Chapter 1 Introduction to physics

1. Physics is the science that describes how the physical works. Studying cause and
efect in the physical world led physicists to the formulation of the laws that govern
natural phenomena. The application of science to everyday situations is called
technology.
2. Physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured.
3. Unit is a standard sie for a physical quantity.
!. Base quantities are physical quantities that cannot be derived from other physical
quantities. The "ve basic quantities are length #$% mass #m$% time% #t$% temperature
#$ and electric current #&$. 'nd the "ve basic units are metre #m$% kilogram #kg$%
second #s$% (elvin #($ and ampere #'$ respectively.
). Derived quantities are physical quantities that can be calculated or e*pressed in
terms of based quantities.
+. SI units #international system of units$ is a "*ed system of units that is recongnised
and accepted internationally.
,. To simplify the change of units the value of each pre"* should be stated "rst before
proceeding with the calculation and the change of units.
-. The abbreviations and values for pre"*es are shown below.
/. Standard notation is to e*press very large or very small numbers. 0*ample. ' *
11
n
% where n 2 integer and 1 ' 3 11.
11.Scalar quantities are physical quantities which have magnitude or sie only.
11.Vector quantities are physical quantities which have magnitude as well as direction.
12.' vector can be represented by a straight line whose length represents the magnitude
of the quantity and whose direction gives its line of action. 'n arrow on the line
shows which way along the line it acts.
13.Error or experimental error is an uncertainty in a measurement that represents the
diference between a reading and the actual value.
1!.Systematic errors are uncertainties in the measurement of a physical quantity
where the error is almost constant% always positive or negative% and due to the
observer% the instrument or the surroundings.
1).andom errors are errors due to the e*perimenter4s inability to take the same
measurement in e*actly the same way to get the e*act same number.
1+.andom errors can !e minimi"ed by repeating the measurements several
times and taking the average value of the reading.
1,.#ero or end error refers to error in instruments that do not show ero reading when
its reading should be ero.
1-.Parallax errors are the errors in reading measuring instruments caused by wrong
positioning of the observer4s eye. 5arallel error is a typical e*ample of systematic
error.
1/.To avoid parallax errors% the position o$ the eye must !e in line with the
reading to be taken.
1
21.Deviation is the diference between a reading and a "*ed value. 6eviation can be
positive or negative.
21.elative deviation 2
averagedeviation
71118
averagereading
22.Percentage error 2
error
71118
truevalue
23.'ll measurements must take into consideration the sensitivity of the instrument as
well as its accuracy and consistency.
2!.The sensitivity o$ an instrument is the ability of the instrument to detect any small
change in a measurement.
2).Precision is the degree of a measuring instrument to record consistent readings for
each measurement by the same way.
'n instrument is used to measure the diameter of a wire several times. The set of
readings obtained has values that are very similar% this means that the readings are
very precise.
2+.%he accuracy o$ a measurement is the ability to measure the true value or close to
the true value. ' reading is more accurate when its relative deviation is small.
2,.%he consistency o$ a measuring instrument is the ability to produce consistent
with little or no variations in the diferent readings of measurements. ' measurement
is said to be consistent if its relative deviation is small.
2-.%he di&erence !et'een consistency and accuracy can be illustrated by studying
the distribution of gunshots on a target.
2/.(ccuracy o$ a measurement can !e increased by
#a$ repeated measurements and then determining average value%
#b$ correcting or compensating for the ero error of the instrument used%
#c$ avoiding possible paralla* errors.
31.' metre rule can measure length accuracy up to 1.1 cm only% vernier callipers can
measure length with an accuracy up to 1.11 cm while the micrometer screw gauge
can measure length up to 1.111 cm.
31.The analogue stopwatch measures time intervals of 1.1 s while the digital stopwatch
measures time intervals of 1.11 s.
32.' micro !alance is used to measure minute masses. &t is sensitive but no accurate.
33.Slide or vernier calipers are usually used to measure the internal or e*ternal
diameter of an ob9ect.
3!.( micrometer scre' gauge is used to measure the diameter of a wire or the
thickness of a thin ob9ect.
2
3).Positive "ero error is that if the ero mark of the vernier scale is on the right of the
aero mark of the main scale when the 9aws are closed% positive ero error appears in
this instrument.. This means the reading obtained will e*ceed the real value by as
much as the value of the ero error. The ero error must be subtracted from the
reading to obtain the correct measurement.
3+.%he anvil and spindle o$ micrometer scre' gauge are used to grip the ob9ect
which is to be measured.
3,.The thim!le can be rotated to tighten the anvil and spindle. &one revolution of the
thimble will change the gap between the anvil and spindle by 1.) mm.
3-.The ratchet e*erts the correct mount of pressure on the ob9ect to be measured.
3/.The sensitivity of the measuring instruments.
)easuring instrument Smallest division *cm+ Sensitivity
:easuring tape 1 ;ery low
<uler 1.1 =ow
;ernier calipers 1.11 :oderate
:icrometer screw gauge 1.111 >igh
!1.The sensitivity o$ a mercury thermometer can be increased by
#a$ having a bulb of thinner wall%
#b$ having a capillary tube of smaller bore or diameter.
!1.<eaction time is the time taken by an individual to act upon hearing or seeing
something. The typical reaction time of an individual is around 1.2 to 1.3 s.
!2.' triple beam balance can measure the mass of an ob9ect with an accuracy of 1.1 g.
!3.'mmeters and milliammeters must be connected in series in an electrical circuit
because these meters have very low resistance.
