templeG the sculptures- the paintings in the surrounding
passages of the sanctorum and even the inscriptions in elegant +hola /rantha and 'amil letters give an
idea of the great art that flourished under @aaraa.
)harminar
'he +harminar is a massive arch %uilt %y Mohammed Quli Quta% $hah- in 8<F8 to commemorate the end
of the plague in the city. 'he sym%ol of the city- the +harminar- is an impressive square monument with
four minarets.
'he monument is a magnificent square edifice of granite- %uilt upon four grand arches facing 6orth-
$outh- 7ast and 0est. 'hese arches support two floors of rooms and gallery of archways. At each corner
of the square structure is a minaret rising to a height of 9; meters- ma,ing the %uilding nearly <; meters
tall. It is these four (char! minarets (minar! that give the %uilding- its name ?+harminar?. 7ach minar stands
on a lotus3leaf %ase- a special recurrent motif in Qutu% $hahi %uildings.
'he first floor was used as a madarasa (college! during the Qutu% $hahi period. 'he second floor has a
mosque on the western side- the dome of which is visi%le from the road- if one stands some distance away.
'he cloc,s a%ove each of the four archways were added in 8DDF.
)ity 1alace, ;daipur
Udaipur- the city of la,es- is ,nown as the 2enice of the east. Maharana Udai $ingh II founded Udaipur in
8<=D after his citadel +hittorgarh was sac,ed %y Mughal 7mperor A,%ar.
+ity *alace towers over the *ichola )a,e. Maharana Udai $ingh initiated the construction of the palace
%ut succeeding Maharanas added several palaces and structures to the complex- retaining the uniformity
of design. 'he entry to the palace is from the #ati *ol- the 7lephant gate. 'he .ari *ol or the %ig gate
%rings one to the 'ripolia- the 'riple gate. .alconies- cupolas and towers surmount the palace to give a
wonderful view of the la,e. $ura /o,hada or the ?.alcony of $un? is where the Maharana used to grant
pu%lic audiences- mainly to %oost the morale of the people in difficult times. 'he Mor +haw, is the
peacoc, square and gains its name from the vivid %lue mosaic in glass of a peacoc, that decorates its
walls.
Mana, Mahal or the @u%y palace has a lovely collection of glass and mirror wor, while Erishna 2ilas
display a rich collection of miniature paintings. Moti Mahal or the *earl palace has %eautiful mirror wor,
and the +hini Mahal has ornamental tiles all over. 'he $urya +hopar or the $un $quare depicts a huge
ornamental sun sym%olising the sun dynasty to which the Mewar dynasty %elongs. 'he .ari Mahal is a
central garden with a magnificent view of the city. $ome more %eautiful paintings can %e seen in the
Renana Mahal or the ladies cham%er- which leads to )a,shmi +how,- a %eautiful white pavilion.
0il:ara %emples, -ount A2u
'he Dilwara 5ain temples in Mount A%u- @aasthan enshrines various 5ain ?'irthan,aras?. +onstructed out
of white mar%le- the temples are an outstanding example of 5ain temple architecture.
Af the five shrines in this group- four are architecturally significant. 7ach has a walled courtyard. In the
centre of the courtyard is the shrine with the image of the deity- @isha%hdev. Around the large courtyard-
there are numerous small shrines- each housing a %eautiful image of the tirthan,aras with a series of
elegantly carved pillars from the entrance to the courtyard. 'he ministers of the $olan,i rulers of /uarat
had constructed all these temples during 88
th
and 8:
th
centuries A.D.
2imal 2asahi is the oldest temple- which has %een dedicated to Adinath- the first 5ain tirthan,ara. 2imal
$hah- minister of the then $olan,i ruler of /uarat- %uilt it in the year 8>:8 A.D. 'he special feature of
this temple is it?s ceiling which is circular in eleven richly carved concentric rings. 'he central ceiling of
the temple is adorned with magnificent carving and it culminates into an ornamented central pendant. 'he
pendant of the dome tapers down forming a drop or point- li,e a lotus flower. 'his is an astonishing piece
of wor,. It sym%olizes the divine grace coming down to fulfill human aspirations. (igures of 8= 2idya
Devis (goddesses of ,nowledge! are carved on the ceiling.
'he other Dilwara temples are the )una 2asahi- 2astupala and 'eapala- named after the ministers of the
then 2aghela ruler of /uarat who %uilt them in 89:> A.D. Inspite of %eing plain and austere on the
outside- the interiors of all these temples are covered with delicate carvings. Its most nota%le feature is
that the %rilliant intricacy and delicacy of the mar%le carving is so fine that in places the mar%le %ecomes
almost transparent.
Dilwara temples are one of the %est examples of craftsmanship- the genius of carving out so %rilliant and
intricate a shape out of a %loc, of stone- such that it almost comes to lifeL 'he temple is a tourist?s
paradise and a meditative sanctum for the devotees.
)hhatrapati Shiva.i %erminus
'he +hhatrapati $hivai 'erminus- formerly ,nown as 2ictoria 'erminus in Mum%ai- Maharashtra is a
fine example of 2ictorian /othic @evival architecture in India- with a %lend of themes derived from
Indian traditional architecture. 'he terminus exhi%its an important interchange of influences %etween the
two. 'he %uilding- designed %y the .ritish architect (.0. $tevens- %ecame the sym%ol of .om%ay (now
Mum%ai! as the ?/othic +ity? and the maor international mercantile port city in the Indian su%continent
within the .ritish +ommonwealth. 'he terminal was %uilt over ten years- starting in 8DKD according to a
#igh 2ictorian /othic design %ased on late medieval Italian models. Its remar,a%le stone dome- turrets-
pointed arches- and eccentric ground plan are close to traditional Indian palace architecture.
'his famous terminal also displays the %eauty of late 8F
th
century railway architecture in the .ritish
+ommonwealth characterized %y its advanced structural and technical solutions. It has %ecome an
insepara%le part of the people of Mum%ai as the station operates %oth su%ur%an and long distance trains.
'his magnificent terminus serves as the headquarters of the +entral @ailways in India and is one of the
%usiest stations of the nation. 'ill 8FF=- it was ,nown as 2ictoria 'erminal- named so in the honour of
Queen 2ictoria.
An 9
nd
5uly 9>>;- the 0orld #eritage +ommittee of U67$+A nominated this magnificent specimen of
late 8F
th
century railway architecture as a 0orld #eritage $ite. 'his terminus is one of the rare specimens
of the excellent fusion of traditional western and Indian architecture and adds a unique variety to the rich
Indian heritage.
)hola %emples
$ituated in the southern state of 'amil 6adu- this 0orld #eritage site comprises the three great 88
th
and
89
th
century +hola 'emples& the .rihadisvara temples of 'hanavur- /angai,ondacholisvaram- and the
Airatesvara temple at Darasuram. 'he three +hola temples in India are exemplary production in the
Dravidian style of temple architecture.
'he .rihadisvara temples are situated at 'hanavur- the ancient capital of the +hola ,ings. Eing @aaraa
+hola constructed the .rihadisvara 'emple in 8>
th
century A.D.- designed %y the famous architect $ama
2arma. 'he +holas were great patrons of art- during their reign- as a result- the most magnificent temples
and exquisite %ronze icons were created in $outh India.
'he .rihadisvara temple is crowned %y a pyramidal =<3m vimana- a sanctum tower. Its walls are covered
with rich sculptural decoration. 'he second .rihadisvara temple complex %uilt %y @aendra I was
completed in 8>:<. Its <:3m vimana has recessed corners and a graceful upward curving movement-
contrasting with the straight and severe tower at 'hanavur. It has six pairs of massive- monolithic
dvarapalas statues guarding the entrances and %ronzes of remar,a%le %eauty inside.
