C H A P T E R

2
Plate Tectonics: A First Look
The asthenosphere, like the lithosphere, is rock. But the asthenosphere is
so hot that 1 to 2 percent of it is melted. As a result, it is plastic, and weak.
The lithospheric plates glide slowl o!er the asthenosphere like sheets of ice
drifting across a pond.
"ost of the #arth$s ma%or geological acti!it occurs at plate boundaries,
the &ones where tectonic plates meet and interact.
'ceanic crust is ( to 1) kilometers thick and is composed mostl of a dark, dense rock called
basalt. *n
contrast, the a!erage thickness of continental crust is
a+out 2) to ,) kilometers, although under mountain
ranges it can +e as much as -) kilometers thick.
The mantle lies directl +elow the crust. *t is almost
2.)) kilometers thick and makes up /) percent of the
#arth$s !olume.
The Lithosphere: The uppermost mantle is relati!el cool and conse0uentl
is hard, strong rock. *n fact, its mechanical +eha!ior is
similar to that of the crust. The outer part of the #arth,
including +oth the uppermost mantle and the crust, make
up the lithosphere 12reek for 3rock laer45. The lithosphere
can +e as thin as 1) kilometers where tectonic
plates separate. 6owe!er, in most regions, the lithosphere
!aries from a+out -( kilometers thick +eneath ocean
+asins to a+out 12( kilometers under the continents. A
tectonic 1or lithospheric5 plate is a segment of the lithosphere.
7ill Putt8 and hot road tar.
At a depth !aring from a+out -( to 12( kilometers, the
strong, hard rock of the lithosphere gi!es wa to the
weak, plastic asthenosphere
The asthenosphere e9tends from the +ase of the
lithosphere to a depth of a+out :() kilometers.
T6# ;'<#
The core is the innermost of the #arth$s laers. *t is a
sphere with a radius of a+out :,-) kilometers and is
composed largel of iron and nickel. The outer core is molten +ecause of the high
temperature in that region.
=ear its center, the core$s temperature is a+out >)))?;,
as hot as the 7un$s surface. The pressure is greater than
1 million times that of the #arth$s atmosphere at sea
le!el. The e9treme pressure o!erwhelms the temperature
e@ect and compresses the inner core to a solid.
2.: PLATES AND PLATE TECTONICS
The plates mo!e slowl, at rates ranging from
less than 1 to a+out 1> centimeters per ear 1a+out as fast
as a Angernail grows5.
the +ump and grind against their neigh+ors
at plate +oundaries.
Both the asthenosphere and the lower lithosphere
1the part +eneath the crust5 are parts of the mantle and
thus ha!e similar chemical compositions. The main di@erence
+etween the two laers is one of mechanical
strength. The hot asthenosphere is weak and plastic, +ut
the cooler lithosphere is strong and hard. As the
asthenosphere rises, it cools, gains mechanical strength,
and, therefore, transforms into new lithosphere. *n this
wa, new lithosphere continuousl forms at a di!ergent
+oundar.
At a spreading center, the rising asthenosphere is
hot, weak, and plastic. 'nl the upper 1) to 1( kilometers
cools enough to gain the strength and hardness of
lithosphere rock. As a result, the lithosphere, including
the crust and the upper few kilometers of mantle rock,
can +e as little as 1) or 1( kilometers thick at a spreading
center. But as the lithosphere spreads, it cools from
the top downward. Bhen the lithosphere cools, it +ecomes
thicker +ecause the +oundar +etween the cool,
strong rock of the lithosphere and the hot, weak asthenosphere
migrates downward. ;onse0uentl, the
thickness of the lithosphere increases as it mo!es awa
from the spreading center. Think of ice free&ing on a
pond. 'n a cold da, water under the ice free&es and the ice +ecomes thicker. The
lithosphere continues to thicken
until it attains a stead state thickness of a+out -( kilometers
+eneath an ocean +asin, and as much as 12( kilometers
+eneath a continent.
A spreading center lies directl a+o!e the hot, rising asthenosphere.
The newl formed lithosphere at an oceanic
spreading center is hot and therefore of low densit.
