In the Classroom

366 Journal of Chemical Education Vol. 76 No. 3 March 1999 JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu

The Ubiquitous Metaphors of Chemistry Teaching
Herbert Beall*
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA 01609-2280
Metaphor appears in essentially all forms of written and
verbal communication including literature and science, and
it serves quite different purposes in different applications. The
question of the suitability of using metaphor for teaching sci-
ence has been considered, and strongly differing points of
view have been taken. However, metaphor is much more
common in teaching chemistry than might be imagined.
Therefore, there is a need to examine the ways in which meta-
phor is used in chemistry teaching, and it is appropriate to
question the effectiveness of metaphor as a teaching tool. To
see how metaphor works I will begin by examining its range
of uses before discussing its specific relevance to chemistry.
The M eta phor in Genera l Use
Metaphors are commonly used in literature and in the
teaching of science, but for very different purposes. In literature
they create desired poetic effectsby evoking new or discordant
feelings about a subject. In science teaching, particularly in
chemistry, metaphors are used to help transfer knowledge
about something that is abstract or unfamiliar by taking
advantage of the knowledge and experience that the learner
already hasacquired (1). I will consider briefly how metaphor
works in literature as a basis for considering how it works in
the teaching of chemistry.
Metaphor is often discussed along with analogy, simile,
and allegory. An analogy is a statement that two things bear
the same relationship to each other (2). In general terms, a
metaphor is a statement that two things are the same when
in fact they are not, a simile is a statement that one thing is
likeanother, and an allegory is an extended metaphor.
An example of a metaphor is,
Theyellow smokethat rubsitsmuzzleon thewindowpanes,
Licked its tongue into the corners of the evening.
T. S. ELIOT (3)
This metaphor implies that the yellow smoke is an
animal, presumably, a dog. Note that in this metaphor the
connection between the dog and the smoke is not stated
specifically, and the reader isleft to complete the connection.
This is the common situation when metaphor is used.
A simile states that two things are alike; for example,
My luve islike a red, red rose thatsnewly sprung in June.
R. BURNS (4)
Since the metaphor implies that one thing is another
thing, it would appear to suggest a closer link than a simile,
provided the reader makes the connection. A simile says that
one subject has similarities to another, not it is the same.
An example of an allegory or extended metaphor is a
narrative such asAnimal Farm(5), in which the animalson the
farm are actually people living in a totalitarian state. Metaphors
or similes are used frequently for teaching science, whereas
the extended nature of the allegory makes it less appropriate
in this setting.
Every metaphor or simile has a topicand a vehicle(6),
and the topic is explained by likening the vehicle to it. Thus
smoke is the topic and a dog is the vehicle in the metaphor
example above. Smoke and dogs, of course, actually have very
little in common and the incompatibilities between the topic
and the vehicle are known as tension (6). The tension is less
in a simile than in a metaphor, since the simile says only that
the topic and vehicle are alike. However, the metaphor and
simile can be considered to be only slightly different forms
of the same thing (7).
The variousattributesof the vehicle are called entailments,
and the utility of a metaphor in teaching can be measured in
terms of how many of these entailments are appropriate to
the topic (8). In the example where the smoke is the topic
and a dog is the vehicle, the entailments of being able to
rub against windowpanes and lick into corners fit the topic
reasonably well. However, other entailments of the vehicle
such as barking and chasing cars do not fit the topic and
would, in fact, confuse a person given this metaphor for
learning about smoke for the first time. For those of us
familiar with the topic, the lack of accuracy of some of the
entailments is taken for granted, since without this tension
the topic and the vehicle would be indistinguishable, and the
statement would be uninteresting. In fact, the inappropriateness
of some of the entailments enhances the overall poetic effect
of the piece. In the simile given above, Burns leaves it to the
reader to decide if the thorniness and ephemeral nature of
the rose are entailments that fit the topic or not. While suit-
able for poetry, inappropriate entailments in a metaphor used
for the transfer of knowledge are normally not useful and
can lead to confusion or mistaken ideas.
M eta phors a nd Tea ching
There is a very distinct difference between using a meta-
phor for poetic effect and using it for transferring knowledge
and understanding. Eliots metaphor of the smoke rubbing
and licking like a dog gives us a wonderful poetical feeling,
but doesnt really teach usanything about smoke because most
of the entailments do not apply to smoke. The high degree
of tension in the use of this metaphor improves it as a poetic
device, since the poet is showing the reader how to see the
world with a sharper eye. But as an educational metaphor it
would fail, since the high degree of tension greatly limits the
amount of knowledge that can be transferred.