'he other two temples- /angai,ondacholisvaram and Airatesvara were also %uilt in the age of +holas and
testify their %rilliant achievements in architecture- sculpture- painting- and %ronze casting.
'he great 'emple of 'anore ('hanavur! was %uilt %etween 8>>: and 8>8> in the reign of the Eing
@aaraa- of the +hola 7mpire which stretched all over $outh India and the neigh%ouring islands.
$urrounded %y two rectangular enclosures- the .rihadisvara 'emple (%uilt from %loc,s of granite and- in
part- from %ric,s! is crowned with a pyramidal 8:3storey tower- the vimana- standing =8 m high and
topped with a %ul%3shaped monolith. 'he walls of the temple are covered with rich sculptural decoration.
)hurches and )onvents of =oa
'he $outhern Indian $tate- /oa has some world famous churches and convents- particularly the +hurch of
.om 5esus- which contains the tom% of $t. (rancis3Havier and $e? +athedral. 'hese monuments were
influential in spreading forms of Manueline- Mannerist and .aroque art in all the countries of Asia where
missions were esta%lished.
'he .asilica of .om 5esus- located 8> ,m east *anai (+apital of /oa! was %uilt in 8=
th
+entury. ?.om
5esus? means ?Infant 5esus? or ?/ood 5esus?. @enowned throughout the +atholic world- this cathedral is
India?s first Minor .asilica- and is considered as one of the %est examples of %aroque architecture in India.
'he layout follows simple @enaissance norms while the detailing and decoration is una%ashed .aroque.
It?s an opulent structure- which incorporates white mar%le and has %eautifully gilded altars decorated with
frescoes and inlay wor,.
'he .asilica houses the sacred relics of $t. (rancis Havier- patron saint of /oa who died in 8<<9. +osimo
de Medici III- /rand Du,e of 'uscany- gifted the mortal remains of the saint to the church. 'oday- the
em%almed %ody lies in an airtight glass coffin positioned in a silver cas,et crafted %y a 8K
th
century
(lorentine sculptor- /iovanni .atista (oggini. In accordance with his wishes- his remains were transferred
to /oa the following year after his death. It is said that- while transferring- the saint?s %ody was found to
%e as fresh as the day it was %uried.
'he mausoleum of $t. Havier is a marvel of Italian art (the mar%le %ase! and #indu craftsmanship (the
silver cas,et!. 'he ela%orately gilded altars are fine examples of sculptures and carvings in wood- stone-
gold and granite. +olumns are covered with mar%le and inlaid with precious stones. 'he church also
houses paintings depicting the life of $t. (rancis Havier.
$e? +athedral- another cele%rated religious %uildings of /oa was constructed in 8=
th
century the @oman
+atholics under the *ortuguese rule. 'he +athedral- the largest church in Asia- is dedicated to $t.
+atherine of Alexandria on whose feast day in 8<8>- Alfonso Al%uquerque defeated the Muslim army and
too, possession of the city of /oa. #ence- it is also ,nown as $t. +atherine?s? +athedral.
'he construction of this imposing edifice %egan in 8<=9 during the reign of Eing Dom $e%astiSo (8<<K3
KD! and su%stantially completed %y 8=8F. It was consecrated in 8=;>.
'he church is 9<> ft in length and 8D8 ft in %reath. 'he frontispiece stands 88< ft high. 'he %uilding is
*ortuguese3/othic in style with a 'uscan exterior and +orinthian interior. 'he exterior of the cathedral is
nota%le for its plainness of style whereas- its vaulted interior overwhelms the visitors %y sheer grandeur.
'he main altar of the +athedral is dedicated to $t. +atherine of Alexandria- and old paintings on either
side of it- depict scenes from her life and martyrdom. An the right of the nave- is the screened +hapel of
the +ross of Miracles.
+hurch and +onvent of $t. (rancis of Assisi- +hurch of )ady of @osaryG +hurch of $t. Augustine are
among some other famous +hurches and +onvents of /oa.
4lephanta )aves
7lephanta anciently ,nown as /harapuri- the island capital of Eon,an Mauryas- is cele%rated for its
colossal image of Mahesamurti with three heads each representing a different form. 'he 7lephanta +aves
serve as a great tourist attraction in the vicinity of the large Mum%ai metropolis. 'he 7lephanta island is
located 8> ,m away from the /ateway of India at Mum%ai in Maharashtra. 'he cave temple- dedicated to
)ord $hiva- was excavated sometime in the D
th
century %y the @ashtra,uta ,ings- who ruled the area
%etween A.D. K<K3FK:.
'he 7lephanta caves is a conglomeration of seven caves- out of which the most important is the Mahesa3
murti cave. 'he main %ody of the cave- excluding the porticos on the three open sides and the %ac, isle- is
9K metres square and is supported %y rows of six columns each. 'he gigantic figures of ?dvarapalas? or
door,eepers are very impressive.
'here are sculptured compartments in this cave with remar,a%le images of Ardhanarisvara- Ealyana3
sundara $hiva- @avana lifting Eailasa- Andha,ari3Murti (slaying of Andha,a demon! and 6ataraa $hiva.
'he cave complex has %een given the status of world heritage %y U67$+A.
9atehpur Si(ri
'he royal city at (atehpur $i,ri- situated 9= miles west of Agra- Uttar *radesh- was %uilt under the orders
of the great Mughal 7mperor A,%ar. In honour of saint $hai,h $alim +histi- A,%ar founded a magnificent
city on $i,ri ridge. In 8<K8- he ordered the construction of %uildings for his own use and as,ed the
no%lemen to %uild houses for themselves.
0ithin a year- most of the wor, was finished and within the next few years- a well planned
administrative- residential and religious %uildings came into existence.
'he 5ami Mosque was perhaps among the first %uildings to come up. Its epigraph gives A# FKF (A.D.
8<K83K9! as the date of its completion. 'he .uland3Darwaza was added some five years later. Among
other important %uildings are the tom% of $hai,h $alim +hishti- 6au%at3or 6aqqar Ehana (drum3house!-
'a,sal (mint!- Ear,hanas (royal wor,shop!- Ehazana (treasury!- #a,im?s quarters- Diwan3i3Am (hall of
pu%lic audience!- house of Maryam also called $unahra Ma,an (/olden #ouse!- palace of 5odh .ai-
.ir%al?s house- etc.
=ate:ay of India
'he /ateway of India is synonymous with Mum%ai. It is the most famous monument of Mum%ai and is
the starting point for most tourists who want to explore the city. /ateway of India is a great historical
monument %uilt during the .ritish rule in the country. It was %uilt as a triumphal arch to commemorate
the visit of Eing /eorge 2 and Queen Mary to Mum%ai (then- .om%ay!. /ateway of India was %uilt at
Apollo .under- a popular meeting place. It was designed %y the .ritish architect- /eorge 0ittet.
'he foundation stone of the /ateway of India was laid down %y the then /overnor of .om%ay (Mum%ai!
on March :8
st
8F8:. 'he archway is 9= meters high and oined with four turrets and intricate latticewor,
carved on stones. 'he arch alone was %uilt at the cost of 98 la,hs. It is %uilt in Indo3$arcenic style- though
some influence of /uarati style is also evident in its architecture. 'he structure itself is quite maestic and
a hy%rid of the Arc de 'riomphe in *aris.
In the past /ateway of India used to %e the arrival point for visitors from the west. Ironically- when the
@a ended in 8F;K- this colonial sym%ol also %ecame a sort of epitaph& the last of the .ritish ships that set
sail for 7ngland left from the /ateway. 'oday this sym%ol of colonialism has got Indianised- drawing
droves of local tourists and citizens. 'his landmar, of Mum%ai is a must visit of the city.