;onse0uentl, the sea Coor at a spreading center Coats
to a high ele!ation, forming an undersea mountain chain
called the mid-oceanic ride 1
But as lithosphere
migrates awa from the spreading center, it cools
and +ecomes denser and thickerD as a result, it sinks. For
this reason, the sea Coor is high at the midEoceanic ridge
and lower awa from the ridge. Thus, the a!erage depth
of the sea Coor awa from the midEoceanic ridge is a+out
( kilometers. The midEoceanic ridge rises 2 to : kilometers
a+o!e the surrounding sea Coor and, thus, comes
within 2 kilometers of the sea surface.
A di!ergent plate +oundar can rip a continent in half in
a process called continental ri!tin.
F: A ri!t "alle# de!elops in a continental rift &one +ecause continental crust stretches,
fractures, and sinks as it is pulled apart. ;ontinental rifting is now taking place along a &one
called the #ast African rift 1see Fig. 2G15. *f the rifting
continues, eastern Africa will separate from the main
portion of the continent, and a new ocean +asin will open
+etween the separating portions of Africa. The <io
2rande rift is a continental rift e9tending from southern
;olorado to #l Paso, Te9as. *t is unclear whether rifting
is still taking place here or the process has ended.
tring to Cush a marshmallow down a toilet:
'n a worldwide
scale, the rate at which old lithosphere sinks into
the mantle at su+duction &ones is e0ual to the rate at
which new lithosphere forms at spreading centers. *n this
wa, glo+al +alance is maintained +etween the creation
of new lithosphere and the destruction of old lithosphere.
The oldest seaECoor rocks on #arth are onl a+out
2)) million ears old +ecause oceanic crust continuousl
reccles into the mantle at su+duction &ones. <ocks as
old as :..> +illion ears are found on continents +ecause
su+duction consumes little continental crust.
Convergence of Oceanic Crust with Continental Crust
Bhen an oceanic plate con!erges with a continental plate,
the denser oceanic plate sinks into the mantle +eneath
the edge of the continent. As a result, man su+duction
&ones are located at continental margins. Toda, oceanic
plates are sinking +eneath the western edge of 7outh
AmericaD along the coasts of 'regon, Bashington, and
British ;olum+iaD and at se!eral other continental margins
1see Fig. 2G15. Be will return to this su+%ect in
;hapters 11 and 12.
$%Three factors
can melt rock to form magma and cause !olcanic eruptions.
The most o+!ious is rising temperature. 6owe!er,
hot rocks also melt to form magma if pressure decreases
or if water is added to them. These magmaEforming
processes are discussed further in ;hapter ,.
Additional crustal thickening
ma occur where two plates con!erge for the same reason
that a mound of +read dough thickens when ou
compress it from +oth sides.
';#A=*; T<#=;6#7
An oceanic trench is a long, narrow trough in the sea
Coor that de!elops where a su+ducting plate sinks into
the mantle 1Figs. 2G:+ and 2G(5. To form the trough, the
sinking plate drags the sea Coor downward. A trench can
form where!er su+duction occursHwhere oceanic crust
sinks +eneath the edge of a continent, or where it sinks
+eneath another oceanic plate. Trenches are the deepest
parts of the ocean +asins. The deepest point on #arth is
in the "ariana trench in the southwestern PaciAc 'cean,
where the sea Coor is as much as 1).. kilometers +elow
sea le!el 1compared with the a!erage seaECoor depth of
a+out ( kilometers5.
Pigg+ack $&
Ample e!idence
=orth America is now mo!ing
awa from #urope at a+out 2.( centimeters per ear,
as the midEAtlantic ridge continues to separate.
7outh America is drawing awa from Africa at a rate of a+out :.(
centimeters per ear. As the Atlantic 'cean widens, the
PaciAc is shrinking at the same rate. Thus, as continents
mo!e, ocean +asins open and close o!er geologic time.
$'
Like a sled gliding slowl down a snow hill.
PushEpull model of plate mo!ement.
Thri!e in
For e9ample, the deformed rocks of the ;ape Fold +elt of 7outh Africa are similar to rocks
found in the Buenos Aires pro!ince of Argentina.
7keptical scientists
#9asperation
That continents plow their wa through oceanic crust, sho!ing it aside as a ship plows
through waterD
<ises as ou step out.
The concept that the lithosphere is in Coating
e0uili+rium on the asthenosphere is called isostas#, and
the !ertical mo!ement in response to a changing +urden
is called isostatic ad(ustment)