*Email: hbeall@wpi.wpi.edu.
In the Classroom
JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu Vol. 76 No. 3 March 1999 Journal of Chemical Education 367
Whether or not metaphor actually does help in the trans-
fer of knowledge is a matter of debate, and views of pro (9),
con (10), and sometimes (11) have all been expressed. A
study on ninth and tenth grade biology students (12) showed
no significant difference in performance between students
taught with heavy use of analogies, metaphors, and similes
and those taught more traditionally, except that those taught
with analogies etc. incorporated such forms in their own
written descriptions more frequently.
A metaphor can be taken too literally and have more of
its entailments accepted than should be. A classic case of this
is the solar system metaphor used to describe the Bohr model
of the atom, which was first presented in 1913 (13). This
model of relatively tiny spheres revolving in circular orbits
about a massive central object connected the cosmic with the
atomic in a manner that for many has been too seductive to
be resisted. Although the Bohr model never agreed with ob-
served data for systems with more than one electron and was
replaced in 12 years with the very different quantum me-
chanical model, this metaphor has lived on for more than
80 years, is an internationally recognized symbol of radioac-
tivity and, for many, is the premier emblem of the mysteri-
ous world of science.
For a metaphor to be effective as an instructional tool,
it is essential that the vehicle and its entailments be familiar
to the student and understood correctly by him or her. Thus
the use of metaphor in teaching implies a constructivist view-
point (14) where previously gained knowledge provides the
base upon which new knowledge is built, and it is essential
that the previously gained knowledge is sound.
M eta phors in Chemistr y Tea ching
Chemistry is a subject where what is happening at the
microscopic levelatoms, molecules, etc.isinferred, and is
often explained at the everyday level of thingswe can picture.
This would appear to be a fertile field for the use of meta-
phors, although there is clearly a problem, since the behav-
ior of matter on the microscopic level, where the uncertainty
principle and waveparticle duality are important, introduces
complications not encountered in the macroscopic world.
Concepts in biochemistry are very commonly under-
stood using language as a metaphor. For example, a letter is
the metaphor for a single amino acid residue in a protein; a
word corresponds to the secondary protein structure; and so
on, up to a complete book, which corresponds to the entire
cell. This metaphor is so attractive that it colors thinking
about these subjectsand if carried too far can lead to erroneous
impressions (15).
We recognize that metaphors are used to help students
learn some of the many microscopic concepts of chemistry
that they often find difficult. In order that most of the students
can use the metaphor for learning, we try to choose ones that
arerelatively familiar and commonplace. In chemical metaphors,
as in the literary example given above, we usually infer the
actual nature of the vehicle. But here isa very direct metaphor
based on a common statement used to teach chemistry, and
we can analyze it in terms of topic, vehicle, entailments, and
tension.
STATEMENT: An electron cloud surrounds the nucleus
of an atom. (The metaphor very clearly states that the
electrons make up a cloud.)
TOPIC: The electron distribution in an atom
VEHICLE: A cloud in the sky
ENTAILMENTS:
1. A cloud is diffuse and spread out thinly.
2. A cloud ishazy, with boundariesthat are not well
defined.
3. A cloud is usually white but is sometimes black.
4. A cloud drifts with the wind.
5. A cloud can produce rain or snow.
TENSION: 35. The distribution of electronsdoesnot have
a color; it is not subject to macroscopic outside forces
such as wind; it cannot condense. (Entailments 1 and 2
do provide an appropriate image of an orbital.)
The number of metaphors with directly stated vehicles
such as the one above is quite limited in chemistry teaching
as in other areas.
There are certain metaphors or metaphorical models
(16) that are easily recognized in chemistry teaching. These
include the ball-and-spring model to describe molecular
structure, and a tiny bar magnet to describe the magnetic
properties of a nucleus or an electron. But there are many
metaphors that we use in our teaching almost unconsciously
and without considering how these will be taken by the
students. We should evaluate whether the students will sort
out the appropriate metaphorical entailments from those that
produce tensions. An example of a metaphor in which the
vehicle is not directly stated is,
STATEMENT: Heat flowsfrom a hotter object to a colder one.