'he /ateway faces the vast Ara%ian $ea- flan,ed %y Mum%ai?s another attraction- Marine Drive- a road
running parallel to the sea. 'he maestic monument is a must3visit at night- in its pristine glory against the
%ac,drop of the sea. It is visited %y millions of people across the world every year and is a very
significant figure in the lives of the people of Mum%ai- as the /ateway defines the grandeur of the city
that is a culmination of %oth- historic and modern cultural environment.
=ingee 9ort
/ingee in *uducherry is one of the finest forts in $outh India. Its origin dates %ac, to the F
th
century when
it was a stronghold of the +holas %ut the fort as it loo,s today is the handiwor, of the 2iaynagara ,ings
who made it an impregna%le citadel. 'he fortified city is %uilt on the seven hills- the most prominent of
which are Erishnagiri- +handragiri and @aagiri.
$urrounded %y high walls- it was so strategically planned as to ma,e enemies thin, twice %efore they
attac,ed. $trongly guarded %y a triple gate %eyond which lay equally heavily guarded courts- the summit
of the @aagiri could not have %een easily attained %y any of the enemies. 'oday- the summit can %e
reached after a two hour clim%- still a strenuous tas,- %ut well worth the effort.
A place of great historic interest- /ingee- no longer an unsurmounta%le citadel- is one of the most
interesting centres on the 'amil 6adu tourist circuit.
=olconda 9ort
India is a country with a deep manifested past. #er rich cultural heritage has ,ept everyone in a maze. All
the states in India have some or the other cultural history. If you ever chance to visit #ydera%ad- the
capital of Andhra *radesh- you can?t possi%ly miss out the ;>>3year3old maestic and imposing /olconda
(ort situated on the western outs,irts in the city. 'he fort was %uilt %y the Ea,atiya dynasty in the 8:
th

century.
+onsidered one of India?s most outstanding citadels- the /olconda fort epitomises the sumptuous ?6awa%i?
culture of the time. O$hepherd?s #illO or O/olla EondaO- as it was popularly ,nown in 'elugu- has an
interesting story %ehind it. Ane day- a shepherd %oy came across an idol on the roc,y hill- which was
called Mangalavaram. 'he news was conveyed to the ruling Ea,atiya ,ing. 'he ,ing got a mud fort
constructed around the holy spot and his descendents continued to follow this trend.
)ater- the /olconda fort came into the possession of the .ahmani dynasty. $till later- the Qutu% $hahi
dynasty too, over and made /olconda its capital. /olconda fort owes much of its present grandeur to
Mohammad Quli Qutu% $hah. 'he su%sequent generations saw /olconda %eing fortified further with
several additions and the formation of a %eautiful city within. .y the 8K
th
century- /olconda was famous
as a diamond mar,et. It gave the world some of the %est3,nown diamonds- including the ?Eohinoor?. 'he
meticulous details of the architecture and the fading gardens- which were once upon a time replete with
sprawling lawns and playing fountains has the power to transport you %ac, in time. 'he magnificent
architecture of the /olconda fort is as imposing as ever- and this is evident from the colossal gate at the
entrance studded with long iron spi,es- to deter invading armies from %attering it down. 'he gate leads to
the portico ,nown as the .alahisar gate- magnificent as the gate itself.
Ane can?t help- %ut %e amazed at the modern acoustic system- which was so designed that a handclap
sounded at the .alahisar gate of the fort could %e heard right up in the citadelL 'he %rilliant planning of
the architects is evident from the ventilation- which is so designed to let in %outs of fresh cool %reeze- a
respite from the scorching humid summer of Andhra *radeshL
Also worth having a loo, at is the royal 6agina /ardens- the %odyguards? %arrac,s- and the three water
tan,s- all of 89 metres deep- which once formed part of an intricate water system in the fort. 'he
crowning glory of the fort is the dur%ar hall- which stands atop a hill overloo,ing the twin cities of
#ydera%ad and $ecundera%ad. It is approached %y a thousand3step stairway- and if you can summon up
the energy to accomplish the clim%- you will %e rewarded with a great view of the cities %elow3 including
(on a clear day! the famous +harminar itself.
Autside the /olconda fort are two separate pavilions %uilt on a roc,y eminence called the 'aramathi /ana
Mandir and the *remathi 6ritya Mandir- where the legendary sisters 'aramathi and *remamathi lived.
'hey gave their performance on a circular dais atop a two3storied structure called the Eala Mandir- which
was visi%le from the ,ing?s dur%ar. 7fforts are on to revive the glory of the Eala Mandir- now in a
dilapidated condition- %y organizing the Deccan art festival annually. 'he %eautiful domed Qutu% $hahi
tom%s with Islamic architecture are situated close to the fort.
A new attraction at the fort is a sound and light show that %rings the legend of /olconda to life. 0ith a
spectacular interplay of audio and visual effects- the saga of /olconda unfolds over centuries of
splendour. 'he show is presented in 7nglish and 'elugu on alternate days of the wee,. 'he /olconda fort
still stands tall as a proud sentinel amidst the current day /olconda artillery of the Indian army- which has
sprung up today.
=olden %emple
$ri #armandir $ahi%- also ,nown as $ri Dar%ar $ahi% or /olden 'emple- (on account of its scenic %eauty
and golden coating!- situated in Amritsar (*una%!- is the most sacred temple for $i,hs. 'his temple
propagates $i,hism?s message of tolerance and acceptance through its architecture that has incorporated
sym%ols from other religions. 'he $i,hs all over the world- wish to visit $ri Amritsar and to pay
o%eisance at $ri #armandir $ahi% in their Ardas.
/uru Aran $ahi%- the (ifth 6ana,- conceived the idea of creating a central place of worship for the $i,hs
and he himself designed the architecture of $ri #armandir $ahi%. 7arlier- the plan to excavate the holy
tan, (Amritsar or Amrit $arovar! was chal,ed out %y /uru Amardas $ahi%- the 'hird 6ana,- %ut /uru
@amdas $ahi% executed it under the supervision of .a%a .udha i. 'he land for the site was acquired %y
the earlier /uru $ahi%s on payment or free of cost from the Ramindars (landlords! of native villages. 'he
plan to esta%lish a town settlement was also made. 'herefore- the construction wor, on the $arovar (the
tan,! and the town started simultaneously in 8<K>. 'he wor, on %oth the proects was completed in 8<KK
A.D.
/uru Aran $ahi% got its foundation laid %y a Muslim saint #azrat Mian Mir i of )ahore in Decem%er
8<DD. 'he construction wor, was supervised %y /uru Aran $ahi% himself and he was assisted %y the
prominent $i,h personalities li,e .a%a .udha i- .hai /urdas i- .hai $ahlo i and many other devoted
$i,hs.
Unli,e erecting the structure on the higher level- /uru Aran $ahi% got it %uilt on the lower level and got
it open from all four sides. 'hus- he created a sym%ol of new faith- $i,hism. /uru $ahi% made it
accessi%le to every person without any distinction %ased on caste- creed- sex and religion.
'he %uilding wor, was completed %y $eptem%er 8=>;. /uru Aran $ahi% installed newly created /uru
/ranth $ahi% (the holy %oo, of the $i,hs!- in $ri #armandir $ahi% and appointed .a%a .udha i as its
first /ranthi i.e. the reader of /uru /ranth $ahi%. After this event it attained the status of ?Ath $ath
'irath?- $i,h nation?s own 'irath.