!!.' varia!le is a quantity that can vary in value.
!).)anipulated varia!le is a variable which is changed by the e*perimenter. The
manipulated variable also known as independent varia!le. &t is usually plotted on
the *?a*is.
!+.The responding varia!le is the variable that is measured and it changed in
response to the value of independent variable. The responding variable is also known
as dependent varia!le. &t is usually plotted on the y?a*is.
!,.Constant varia!les are factors that are kept constant throughout the e*periment.
@onstant variables are also known as controlled or ,xed varia!les.
!-.-perational de,nition refers to the de"nition of a variable in term of how it will be
measured.
!/.Steps $or 'riting a report.
#a$ 'im #b$ &nference
#c$ >ypothesis #d$ ;ariables
#e$ 'pparatus and materials #f$ Aperational de"nition
#g$ 0*perimental procedure #h$ <esults #<ecording data$
#i$ Braph #9$ 6iscussion # 'nalysing data$
#k$ @onclusion #l$ 5recautions
)1.In$erence is stated that the relationship between two visible quantities as shown in a
diagram or picture.
)1..ypothesis is stated that the relationship between two measureable variables that
can be investigated in a lab. Ar it is what we think the answer to the question is% and
the hypothesis should be stated in terms of the variables.
)2.' plotted graph is drawn to show the relationship between the two variables that are
being investigated. 'll graphs must come with a title and proper labels on it on its *?
and y?a*is.
)3.The correct method to show the data or calculated vales obtained in an e*periment in
a table are.
#a$ the name or the symbols of the variables must be labelled with respective units%
#b$ all measurements must be consistent with the sensitivity of the instruments used%
#c$ all the calculated values must be correct%
#d$ all the values must be consistent to the same number of decimal places.
3
)!.' graph is considered well?plotted if it contains the following
#d$ an appropriate title to show the two variables under investigation%
#e$ two a*es labelled with the correct variables and their respectively units%
#f$ scale on the two a*es are appropriately chosen so that the graph drawn is C )18 of
the graph paper%
#g$ accepted scaled and not multiples of odd scale such as 3%+%,%/%11% etc.%
#h$ all the points are correctly plotted%
#i$ the best lines is drawn.
)).The line o$ !est in a graph is the line where the number of points on either side of
the line is more or less the same. 6raw the best line # or curve$ which seems to follow
the data as well as possible% without the necessity to pass through every plotted
point.
)+.Conclusion is a summary of the result of the e*periment and a statement of how the
results related the hypothesis.
/01 (nalysing graphs
)-.&dentify questions and variable in a given situation.
The "rst step in the scienti"c method is identifying the problem.
Duestion must be an e*perimental question or a question that can be tested. Eor
e*ample Does connecting more dry cells in series increases the current fowing in a
circuit? is an e*perimental question because there is a comparison #more dry cells
and less dry cells$.
The question states what is being it will be tested # the amount of dry cells$ % and how
it will be measured #amount of current fowing in the circuit$.
The ne*t step is to identify all variables # fxed variables, manipulated variable and
responding variable$.
!
)/..o' to $orm a hypothesisF
' hypothesis is a statement that e*plains what you think will happen when you
conduct your e*periment.
Eor e*ample% if you think that connecting more dry cells will increase the amount of
current Gowing in the circuit% you might state the hypothesis% If more dry cells are
connected in series, more current will fow in the circuit
The hypothesis mentions what you will do #connecting di!erent numbers of dry cells
in series in the circuit"% and what you think will happen #more current will fow when
more dry cells are used$.
+1..o' to design and carry out a simple experiment to test the hypothesisF
Hou will need to design and carry out an e*periment to answer your question and
test your hypothesis.
The process that you use to carry out your e*periment is called the procedure.
Hou need to decide apparatus and materials to use as well as ways to set up the
apparatus.
+1.>ow to record and present your data in a suitable formF
The e*periment will allow you to collect data or results by measuring the responding
variable.
' data table% or chart% should also be clearly labelled% so that the reader knows what is
being tested and how it is being measured. 'll measurements are made in S& units.
Arganising data into graphic illustrations helps scientists to analyse the data and
e*plain it clearly to others.
5ie charts% bar graphs% histograms and line graphs are often used by scientists to
present their data.
+2.>ow to interpret data and draw a conclusionF
Study the data you have gathered and try to see if there is any important pattern.
Scientists often use mathematics to determine whether their observations or
e*perimental results are meaningful or 9ust the result of chance and coincidence.
Then% draw a conclusion from your data.
' conclusion is a summary of the result of the e*periment and a statement of how the
results related to the hypothesis.
<easons for e*perimental results that do not agree with your hypothesis and include.
6o not change hypothesis or leave out e*perimental results that do not support your
hypothesis.
)
+
Introduction to physics
Inderstan
ding physics
5henomena
of physics
Eields of study
in physics
&mportance of
physics
:ethods of
physics
@areers
Scienti"c investigation
5hysical
quantities
Jase
quantities
6erived
quantitie
s
Symbols K
units
Scienti"c notation
5re"*es
conversion of
units
:easurements
0stimation
of dimension
&nstruments
consistency
'ccuracy
Sensitivity
0rrors.
systematic
errors
<andom
<ecognise the problem
:ake an inference
Eormulate a hypothesis
&dentify the variables
5erform an e*periment
@ollect% analyse and interpretation of data
6raw a conclusion # <e9ect the hypothesis$:ake a
new hypothesis
:ake a report