TOPIC: Heat
VEHICLE: A fluid
In this metaphor we do not directly say that heat is a
fluid. However, we use the word flow, and thisisa concept
that the students have never encountered, except involving
fluids, until taking up the study of heat. This metaphor is
probably rooted in the earlier notion that heat (or caloric)
was, in fact, a material fluid.
ENTAILMENTS:
1. A fluid can move freely and smoothly from place
to place.
2. A flui d moves from a hi gher si tuati on to a
lower one.
3. A fluid isa substancethat hasmassand occupies
volume.
4. A fluid can be collected in a suitable container
until the container is full.
5. The movement of a fluid out of a container can
be stopped completely as by turning a valve.
TENSION: 35. Heat is not a substance and has neither
massnor volume; heat cannot be collected, since it isonly
energy in transition; the movement of heat can never be
completely stopped in the sense that it is possible to stop
the flow of water.
We should be concerned about whether the tension
involved in this metaphor inhibits students understanding
of heat.
Here are a number of examples of common statements
in chemistry education and their implied metaphors, which
can be considered in terms of entailments, tension, and
In the Classroom
368 Journal of Chemical Education Vol. 76 No. 3 March 1999 JChemEd.chem.wisc.edu
effectiveness.:
STATEMENT: Gasmoleculesbounce off each other and the
walls of their container.
METAPHOR: Gas molecules are round balls.
STATEMENT: A chemical reaction isdepicted by an equation.
METAPHOR: A reaction is a mathematical equality.
STATEMENT: The reaction is reversible.
METAPHOR: The reaction is a vehicle.
STATEMENT: Metals have structures of closest-packed
spheres.
METAPHOR: Metal atoms are hard spheres.
STATEMENT: The electron can spin around its axis in
either direction.
METAPHOR: The electron is a top.
STATEMENT: A leadacid battery is capable of storage.
METAPHOR: A leadacid battery is a container.
STATEMENT: The activation energy is a barrier to the
change of reactants into products.
METAPHOR: Activation energy is a roadblock.
STATEMENT: A radioactive nucleus decays to the nucleus
of another atom.
METAPHOR: The nucleus is a dead plant or animal.
STATEMENT: Le Chteliers principle describes the effect
of stress on a process.
METAPHOR: A process is a physical object that can be
subjected to a force.
In summary, (i) the metaphor is considered to be a
powerful language tool, (ii) there is a risk of confusion in
the use of a metaphor for teaching if it is taken too literally,
and (iii) common expressions used in chemistry teaching
employ far more metaphors than we might expect. We should
remain conscious of our use of metaphors and consider how
they will be interpreted by our students.
Litera ture Cited
1. Ortony, A. In Metaphor and Thought; Ortony, A., Ed.; Cambridge
University Press: Cambridge, 1979; pp 1-16.
2. Sternberg, R.; Rifkin, B. J. Exp. Child Psychol. 1979, 27, 195
232.
3. Eliot, T. S. TheLoveSongof J. Alfred Prufrock (1917); I n Col-
lected Poems; Harcourt, Brace and World: New York, 1930.
4. Burns, R. MyLuveisLikea Red, Red Rose(1796); In Lifeand
Worksof Robert Burns; Chalmers, R., Ed.; W. and R. Chalmers:
Edinburgh and London, 1856.
5. Orwell, G. Animal Farm; New American Library: New York,
1946.
6. Richards, I. A. In ThePhilosophyof Rhetoric; Richards, I. A., Ed.;
Oxford University Press: London, 1936; pp 98112.
7. Black, M. In Metaphor and Thought; Ortony, A., Ed.; Cambridge
University Press: Cambridge, 1979; pp 1943.
8. Lakoff, G.; Johnson, M. MetaphorsWeLiveBy; University of
Chicago Press: Chicago, 1980.
9. Petrie, H. G. In Metaphor and Thought; Ortony, A., Ed.; Cam-
bridge University Press: Cambridge, 1979; pp 438461.
10. Green, T. F. Ibid.; pp 462473.
11. Boyd, R. Ibid.; pp 356408.
12. Gilbert, S. W. J. Res. Sci. Teach. 1989, 26, 315327.
13. Bohr, N. Philos. Mag. 1913, 26, 476502, 857875.
14. Ritchie, S. M.; Cook, J. Int. J. Sci. Educ. 1994, 16, 293303.
15. Gribskov, M. ComputersChem. 1992, 16, 8588.
16. Brushan, N.; Rosenfeld, S. J. Chem. Educ. 1995, 72, 579582.