$ri #armandir $ahi%- is %uilt on a =Kft. square platform in the centre of the $arovar (tan,!. 'he temple
itself is ;>.<ft. square. It has a door each on the 7ast- 0est- 6orth and $outh. 'he Darshani Deori (an
arch! stands at the shore end of the causeway. 'he doorframe of the arch is a%out 8>ft in height and Dft
=inches in %readth. 'he door panes are decorated in artistic style. It opens on to the causeway or %ridge
that leads to the main %uilding of $ri #armandir $ahi%. It is 9>9 feet in length and 98 feet in width.
'he %ridge is connected with the 8: feet wide ?*arda,shna? (circumam%ulatory path!. It runs around the
main shrine and it leads to the ?#ar ,i *aure? (steps of /od!. An the first floor of ?#ar ,i *aure?- there is
continuous reading of /uru /ranth $ahi%.
An the top stands the low fluted ?/um%az? (dome! having lotus petal motif in relief at the %ase and an
inverted lotus at the top- which supports the ?Ealash? having a %eautiful ?+hhatri? at the end.
Its architecture represents a unique harmony %etween the Muslim and the #indu way of construction
wor, and this is considered as one of the %est architectural specimens of the world. It is often quoted that
this architecture has created an independent $i,h school of architecture in the history of art in India. 'he
temple is a noted com%ination of stupendous %eauty and su%lime peacefulness. It can %e said that the
heart of $i,hism lies here.
=roup of -onuments at 3ampi
#ampi- the 8;
th
century capital of one of the greatest empires of medieval India called the 2iayanagar
7mpire- lies in the Deccan heartland- in the state of Earnata,a. 'he 8;
th
+entury ruins of #ampi lie
scattered in a%out 9= sq. ,m areas- amidst giant %oulders and vegetation. *rotected %y the tempestuous
river 'unga%hadra in the north and roc,y granite ridges on the other three sides- the ruins silently narrate
the story of grandeur- splendour and fa%ulous wealth. 'he splendid remains of palaces and gateways of
the %ro,en city tells a tale of man?s infinite talent and power of creativity together with his capacity for
senseless destruction.
'he monuments of 2iayanagar city- also ,nown as 2idyasagar in honour of the sage 2idyaranya was
%uilt %etween 8::=38<K> A.D.- from the times of #arihara3I to $adasiva @aya. A large num%er of royal
%uildings were raised %y Erishnadeva @aya (A.D. 8<>F3:>!- the greatest ruler of the dynasty.
'he period witnessed resurgence of #indu religion art- architecture in an unprecedented scale. 'emples of
#ampi are noted for their large dimensions- florid ornamentation- %old and delicate carvings- stately
pillars- magnificent pavilions and a great wealth of iconographic and traditional depictions- which include
su%ects from the @amayana and the Maha%harata.
'he 2itthala temple in #ampi is an excellent example of 2iayanagar style. 'he monolithic statues of
)a,shmi- 6arasimha and /anesha are noted for their massiveness and grace. 'he Erishna temple-
*atta%hirama temple- #azara @amachandra and +handrase,hara temple as also the 5ain temples- are other
examples. Maority of these temples in #ampi were provided with widespread %azaars flan,ed on either
side %y storied Mandapas.
Among secular edifices- mention may %e made of the Renana enclosure wherein a massive stone
%asement of the Queen?s palace and ornate pavilion called ?)otus3Mahal? are the only remnants of a
luxurious ?Antahpura?. 'he corner towers of arresting elevation- the Dhananaya,a?s enclosure (treasury!-
the Mahanavami Di%%a carrying %eautifully sculptured panels- a variety of ponds and tan,s- Mandapas-
the elephant?s sta%les and the row of pillared Mandapas are some of the important architectural remains of
#ampi.
@ecent excavations at the #ampi have %rought to light a large num%er of palatial complexes and
%asements of several platforms. Interesting finds include a large num%er of stone images- %eautiful terra
cotta o%ects and stucco figures that once em%ellished the palaces at #ampi.
In addition- many gold and copper coins- household utensils- a square stepped3tan, ($arovar! at the south3
west of Mahanavami Di%%a- and a large num%er of ceramics- including the important variety of porcelain
and inscri%ed .uddhist sculptures of 9
nd
3:
rd
century A.D. have also %een unearthed.
=:alior 9ort
(or over 8>> years this fort has %een over loo,ing the city of /walior. Ane of the most invinci%le forts in
India- this imposing citadel has changed many hands. It is %uilt on a hill of sandstone and towers 8>>
meters from the plain. 'he outer wall of the fort is almost 9 miles in length and the width varies from one
,m?s to 9>> meters. 'he walls of the fort gives way onto the steep slopes. 'his fort has %een a witness to
many %attles in the tur%ulent times as well as festivals in the peace time. 'he rulers have imparted ustice
from the fort which has seen the imprisonment of many. 'he ceremonies held in the fort have %een
spelled out grandeur %ut the 5auhars have screamed distress. It was here that 'atyia tope and @ani of
5hansi fought for their freedom. @ani of 5hansi laid down her life in an assault %y the .ritish to capture
the fort.
=roup of -onuments at 1attada(al
$ituated in the southern $tate of Earnata,a- *attada,al group of monuments are famous for their
harmonious %lend of architectural forms of northern and southern India. *attada,al- the capital of the
+halu,ya dynasty of medieval India- is 99 ,m away from .adami and <8; ,m from .angalore. 'his
famous world heritage site consists of a group of ten maor temples- each displaying interesting
architectural features.
.uilt in the K
th
and D
th
centuries- the *attada,al monument was famous for royal coronation called
?*attada,isuvolal?. 'emples constructed here mar, the %lending of the @e,ha 6agara *rasada and the
Dravida 2imana styles of temple %uilding. 'he oldest temple at *attada,al is the simple %ut massive
$angamesvara %uilt %y 2iayaditya $atyasraya (A.D. =FK3K::!.
'he Malli,aruna and the 2irupa,sha temples at *attada,al- were %uilt %y two queens of 2i,aramaditya
II- to commemorate the victory of the +halu,yas over the *allavas. 2irupa,sha temple- %uilt %y Queen
)o,amahadevi- was originally called )o,eshwara. 'his temple is %uilt in the southern Dravida style and
is the largest in the enclosure. It has a massive gateway and several inscriptions.
2irupa,sha temple also served as a model for the @ashtra,uta ruler to carve out the great Eailasa at
7llora. 'he sculptural art of the early +halu,yas is characterized %y grace and delicate details. 'he ceiling
panels of the navagrahas- di,palas- the dancing 6ataraa- the wall niches containing )ingod%hava-
Ardhanarisvara- 'ripurari- 2arahavishnu- 'rivi,rama %ear ample testimony to the sculptor?s s,ill as well
as the cult worship that was in vogue. 'he narrative relief?s illustrating certain episodes from the
@amayana- Maha%harata- .hagavata and *anchatantra fitted well with these grand religious edifices.
'he 5am%ulinga 'emple at *attada,al has a fine figure of the Dancing $hiva with 6andi (%ull! J *arvathi
%y his side. .uilt with a northern style tower- there is a horse3shoe arched proection on its facade.
'he +handrashe,hara and Eadasideeshwara are the other maor temples here- and *attada,al also has a
5aina %asadi of @ashtra,uta times with two %eautiful elephants in front.
=roup of -onuments at -aha2alipuram
Maha%alipuram is a temple town situated along the shores of the .ay of .engal a%out => ,ms from the
south Indian city of +hennai. 'here are several famous temples at Maha%alipuramG $hore 'emple and
?@atha? +ave 'emples are the most famous amongst them.
Shore %emple
'he $hore 'emples at Maha%alipuram- a coastal village <> ,m south of Madras- was %uilt in the K
th

century- during the reign of @aasimha- and they depict the final flowering of *allava art. 'hese temples
are refreshingly uncluttered- unli,e later grandiose Dravidian architecture and tower over the waves
%ehind a protective %rea,water. 'he temple with its %eautiful polygonal dome enshrines )ord 2ishnu and
$hiva. 'hese %eautiful temples- ravaged %y wind and sea have %een declared world heritage %y U67$+A.
E'athaE )ave %emple
'he magnificent ?@atha? cave temples of Maha%alipuram was %uilt %y the *allava ,ing 6arsimha in the K
th
and D
th
centuries. 'he %eauty of the roc,3cut sculpture of the temple is reflective of the artistic tastes of the
erstwhile *allava rulers. It is ,nown especially for its rathas (temples in the form of chariots!- mandapas
(cave sanctuaries!- giant open3air reliefs such as the famous ?Descent of the /anges?- and the temple of
@ivage- with thousands of sculptures to the glory of $hiva.
'here are eight rathas at Maha%alipuram- out of which five are named after the ?*andavas? (five %rothers!
of Maha%harata and one after Draupadi. 'he five rathas that can %e seen are Dharmaraa @atha- .hima
@atha- Aruna @atha- Draupadi @atha and 6a,ul $ahadev @atha. 'hey are constructed on the style of the
.uddhist viharas and chaityas. 'he unfinished three3storey Dharmaraa ratha is the largest. 'he Draupadi
ratha is the smallest- it is one3storeyed and has an interesting thatch3li,e roof. 'he Aruna and Draupadi
rathas are dedicated to $hiva and Durga respectively.
3a:a -ahal
5aipur?s signature %uilding- the #awa Mahal- a multi layered palace- was %uilt %y $awai *ratap $ingh
(grand son of $awai 5ai $ingh and son of $awai Madhoo $ingh! in 8KFF A.D. and Mr. )al +hand Usta
was the architect. (amous for it?s %eehive li,e structure- the #awa Mahal is an interplay of red and pin,
sand stone- carefully and painsta,ingly outlined with white %orders and motifs. 'his five storey %uilding-
which loo,s out over the main street of the old city- is a stunning example of @aput artistry- with its pin,
semi3octagonal and delicately honeycom%ed sandstone windows. It was originally %uilt to ena%le ladies
of the royal household- to watch the everyday life and processions of the city.
%he 3ill 1alace -useum, %hripunithura (<erala)
'he #ill *alace- the official residence of the Eochi royal family- is today the largest archaeological
museum in Eerala. .uilt in 8D=<- the palace complex consists of ;F %uildings in the traditional
architectural style of Eerala- sprawled over <9 acres of %eautifully landscaped terraced land which houses
a deer par, and facilities for horse riding. 6umerous species of flora including rare medicinal plants grow
here. An display in the full3fledged 7thno3archaeological museum are oil3paintings- murals- sculptures in
stone and manuscripts- inscriptions- coins- %elongings of the Eochi royal family and royal furniture
including the sinhasan (throne!.
Also exhi%ited are over 9>> antique pieces of pottery and ceramic vases from 5apan and +hina-
Euda,,allu (tom% stone!- 'hoppi,,allu (hood stone!- menhirs- granite- laterite memorials- roc, cut
weapons from the stone ages- wooden temple models- plaster cast models of o%ects from Mohanodaro
and #arappa of the Indus 2alley +ivilisation. 'he museum also houses a gallery of contemporary art.
India =ate
$ituated at the %an,s of Iamuna river- Delhi- the capital of India- is a vi%rant modern city with an ancient
and eventful history. 'he city with its multi3faceted culture can aptly said to %e a microcosm of the whole
nation. 2isit to the city offers a unique two3in3one experience as 6ew Delhi with its wide roads and high
rise %uildings gives a feel of %eing in a contemporary city whereas a stroll down the streets of Ald Delhi
can easily ta,e one to a %ygone era with its narrow lanes and old ?havelis?. Delhi has thousands of
historical monuments and places of religious importance.
India /ate- an important monument of the city- is a memorial %uilt in commemoration of more than
D>->>> Indian soldiers who were ,illed during 0orld 0ar I. 'he monument is an imposing ;9 meters high
arch and was designed %y the famous architect 7dwin )utyens. India gate was earlier named All India
0ar Memorial. 'he design of India gate is almost similar to its (rench counterpart war memorial- the Arc3
de3'riomphe.
'he %uilding is made of red stone that rises in stages into a huge moulding . An top of the arch- I6DIA is
written on %oth sides. 6ames of over K>->>> Indian soldiers are inscri%ed on the walls of the monument in
whose memory it is %uilt. 'here is a shallow domed %owl at the top- which was intended to %e filled with
%urning oil at special occasions.
At the %ase of the India gate there is another memorial- the Amar 5awan 5yoti that was added after
independence. 'his eternal flame was lighted in commemoration of the un,nown soldiers who laid their
lives to serve this nation.
'he lush green lawns- +hildren *ar, and the famous %oat clu% around the place ma,e it a perfect picnic
spot. +ool evening %reeze near the fountains of India gate attract hundreds of visitors daily. In the
evenings- India gate is illuminated with num%er of lights around it that gives it a magnificent appeal.
$tanding near the %ase of the monument one can have a good view of the @ashtrapati .hawan. 'he
%eautifully lit up monument provides a memora%le %ac,ground against the dar,ening s,y. 7ven in
daylight- the stretch %etween India /ate and the @ashtrapati .havan offers a splendid view.
7very year on 9=
th
5anuary India gate stands witness to the @epu%lic Day parade where latest
advancements of defence technology is displayed. 'he parade is also a good platform to have a glimpse at
the colourful and diverse cultural heritage of India as artists from all over the country perform on the
occasion.
?aisalmer 9ort
5aisalmer (ort was %uilt in 88<= and is the second oldest in the state of @aasthan. 'wo hundred and fifty
feet tall and reinforced %y an imposing crenellated sandstone wall :> feet high- the fort has FF %astion- F9
of which were %uilt %etween 8=:: and 8=;K. 0ells within the fort still provide a regular source of water.
'he fort- %uilt %y @awal 5aisal- which crowns the D>m high'ri,uta hill- has its outer wall of palaces-
houses and temples of soft yellow sandstone. It has narrow winding lanes and four huge gateways- the last
one leading to main chow, dominated %y the old palace of the Maharwal. Almost one quarter of the
town?s population resides inside the fort. It is approached through /anesh *ol- $ura *ol- .hoot *ol and
#awa *ol. Also- within it are many %eautiful havelies and a group of 5ain temples dating from the 89
th
to
the 8<
th
centuries.
?ama -as.id (0elhi)
5ama Masid (the mosque of (riday!- Delhi is the country?s largest and perhaps its most magnificent
mosque. It stands across the road from @ed (ort. 'he great mosque of Ald Delhi is the final architectural
extravagance of the Mughal 7mperor $hah 5ahan with a courtyard capa%le of holding 9<->>> devotees.
'he mosque measures =<m %y :<m- and its court forms a square of 8>>m. .uilt in 8=<=- it is an eloquent
reminder of the Mughal religious fervour. Its spacious courtyard holds thousands of the faithful who offer
their prayers here.
It?s also ,nown as ?Masid3i35ahanuma? or ?Mosque commanding view of the world?. It was designed as
7mperor $hahahan?s principal mosque. A sprawling esplanade separates it from the main road.
$ituated in the ancient town of Ald Delhi- this monument was %uilt %y five thousand artisans. 'his
magnificent structure stands on the .ho 5hala- one of the two hills of the old Mughal capital city of
$hahahana%ad. An the east- this monument faces the )al Quila (@ed (ort! and has three gateways- four
towers and two minarets. It is constructed of alternating vertical strips of red sandstone and white mar%le.
In the three domes white mar%le has %een used extensively and they have %een inlaid with stripes of
%lac,.
'he structure was placed on a high platform so that its magnificent facade would %e visi%le from all the
adoining areas. .road flights of steps lead up to the imposing gateways in the north and the south. 0ide
staircases and arched gateways are the hallmar, of this popular mosque. 'he main eastern entrance-
pro%a%ly used %y the emperors- remains closed on wee,days. 'he main prayer hall on the west side is
adorned %y a series of high cusped arches- standing on 9=> pillars which support a%out 8< mar%le domes
at various elevations. 0orshippers use this hall on most days %ut on (ridays and other holy days. 'he
premises of the south minaret are 8>K=3sq3ft wide where 9<->>> devotees at a time may sit together for
namaaz (prayer!.
It is said that 7mperor $hahahan %uilt 5ama Masid at the cost of @s. 8> crore and it can %e called as the
replica of Moti Masid in Agra. It com%ines the %est of #indu and Muslim styles of architecture.
A whole way of life- a microcosm of quintessential India resides in the shadow of this age3old monument-
on its steps- in the narrow streets- narrating a tale of India?s rich cultural heritage.
?antar -antar, 0elhi
At first sight- the 5antar Mantar appears li,e a gallery of modern art. It is- however- an o%servatory. $awai
5ia $ingh II of 5aipur (8=FF38K;:!- a ,een astronomer and a no%le in the Mughal court- was dissatisfied
%y the errors of %rass and metal astronomical instruments.
Under patronage from the emperor- he set on himself the tas, of correcting the existing astronomical
ta%les and updating the almanac with more relia%le instruments. Delhi?s 5antar Mantar is the first of the
five o%servatories that he %uilt with large masonry instruments.
'he o%servatory has the $amrat Iantra- a simple equal hour sun dial- the @am yantra for reading
altitudinal anglesG 5ai *ra,ash for ascertaining the position of the sun and other celestial %odies- and the
Misra Iantra which is a com%ination of four scientific gadgets.
<ama(hya %emple
'he Eama,hya 'emple- which is situated high aloft a hill called 6eelachal *ar%at or Eamagiri in the city
of /uwahati is one of its several religious landmar,s- which spea,s volumes a%out the rich historical
treasure over which the state of Assam is seated. 'his sacred temple in the heart of the capital city of
Assam holds more than it meets the eye of the onloo,er. 'he Eama,hya 'emple had %een %uilt in
reverence to /oddess Eama,hya or $ati- who was one of the numerous incarnations of /oddess Durga or
/oddess $ha,ti.
'he temple is situated a few ,ilometers away from the /uwahati @ailway $tation- and is open for visitors
throughout the year. 'here is a legend attached to the history of the temple- which goes way %ac, to the
mythological age. According to the legend- $ati the wife of )ord $hiva (one of the holy 'rinities in #indu
mythology! too, her life at a ?Iagna? ceremony that had %een organized %y her father Da,sha- %ecause she
could not %ear the insults hurled at her hus%and %y her father. An hearing the news of his wife?s death-
$hiva- the destroyer of all that was evil flew into a rage and punished Da,sha %y replacing his head with
that of a goat. 'orn %etween misery and %lind fury- $hiva pic,ed up the corpse of his %eloved wife $ati
and performed a dance of destruction called the ?'andava?. 'he intensity of the destroyer?s fury was so
overwhelming that it too, several /ods to pacify his anger. In the midst of this struggle- $ati?s corpse
accidentally got cut into <8 parts %y the disc in the hands of )ord 2ishnu (also one of the 'rinities in
#indu mythology!- and her female genitalia or ?Ioni? fell on the spot where the Eama,hya temple stands
today- forming one of the many $ha,ti ?*eethas? em%ellishing the rest of her %ody parts.
Eing 6ara 6arayana of +ooch .ehar re%uilt the temple in 8==< after it had suffered destruction at the
hands of foreign invaders. 'he temple consists of seven oval spires- each topped %y three golden pitchers-
and the entrance spirals down to a curvy path of some distance- which specially lin,s the main road to the
temple. $ome of the sculptured panels of the temple carry depictions of /ods and /oddesses of #indu
pantheon carved in a delightful pattern. 'ortoises- mon,eys- and large num%er of pigeons have made the
temple their home- and loiter around the premise- %eing fed %y the temple authorities and the visitors. 'he
cryptic- as well as the peaceful am%ience of the temple com%ine together to soothe the nerves of visitors-
and ta,e their minds to flights of inner salvation- and this is the very reason that people come here for.
0ith all its enigmatic splendour and picturesque locale- the Eama,hya 'emple is one of the most
astounding structures- not only in Assam- %ut also in the whole of India.
<ashi >ish:anath %emple, >aranasi
2aranasi- also ,nown as .enaras and Eashi- is a maor city in the north Indian state of Uttar *radesh.
$ituated on the %an,s of the holy river /anga- the city has great religious significance for the #indus.
2aranasi is home to Eashi 2ishwanath 'emple- which is dedicated to )ord $hiva. It enshrines one of the
twelve 5yotirlingams of $hiva. It is said that this temple was re%uilt several times. 'he latest structure
standing here dates %ac, to the 8D
th
century. 'housands of *ilgrims converge here to perform an
a%hishe,am to the sacred 5yotirlingam- with water from the /anga.
.eside its religious significance- the temple is also an architectural marvel. 'he magnificent edifice offers
a %reathta,ing view to the onloo,er. It is said that once )ord $hiva came in the dream of @ani Ahalya .ai
#ol,ar of Indore. $he- %eing a devotee of )ord $hiva- got the current temple %uilt in 8KKK.
2ishwanath Ehanda- also referred to as the Ald +ity is located at the heart of 2aranasi- %etween
Dashashwamedha /hat and /odaulia to the south and west and Mani,arni,a /hat on the river to the
north. 'he whole area rewards exploration- with numerous shrines and lingams tuc,ed into every corner-
and is %uzzing with the activity of pilgrims- pandas and stalls selling offerings to the devotees.
Approached through a maze of narrow alleys and the 2ishwanath /ali (or )ane!- the temple complex of
2ishwanath or 2isheshwara- the O)ord of AllO- is popularly ,nown as the /olden 'emple- due to the
massive gold plating on its shi,hara (spire!. Inside the compound- which is hidden %ehind a wall- and
entered through an unassuming doorway- is one of India?s most important shivalingams- made of smooth
%lac, stone and seated in a solid silver plinth. 'he shrines of the wrathful protectors Maha,ala and
Dandapani- and the lingam of Avimu,teshvara are also situated within the temple complex.
*ilgrims offer their san,alpa or statement of intent here- %efore commencing the *anchatirthi Iatra.
$lightly north- across the main road- the thirteenth3century @azia?s Mosque stands atop the ruins of a still
earlier 2ishwanatha temple.
2aranasi is said to %e the point at which the first yotirlinga- the fiery pillar of light %y which $hiva
manifested his supremacy over other gods- %ro,e through the earth?s crust and flared towards the heavens.
More than the /hats and even the /anga- the $hivalinga installed in the temple remain the devotional
focus of 2aranasi.
<ye -onastery
Eye Monastery is situated 89 ,ms. north of Eaza and serves the western population of $piti in the )ahaul
J $piti District of #imachal *radesh. It is the oldest and %iggest monastery of the valley and located at
(;88= m! a%ove Eye village. It houses %eautiful scriptures and paintings of .udha and other goddesses.
)amas practice dance- sing and play on pipes and horns. Many )amas get religious training here. It has
murals and %oo,s of high aesthetic value. 'his monastery is an outstanding example of the monastic
architecture- which developed during the 8;
th
century in the wa,e of the +hinese influence. 'he Mongols
plundered the monastery in the middle of the 8K
th
century. In the 8F
th
century- it again suffered three %rutal
attac,s. 'he successive trails of destruction and patch3up o%s have resulted in a haphazard growth of
%ox3li,e structures- and the complex now resem%les a defensive fort.
3umayunEs %om2
#umayun?s tom% in the capital Delhi is a fine specimen of the great Mughal architecture. .uilt in 8<K>-
the tom% is of particular cultural significance as it was the first garden3tom% on the Indian su%continent.
Its unique %eauty is said to have inspired several maor architectural innovations- culminating in the
construction of the unparalleled 'a Mahal. In many ways- this magnificent red and white sandstone
%uilding is as spectacular as the famous ?monument to love? in Agra. 'his historic monument was erected
%y #umayun?s queen #amida .anu .egam (#ai .egam! at a cost of a%out 8.< million. It is %elieved that
she designed the tom%.
'he splendour of this monument %ecomes evident on entering the grandiose dou%le3storeyed gateway.
#igh ru%%le walls enclose a square garden divided into four large squares separated %y causeways and
water channels. 7ach square is divided again into smaller squares %y pathways- forming a typical Mughal
garden called +har%agh. 'he fountains were wor,ed with simple yet highly developed engineering s,ills
quite common in India during this period. 'he last Mughal emperor- .ahadur $hah Rafar II had ta,en
refuge in this tom% during the first 0ar of Independence in 8D<K. $everal rulers of the Mughal dynasty lie
%uried here. #umayun?s wife is %uried here too.
'he main sarcophagus stands in the central hall- oriented 3 in accordance with Muslim practice 3 on the
north3south axis. 'raditionally- the %ody is placed with the head to the north- the face turned sideways
towards Mecca. 'he dome is what is called a full dome- a complete semi3circle which is a special feature
of Mughal architecture. 'he structure is %uilt with red sandstone- %ut white and %lac, mar%le has %een
used in the %orders. U67$+A has declared this magnificent masterpiece a world heritage.
<ha.uraho =roup of -onuments
Ehauraho- the ancient Eharuravaha,a- is located in the $tate of Madhya *radesh and was the principal
seat of authority of the +handella rulers who adorned it with numerous tan,s- scores of lofty temples of
sculptural grace and architectural splendour.
Iasovarman (A.D. F<;! %uilt the temple of 2ishnu- which is now famous as )a,shmana temple- and is an
ornate and evolved example of its time proclaiming the prestige of the +handellas.
'emples of Ehauraho are world famous for their architectural art and have %een declared world heritage
%y U67$+A. 'he 2isvanatha- *arsvanatha and 2aidyanatha 'emples %elong to the time of ,ing Dhanga-
the successor of Iasovarman. 'he 5agadam%i- +hitragupta- are noteworthy among the western group of
royal temples of Ehauraho. 'he largest and grandest temple of Ehauraho is the immortal Eandariya
Mahadeva- which is attri%uted to ,ing /anda (A.D. 8>8K39F!. 'he other examples that followed viz.-
2amana- Adinatha- 5avari- +hatur%hu and Duladeo- are smaller %ut ela%orately designed. 'he Ehauraho
group of temples is noted for lofty terraces (agati! and functionally effective plans. 'he sculptural
em%ellishments include- %esides the cult imagesG parivara- parsva- avarana devatas- di,palas- the
apsarases and sura3sundaris- which win universal admiration for their delicate- youthful female forms of
ravishing %eauty. 'he attire and ornamentation em%race the winsome grace and charm.
-aha2odhi %emple )omple& at Bodh =aya
'he Maha%odhi 'emple +omplex in .odh /aya is located in the central part of the state of .ihar- in the
northeastern part of India. It is the part of the great /anges plains. 'he Maha%odhi 'emple is located at
the place of )ord .uddha?s enlightenment. .ihar is one of the four holy sites related to the life of the )ord
.uddha- and particularly to the attainment of 7nlightenment.
'he first temple was %uilt %y 7mperor Asho,a in the :
rd
century ..+.- and the present temple dates from
the <
th
or =
th
centuries. It is one of the earliest .uddhist temples %uilt entirely with %ric,- still standing in
India- from the late /upta period. 'he site of the Maha%odhi 'emple provides exceptional records of the
events associated with the life of .uddha and su%sequent worship- particularly since 7mperor Asho,a
%uilt the first temple- the %alustrades- and the memorial column. 'he sculpted stone %alustrades are an
outstanding early example of sculptural relics in stone.
-eena(shi %emple, -adurai
'he ancient city of Madurai- more than 9-<>> years old- was %uilt %y the *andyan ,ing- Eulashe,arar- in
the =
th
century ..+. .ut the reign of the 6aya,s mar,s the golden period of Madurai when art-
architecture and learning flourished expansively. 'he most %eautiful %uildings in the city including its
most famous landmar,- the Meena,shi temple- were %uilt during the 6aya, rule.
)ocated in the heart of the city of Madurai- the Meena,shi3$undareshwarar temple is dedicated to
goddess Meena,shi- the consort of lord $hiva. It has long %een the focus of %oth Indian and international
tourist attraction as well as one of the most important places of #indu pilgrimage. (or the people of
Madurai- the temple is the very center of their cultural and religious life.
It is said that the people of the city wa,e up- not %y the call of nature %ut %y the chant of hymns at the
temple. All the maor festivals of 'amil 6adu are cele%rated here with gaiety- most important %eing the
+hitrai festival that is held in April"May- when the celestial marriage of Meena,shi and $undareshwarar is
cele%rated- drawing a huge crowd of people from all over the state.
'he sculpted pillars are adorned with the exquisite murals that cele%rate the ethereal %eauty of princess
Meena,shi and the scenes of her wedding with )ord $hiva. At the $undareswarar temple across the
courtyard- )ord $hiva is represented as a lingam. 'he pillars depict scenes from the wedding of
Meena,shi and $undareswarar. 'here are FD< richly carved pillars here and each one surpasses the other
in %eauty.
-ehrangarh 9ort
Mehrangarh fort is a%out <,m from 5odhpur 'own in @aasthan. /uarding the city %elow- crowning a
perpendicular cliff- the fort was founded %y @ao 5odha in 8;<F A.D. when he shifted his capital from
Mandore.
$tanding sentinel to the city %elow- it over loo,s the rugged and roc,y terrain and houses a palace
intricately adorned with long carved panels and latticed windows exquisitely wrought from red sandstone.
'he apartments within- have their own magic 3 the Moti mahal (*earl *alace!- *hool Mahal ((lower
*alace!- $heesh Mahal (Mirror *alace!- $ileh Ehana and Daulat Ehana with a rich varied collection of
palanquins- howdas- royal cradles- miniature paintings of various schools- fol, music- instruments-
costumes- furniture and an impressive armoury.
'he display of cannons on the ramparts near +hamunda temple is among the rarest in India. As one
clim%s up- fol, musicians revive the grandeur of a %ygone era.
%he -ysore 1alace
Mysore is one of the maor cities in the $outh Indian state of Earnata,a. 'ill independence it was the
capital city of 0odeyars- the erstwhile Maharaas of Mysore. At a distance of 8;> ,ms from .angalore-
Mysore has always enchanted tourists and visitors with its magnificent palaces- %eautiful gardens and rich
cultural heritage. 'he city is famous for its sil, and is also a thriving sandalwood and incense center.
'oday- Mysore has %ecome a maor tourist destination %ecause of its convenient size and good climate-
moreover the city has chosen to retain and promote its heritage rather than replace it.
'he Mysore *alace- once the residence of the 0odeyars- is one of the largest palaces of its ,ind in India-
and one of the most splendid. .uilt in Indo3$aracenic style with domes- turrets- arches and colonnades-
the *alace is often compared with the .uc,ingham *alace of .ritain %ecause of its grandeur. #enry Irwin-
the .ritish consultant architect of Madras state- designed it. 'he palace was %uilt %y the twenty3fourth
0odeyar @aa in 8F89 on the site of the old wooden palace that was gutted in the year 8DFK.
'he palace has now %een converted into a museum- which treasures the souvenirs- paintings- ewellery-
royal costumes and other items- which were once possessed %y the 0odeyars. It is said that the palace
displays the largest collection of gold items- quantity wise.
'he /olden @oyal 7lephant 'hrone- the Dur%ar #all- and the Ealyan Mandap (wedding hall! are the main
attractions here. 'he entry to the palace is through a %eautiful gallery featuring Indian and 7uropean
sculpture and ceremonial o%ects. #alfway along is the 7lephant /ate- which is the main entrance to the
center of the palace. 'he gate is decorated with floriated designs- and %ears the Mysore royal sym%ol of a
dou%le3headed eagle. 'o the north of the gate the @oyal 7lephant 'hrone is displayed which is
em%ellished with D; ,ilogram of 9;3carat gold.
0alls leading to the Ealyan Mandap are lined with intricate oil paintings- illustrating the royal procession
of the Mysore Dussehra (estival. A unique thing a%out these paintings is that seen from any direction- the
procession seems to %e coming in one?s own direction. 'he hall itself is magnificent and is decorated with
huge chandeliers- and multicoloured stain glass arranged in peacoc, designs. 'he historic Dur%ar #all of
the palace has an ornate ceiling and sculpted pillars which are said to have %een painted with gold. It is
also a treasure house of rare paintings %y some cele%rated artists. 'his hall- which is up the stairs- offers
wonderful view of the +hamundi #ills that towers over the city and houses a temple dedicated to the
/oddess +hamundeshwari- the royal family?s patron deity.
'he palace loo,s even more grand and %eautiful on $unday evenings and on festivals when it is
illuminated with thousands of light %ul%s.
%a. -ahal is $heer poetry in mar%le. Maesty and magnificence- unrivalled- the 'a Mahal is the only one
of its ,ind across the world. 'he monumental la%our of love of a great ruler for his %eloved queen. 'he
ultimate realisation of 7mperor $hahahan?s dream. Ane of the wonders of the world. (rom 8=:8 A.D.- it
too, 99 years in its ma,ing. An estimated 9>->>> people wor,ed to complete the enchanting mausoleum-
on the %an,s of the Iamuna. (or a %reathta,ing %eautiful view of the 'a Mahal- one has to see it %y
moonlight
'he construction of this mar%le masterpiece is credited to the Mughal emperor $hah 5ahan who erected
this mausoleum in memory of his %eloved wife- Arumand .ano .egum- popularly ,nown as Mumtaz
Mahal- who died in A.#. 8>;> (A.D. 8=:>!. #er last wish to her hus%and was Oto %uild a tom% in her
memory such as the world had never seen %eforeO. 'hus emperor $hah 5ahan set a%out %uilding this
fairytale li,e marvel. 'he construction of 'a Mahal was started in A.D. 8=:9 and completed at the end of
8=;D A.D. (or seventeen years- twenty thousand wor,men are said to %e employed on it daily- for their
accommodation a small town- named after the deceased empress3?Mumtaza%ad- now ,nown as 'a /an-
was %uilt adacent to it.
Amanat Ehan $hirazi was the calligrapher of 'a Mahal- his name occurs at the end of an inscription on
one of the gates of the 'a. *oet /hyasuddin had designed the verses on the tom%stone- while Ismail Ehan
Afridi of 'ur,ey was the dome ma,er. Muhammad #anif was the superintendent of Masons. 'he designer
of 'a Mahal was Ustad Ahmad )ahauri. 'he material was %rought in from all over India and central Asia
and it too, a fleet of 8>>> elephants to transport it to the site. 'he central dome is 8DK feet high at the
centre. @ed sandstone was %rought from (atehpur $i,ri- 5asper from *una%- 5ade and +rystal from +hina-
'urquoise from 'i%et- )apis )azuli and $apphire from $ri )an,a- +oal and +ornelian from Ara%ia and
diamonds from *anna. In all 9D ,ind of rare- semi precious and precious stones were used for inlay wor,
in the 'a Mahal. 'he chief %uilding material- the white mar%le was %rought from the quarries of
Ma,rana- in district 6agaur- @aasthan.
'o the left of the 'a is a mosque made of red sandstone. It is common in Islam to %uild a mosque next to
a tom%- as it sanctifies the area and provides for a place for worship. 'his mosque is still used for (riday
prayers.
An identical mosque is also %uilt to the right of the 'a and is ,nown as the 5awa% (answer!. *rayers are
not held here as it faces west i.e. away from Mecca- the holy city of the Muslims. It was %uilt to maintain
symmetry.
%he 4&terior
'he 'a itself stands in a raised platform. 'he four minarets at each corner of the plinth provide a perfect
%alance to the tom%. 'he minarets measure ;8.= m high and each has a deli%erate slant outwards so that in
an unli,ely event of an earthqua,e- they would not fall on the tom% %ut away from it. 'he %ul%ous dome
of the 'a Mahal rests on an extraordinarily high drum and rises to a total height of ;;.;8 mt. 'here is
only one point of access to the plinth and tom%- a dou%le staircase facing the entrance.
Interior of the %a.
'he interior of the mausoleum comprises a lofty central cham%er- a crypt immediately %elow this and four
octagonal corner rooms originally intended to house the graves of other royal family mem%ers.
In the centre are the cenotaphs of $hah 5ahan and Mumtaz Mahal. $hah 5ahan?s cenotaph is to the left and
is higher than that of his %eloved which rests immediately %elow the dome. 'he cenotaph of Mumtaz
Mahal stands in the centre of the mar%le screen- it has inscri%ed on it in *ersian with texts from the
Eoran. 'he cenotaph has the single epitaph inscri%ed on it 3 OMarqad Munavvar Arumand .an .egum
Mu,hati% %ah Mumtaz Mahal 'anifiyat ferr sanh 8>;> #iriO (#ere lies Arumand .ano .egum called
Mumtaz Mahal who died in 8>;> A.#. or 8=:> A.D.!.
'he cenotaph of $hah 5ahan is inscri%ed in *ersian 3 OMarqad Mutahar Aali #azrat (irdaus Ashiyani
$ahi%3qiran $aani $aani $hah 5ahan .adshah taa% surah sanh 8>K= #iriO ('he sacred sepulchre of his
most exalted Maesty- dweller of *aradise- the second lord of constellations- the ,ing $hah 5ahan- may his
mausoleum ever flourish- 8>K= A.#. (8=== A.D.!. A%ove the tom%s is a +airene lamp- the flame of which
is supposed to never %urn out. Mar%le screen of trelliswor, surrounds the graves. .oth tom%s are
exquisitely inlaid with semi precious stones. 'he acoustics of the %uilding are super% with the domed
ceiling %eing designed to echo chants from Eoran and musician?s melodies. It is suggested that one wal,
around the outside of the tom%- %efore retrieving your shoes- to appreciate it from all sides.